RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDHAlAYA,

BHOPAL
(UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OF MADHYA
PRADHESH)

A
PROJECT REPORT
ON

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF PANTOGRAPH WOODEN

ENGRAVER

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SESSION: 2024 - 2025
BATCH: 2022-2026
SUBMITTED TO
SUBMITTE BY

Prof. Abhay Agrawal sir

Niharika Mishra

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the research work entitled "

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF
PANTOGRAPH WOODEN ENGRAVER " is a
piece of research carried out by Niharika Mishra,
Saurabh Mishra, Yashraj Gautam, Abhilash Pratap
Singh, Nitin Tiwari, Prashant Payasi, Prayag
Gupta, Aman Tripathi, Ayush Garg, Om Aditya
Singh and Rohit Kumar Soni. Under my guidance
and supervision for the Degree of Bachelor of
Technology from the Department of Mechanical
Engineering , Rewa Engineering College,
Rewa(M.P.).
 CANDIDATE DECLARATION

We hereby declare “ DESIGN AND

FABRICATION OF PANTOGRAPH WOODEN
ENGRAVER "that the entire project is the actual
work carried out by us in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering under the guidance of
Dr. Abhay Agarwal and Co. guidance of Professor
Prashant Singh Chauhan Sir of Rewa Engineering
College, Rewa (M.P.)
The matter presented in this project report has not
been submitted by us for the award of any other
degree of this or any other Institution.
 ACKNOWLDGEMENT

I , on behalf of my every team member

would like to express my profound
gratitude to our HOD of mechanical
department Rewa Engineering college
Rewa (M.P.) Abhay Agrawal sir, without
whose support this project would never
have been possible, thanks to our
supervisor Prof. Prashant Singh Chauhan
sir (Assistant Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Rewa
Engineering College Rewa (M. P.)) who
has always been the driving and
 encouraging force behind us to let us keep
working on it diligently, his constant
guidance helped us lot while making this
project and at last thanks to everybody
who was part of it.

TABLE OF COMPONENTS
CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO
ABSTRACT v
LIST OF COMPONENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES X
LIST OF SYMBOLS Xi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 What is pantograph? 1
1.1.1 Mechanism with lower pairs 2
1.1.2 Types of straight line mechanisms 2
1.2 Problem statement 3
1.3 Objectives 3
1.4 What is engraving? 4
1.5 Methodology 4
1.6 Literature review 4
1.7 Cutter 5
 1.7.1 End mill cutter 6
1.7.2 Drilling bits 6
1.8 Square channels 8
1.8.1 Material properties 9
1.8.2 Stresses in square channels 9
1.9 Springs 10
1.9.1 Types of springs 10
1.9.2 Extension springs 14
1.10 Bolted joints 15
1.11 Wooden vice 19
1.12 Experimentations 19
1.13 Advantages and disadvantages 20
1.14 Applications 21
2 DESIGN OF COMPONENTS 24
2.1 Design of springs 24
2.2 Design of bolted joints 25
2.3 Calculation of weight of each link 26
2.4 Bending calculation 27
2.5 Motor Specification 29
3 FABRICATION PROCESS 30
3.1 Fabrication of frame 30
3.2 Fabrication of base 31
3.3 Fabrication of links 32
3.3.1 Drilling 33
3.3.2 Surface finishing 36
3.3.3 Chamfering 37

3.3.4 Cutting 38
 3.3.5 Welding 39

3.4 Fabrication of wooden vice 43

3.5 Fabrication of Screw threads 44

4 ASSEMBLY AND TESTING 46

4.1 Working principle 46
4.2 Cost estimation 48
4.3 Logistics cost 49
5 CONCLUTION 50
BIBLIOGRAPHY 51

APPENDIX 52

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TABLE NAME PAGE NO
4.1 Cost estimation 48
4.2 Logistic cost 49
2.1 Motor specification 29
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
1.1 Pantograph 1
1.2 End mill cutter 6
1.3 Aluminium square channels 8
1.4 Springs 10
1.5 Bolted joints 15
3.1 Frame 30
3.2 Fixed links with pivot point 32
3.3 Wooden vice 43
4.1 Full apparatus 52
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

