1.4.

ELECTRICAL POWER
When a resistor is connected to a battery, we say that the resistor “uses up” the
current. The current, however, is never used up in the resistor since it flows back to the
same source of emf. The same is true if any appliance is connected across the line. The
current entering the appliance is exactly equal to the current leaving it. There is, however,
a drop in potential across the appliance, which means the electrical energy has been
transformed into some form of energy when a current is passed through resistors or
electrical devices. The transformation depends on the type of appliance used.
In appliances like toasters, irons, curlers, heaters, and dryers, the electrical
energy is converted to heat. In lamps, the transformation is from electrical energy into
heat and light energy; in charging a storage cell, electrical energy is transformed into
chemical energy. In any case, whenever electrical energy is transformed into some other
form of energy, there is drop in potential across the device after the transformation of
energy.
The energy gained by a charge q from a voltage source having a difference E is
qE. This is the work done by the source on the charge. W=qE. Over time, the average
rate at which energy is delivered to the external circuit by the battery (called the electrical
power, P) is given by
W 𝑞𝐸
P= =
t 𝑡
Since,
𝑞
I=
𝑡

P=EI
In Ohm’s law,
E
I= ; E= IR
R
P = E I = (IR)(I)
𝐸
P = E I = 𝐸 (𝑅 )
P = I2 R
𝐸2
P=
𝑅

where:
E- potential difference, V
I – current, A
R- resistance, Ω
P- power, watt
Watt – unit of electrical energy equal to one joule of energy consumed in one second.
Named after the British engineer and inventor James Watt.

Sample Problem 1-13.

A current of 6 A flows through a resistance of 300 Ω in one hour, what is the power?
Solution.
Given:
I=6A
R = 300 Ω
 Required: P
P = I2 R = (6 A)2 (300 Ω) = 10,800 W

1.5. ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Since power is the time rate of doing work, sometimes called as the rate of
expenditure of energy, it should be clear that electric energy is the product of power
(watts) and time; if the power remains constant during the period of time t, energy is equal
P t where t can be in any convenient units; however, where power changes do occur
during an extended period of time, it is necessary to sum up the energies of a number of
constant power-time intervals or employ some sort of integration(summation) process that
takes account of the power variation.
E2
W = P t = E I t = I2 R t = t → joules
R
1 watt = 1 joule/second
1 joule = 1 watt-second

Our monthly electrical bills are based on the electrical energy we take during the
month in kW-hours (kW-h).
1 Kw-h = 3.6 x 106 joules

Pt
kWh =
1000

Sample problem 1-14.

A water heater has a resistance of 5.3 Ω and takes 43.5 A when in operation. If it is in
service on the average of 2 hours per day. How many kW-hr of energy will be expended
during a 30-day month?
Solution.
Given:
R = 5.3 Ω
I = 43.5 A
t = 2 h/day x 30 days = 60 h
Required: kWh

Pt I2 R t (43.5 A)2 ( 5.3 Ω) (60 h)

kWh = = = = 601.74 kWh
1000 1000 1000
Sample problem 1-15.
How much electrical energy, in kWh is delivered to the electric motor during an 8-h period
when operating from a constant 230-V source, if the average currents are 34 A for 2
hours, 38 A for 1 ½ hours, 26 A for 4 hours, and 12 A for ½ hour?
Solution. The power changes during an 8-hour operation, it is necessary to sum up the
energies of a number of constant power-time intervals.

Pt EIt
kWh = =
1000 1000

(34 A)(230 V)(2 h) + (38 A)(230 V)(1.5 h) + (26 A)(230 V)(4 h) + (12 A)(230 V)(0.5 h)
=
1000
= 54.05 kWh

1.6. HEAT ENERGY

A current through a resistor involves a conversion of electrical energy into heat
energy. If the heat energy rises the temperature of transmission line conductors, or
windings in motors, or other electrical devices whose function is to do work not related to
heating, it is proper to regard as energy loss. On the other hand, if heat energy is made
useful in such utilizes as water heaters, toaster, percolators, flat irons, only the portion
that escapes is considered as heat loss; it is generally referred to as a power loss if,
during the period of operation, the power is constant.

Ploss = I2 R
When electrical energy is applied to useful heating such as water heater, it is
desirable to know how many gram-calories or British thermal units (Btu) of heat energy
are represented by unit of electrical energy. It was proven by experiments that 1 watt-sec
of electrical energy is equal to one joule and also equal to 0.24 gram-cal.

E2
Q = 0.24 P t = 0.24 E I t = 0.24 I2 R t = 0.24 ( ) t → calories
R

Sample problem 1-16.

A heating coil, which draws a current of 8 A from a 120-V line, is used for heating water-
the coil immersed in 5 liters of water, which is initially at 20oC, the water being in a 300-
g container of specific heat 0.10 cal/g.Co. (a) Find the power of the coil. (b) How long
will it take the coil to raise the temperature of the water to boiling point? (c) At Php10.25
per kWh, how much the process cost?
Solution. Convert the given volume of water into grams.
Given:
I=8A t f = 100oC
E = 120 V m C = 300 g
1 𝑚3 1000 𝑘𝑔 1000 𝑔
mW = 5 liters x 𝑥 = = 5000 𝑔
1000 𝑙 1 𝑚3 1 𝑘𝑔
 ti = 20oC
(a) Required: Pcoil

Pcoil = E I = (120 V )(8 A) = 960 W

(b) Required: time for the coil to boil the water (t)

The amount of heat needed to boil the water,

Qout = mw CW (t f − t i ) + mC CC (t f − t i)
cal cal
Qout = 5000 g(1 ) (100o C − 200 C) + 300 g(0.10 ) (100o C − 20o C)
g. C0 g. C0
Qout = 402,400 cal
Since there is no heat loss,
Qin = Qout
0.24 P t = Qout
0.24 ( 960) t = 402, 400
402,400
t = 0.24 (960) = 1746.53 seconds

(c) Required: The cost of operation @ Php10.25 per kWh

1h
t = 1746.53 seconds x = 0.5 h
3600 s

Pt (960 W) ( 0.5 h)
kWh = = = 0.48
1000 1000
Php 10.25
Cost = 0.48 kWh x kWh
= Php 4.92

Sample problem 1-17.

How long will it take to raise the temperature of 1 quart of water in a percolator from 18
to 100oC if the supply voltage is 120 V and the heater resistance is 24 Ω? Assume a
heat loss by radiation of 25 percent.
Solution.
Given:
2.08 lb 454 g
mW = 1 qt. x x = 944.32 grams
1 qt. 1 lb.
ti =18oC
tf = 100oC
E = 120 V
R = 24 Ω
Heat loss by radiation 25%
The amount heat required to boil the water to 100oC,
cal
Qout = mw CW (t f − t i ) = 944.32 g (1 g.C0) (100o C − 18o C)
Qout = 77,434.24 cal.
Heat loss by radiation 25%,
Qin = Qout + 0.25 Qin
Qin − 0.25Qin = 77,434.24
0.75Qin = 77,434.24
Qin = 103,245.65 cal

0.24 P t = 103,245.65
𝐸2
0.24 ( ) t = 103,245.65
𝑅
(120)2
0.24 [ ] t = 103,245.65
24

144 t = 103,245.65

t = 717 seconds ≈ 12 minutes

1.7. RESISTORS IN SERIES.

When several electrical appliances are connected end-to-end in a single circuit,
electricity flows through each appliance in succession. Current flows through one
single path, so the same current passes through each appliance. An electric circuit
with several components arranged to allow current flow through one single path is
known as series circuit.
When number of resistors are connected in series (see figure), to a source
of electromotive force (emf) of E volts, the following conditions prevail:

Schematic diagram
 wwwi

Wiring diagram

1. The current through all resistors is the same.

I = I 1 = I 2 = I3 = …
2. The total resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
Req= R1 + R2 + R3 + …
3. The circuit current,

E
I=
R eq
4. The voltage drops across the individual resistors are directly proportional to the
magnitudes of the respective resistances, i.e.,
EX RX
=
EY RY

This important relationship follows from the fact that,

E1 = I1 R1 ; E2 = I2 R 2 ; E3 = I3 R 3 ; …
5. The total circuit power is,
PT = E I
or PT = I (E1 + E2 + E3 + ⋯ )

Sample Problem 1-18.

The resistances of R1 and R2 are 2 Ω and 4 Ω, respectively. If the source of emf maintains
a constant potential difference of 12 V, (a) what is the current delivered to the circuit, (b)
what is the potential drop across each resistors?

I
(+)

E= 12 V R1=2 Ω

(-) RR2=4
2=4ΩΩ
Commented [WU1]:

Solution.
 (a) Required: I
Req= R1 + R2 = 2 + 4 = 6 Ω

𝐸 12
𝐼= = =2𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 6

(b) Required: E1 and E2

I = I 1 = I2 = 2 A

E! = I1 R1 = (2 A)( 2 Ω) = 4 V
E2 = I2 R 2 = (2 A)(4 Ω) = 8 V

Sample problem 1-19.

Three resistors A, B, and C are connected in series to a 117-V source. If RA = 64 Ω and
EB = 40 V when the current is 0.5 A, calculate the resistances RB and RC.
Given:
RA = 64 Ω

I
(+)

E = 117 V
RB EB = 40 V

(-)

Solution.
EB 40 V
RB = IB
= 0.5 A
= 80 Ω
RC
I = IA = IB = IC = 0.5 A
EA = IA R A = (0.5 A)(64 Ω) = 32 V
E = EA + EB + EC
EC = E − EA − EB
EC = 117 − 32 − 40
EC = 45 V`
E 45 v
RC = I C = 0.5 A = 90 Ω
C

Another solution.

E 117 𝑉
Req = = 234 Ω
I 0.5

R eq = RA + R B + RC
 234 Ω= 64 Ω + 80 Ω + RC
RC = 234 Ω − 64 Ω − 80Ω
RC = 90 Ω

1.8. RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

We know how inconvenient it will be to have all lights in series connection go out
every time one bulb burns out, it would be practical if each lamp (and each appliance)
were connected on a separate branch in the circuit to keep each resistance independent
of each other such a connection is said to be a parallel connection. An electric circuit with
two or more components connected across two component points to allow separate
conducting paths is known as parallel circuit,
When a number of resistors are connected in parallel (see figure) to a source of
emf of V volts, the following conditions prevail:

I
(+)
E
R1 R2 R3

I1 I2 I3
(-)

Schematic diagram

Wiring diagram

1. The same voltage is impressed across all resistors.

E = E1 = E2 = E3 = …
2. The individual resistor currents are inversely proportional to their respective
magnitudes, i.e.,
IX R X
=
IY R Y

This important relationship follows from the fact that,

 E1 E2 E3
I1 = , I2 = , I3 = ,…
R1 R2 R3

3. The circuit current,

I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ⋯

4. The total equivalent resistance of the circuit is,

1
R eq =
1 1 1
+ + +⋯
R1 R 2 R3

In case of two resistors in parallel,

R1 R 2
R eq =
R1 + R 2
Sample problem 1-20.
A refrigerator, TV set, radio, flat iron, and electric stove are all connected in parallel and
have a resistance of 20 Ω, 10 Ω, 5 Ω, 75 Ω, and 55 Ω, respectively. If the circuit is
connected to a direct current of 220 V, what is the (a) total resistance in the circuit? (b)
voltage drops in each appliance? (c) current used by each appliance? (d) the total current.
Solution.
Given:

I
(+)

E
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
I1 I3 I4 I5
(-) I2

(a) Required: Req

1 1
Req = =
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + + + +
R1 R 2 R3 R4 R5 20 10 5 75 55
R eq = 2.6211 Ω

(b) Required: voltage drops in each appliance

E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 = E5 = 220 V
(c) Required: the current used by each appliance
E1 220 V E4 220 V
I1 = = = 11 A I4 = = = 2.93 A
R1 20 Ω 𝑅4 75 Ω
 E2 220 V E5 220 V
I2 = = = 22 A 𝐼5 = = = 4A
R2 10 Ω R5 55 Ω

E3 220 V
I3 = = = 44 A
R3 5Ω

(d) Required: the total current (I)

I = I1 + i2 + i3 + i4 + i5 = 11 + 22 + 44 + 2.93 + 4 = 83.93 A
or
E 220 V
I = R = 2.6211 Ω = 83.93 A
eq

Sample problem 1-21.

Three loads A, B, and C are connected in parallel to a 230 V source. Load A takes 9.8
Kw; load B takes a current of 60 A; and load C has a resistance of 4.6 Ω. Calculate (a)
the resistance of loads A and B, (b) the total equivalent resistance, (c) the total current,
(d) the total power.
Solution:
Given:

I PA=9.2 kW
(+)

E=230 V RA RB RC=4.6 Ω

IA IB=60 A IC
(-)

(a) Required: RA and RB

EA = EB = EC = 230 V
EA2 (230 V)2
RA = = = 5.75 Ω
PA 9200 W
EB 230 V
RB = = = 3.83 A
IB 60 A

(b) Required: Req

1 1
R eq = = = 1.53 Ω
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
RA RB RC 5.75 3.83 4.6
(c) Required: The total current
E 230 V
I= = = 150 A
Req 1.533Ω
(d) Required: The total power
PT = E I = (230 V) (150 A) = 34500 W = 34.5 kW
1.9. SERIES-PARALLEL AND PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUITS
There are instances when circuits cannot simply be connected in pure series or
pure parallel systems. Practical circuits are more complicated to the series and parallel
we have discussed. We may need to connect some resistances in series and other
resistances in parallel with different amounts of electromotive force. A system with such
circuit is commonly describe as a network.
Circuits combining series and parallel sections, with one source of supply, are
treated in much the same way as simple circuit arrangements. In most series-parallel or
parallel-series circuits it is generally convenient to consider each series or parallel section
as an independent unit, using the rules given in the foregoing articles for each one.
Series-parallel circuit is a combinational circuit when simplified will result into a
series circuit. Parallel-series circuit is a combinational circuit when simplified it will result
into a parallel circuit.
R1

R2

(+)

E R4
R3

(-) R5

R6

Series-parallel circuit

R4
(+) R1

E R3 R5

R2
(-)
R6

Parallel-series circuit
Parallel-series circuit
Sample problem 1-22.
The total applied voltage to the circuit in figure as shown is 12 V and the resistances R 1,
R2, and R3 are 4 Ω, 3 Ω, and 6 Ω, respectively. (a) Determine the equivalent resistance
of the circuit. (b) What is the current through each resistor?
R1 = 4 Ω

12 V R2 = 3 Ω R3 = 6 Ω
I1
I3

Solution. (a) The best approach to a problem which contains both series and parallel
resistors is to reduce the circuit to its simplest form. Since it is a series-parallel circuit, the
resulting circuit will be a series. First combine the parallel combinations R2 and R3.

R2 R3 (3) (6)
R 23 = = =2Ω
R 2 + R3 3+ 6

R1 = 4 Ω

I
I23

12 V
R23 = 2 Ω

Equivalent circuit

Req = R1 + R23 = 4 + 2 = 6 Ω

(b) The total current can be found from Ohm’s law,

E 12 V
I= = = 2A
R eq 6Ω
I = I1 = I23 = 2 A (Since R1 and R23 are in series)
To find the currents through R2 and R3 we must know the voltage drop across R23.
 E1 = I1 R1 = (2 A)( 4 Ω) = 8 V
E23 = I23 R 23 = (2 A)( 2 Ω) = 4 V
E23 = E2 = E3 =4 V (R2 and R3 are in parallel)

E2 4 V
I2 = = = 1.33 A
R2 3 Ω
E3 4 V
I3 = = = 0.67 A
R3 6 Ω

Sample problem 1-23.

The following information is given in connection with series-parallel circuit as shown:
R1 = 6 Ω, R2 = 12 Ω, R3 = 3 Ω, R4 = 15 Ω, R5 = 90 Ω, R6 = 30 Ω and E = 48 V. Calculate
the following (a) the total equivalent resistance of the circuit; (b) the total current; (c) the
voltage drop across each section; (d) the current through each resistor; (e) the total
power taken by the entire circuit.
R1= 6 Ω

R2=12

(+)

E= 48 V R4 = 15 Ω
R3 = 3 Ω

(-) R5=90 Ω

R6 =30 Ω

Solution. R1 and R2 are connected in parallel and in series with R3 and in series with the
parallel combination R4, R5 and R6.

(a) Required: The total equivalent resistant

R1 R 2 6 (12)
R12 = = =4Ω
R1 + R2 6 + 12

1 1
R 456 = = = 9Ω
1 1 1 1 1 1
+
R 4 R5 + R6 + +
15 90 30

R eq = R12 + R 3 + R 456 = 4 + 3 + 9 = 16 Ω
 R12 = 4 Ω

12 V
R3 = 3 Ω

(b) Required: the total current

R456 = 9 Ω

E 48 V
I= = =3A
R eq 16 Ω

(c) Required: The voltage drop across each section.

I = I12 = I3 = I456 = 3 A
E12 = I12 R12 = (3 A)( 4 Ω) = 12 V

E12 = E1 = E2 = 12 V
E3 = I3 R3 = (3 A)( 3 Ω) = 9 V
E456 = I456 R 456 = (3 A)( 9 Ω) = 27 V
E456 = E4 = E5 = E6 = 27 V
(d) Required: The current through each resistor

E1 12 V
I1 = = =2A
R1 6Ω

E2 12 V
I2 = = = 1A
R 2 12 Ω
E3 9 V
I3 = = =3A
R3 3 Ω

E4 27 V
I4 = = = 1.8 A
R 4 15 Ω

E5 27 V
I5 = = = 0.3 A
R 5 90 Ω
 E6 27V
I6 = = = 0.9 A
R 6 30 Ω
(e) Required: the total power taken by the circuit.
PT = E I = 48 V (3 A) = 144 W