SYMBOLS EXPLANATION UNIT

N Speed rpm

T Torque N-m

P Power W

Fa Trust force N

Fr Axial force N

E Modulus of elasticity N/mm2

D Diameter m

P Equivalent load N

A Area mm2
τ Shear stress N/mm2

σ Bending stress N/mm2

 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
The pantograph is one of the most fascinating pieces of engineering
equipment ever invented and in some form or other it should be part of every
engineering shop's equipment. Engraving lettering in two dimensions is just one of
its functions, more sophisticated versions work in three dimensions and will copy
complicated three dimensional designs and engineered components, enlarging or
reducing them in size as required. A pantograph is a simple yet powerful tool
which can broaden the scope of artwork and crafting. We can enlarge or reduce
images with a pantograph depending on how the parts are measured and
assembled. The pantograph does the image resize calculating for us by using the
distances between its pivot points as the "algorithm" for creating your finished
copy. The pantograph in the illustration would produce a copy smaller than the
original. By changing the distances between the pivot points you can change the
percentage of enlargement your pantograph provides. Engraving is the
machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material from a work piece
advancing (or feeding) in a direction at an angle with the axis of the tool. It covers
a wide variety of different operations and machines, on scales from small
individual parts to large, heavy-duty engraving operations. It is one of the most
commonly used processes in industry and machine shops today for machining parts
to precise sizes and shapes.
1.1 WHAT IS PANTOGRAPH?
Pantograph is a geometrical instrument used in drawing offices for
reproducing given geometrical figures or plane areas of any shape, on an enlarged
or reduced scale. It is also used for guiding cutting tools. Its mechanism is utilized
as an indicator rig for reproducing the displacement of cross-head of a

1
reciprocating engine which, in effect, gives the position of displacement. A
pantograph is a simple yet powerful tool which can broaden the scope of artwork
and crafting. We can copy images to a reduced or enlarged scale with a pantograph
depending on how the parts are measured and assembled. The pantograph does the
image resize calculating for us by using the distances between its pivot points as
the "algorithm" for creating your finished copy. The pantograph in the illustration
would produce a copy of the original. By reversing the positions of the pencil and
stylus, we would get a copy smaller than the original. This could be a handy tool if
we want to get into painting small wall murals.

Fig.no.1.1 Pantograph
1.1.1 MECHANISM WITH LOWER PAIRS
When the two elements of a pair have a surface contact and relative motion
takes place, the surface of one element slides over the surface of other, the pair
formed is known as lower pair. One of the most common forms of the constraint
mechanisms is that it permits only relative motion of an oscillatory nature along a
straight line. The mechanisms used for this purpose are called straight line
mechanism.
1.1.2 TYPES OF STRAIGHT LINE MECHANISMS
 In which only turning pairs are used.
 In which one sliding pair is used.
These are the two types of mechanism may produce exact straight line
motion or approximate straight line motion as discussed in the following articles.

2
 Following are the two well known types of exact straight line motion
mechanisms made up of turning pairs.
 Peaucellier mechanism.
 Hart’s mechanism.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Traditional engraving machine are bulky and are difficult to transfer from
one place to another. This kind of machine has large workspace, high weight and
good maneuverability; it is most important in field of wood or metal engraving.
Here, we designed a pantograph for engraving letters on wood which having easy
handling, portable, low cost and low weight as compare with traditional engraving
machining.
1.3 OBJECTIVE
Our project topic is titled as “Design, development and analysis the portable
pantograph for engraving letters on wood.” For design and fabricate an engraving
machine we use pantograph mechanism. The engraving tool mounted on the
pantograph should travel the same path given by stylus as an input. Stylus will
trace the shape of already existing object. Using such kind of manipulator we can
generate the de-scaled replica of the object or we can say it to be a copying
machine which can be employed in mass production with economical production.
So we can enlist the objectives of our project such as-
1) Design an engraving machine by using pantograph mechanism.
2) For engraving machine using various scaling factor for descaling purpose.
3) Machine should be compact in size and light weight.
4) Total cost for production of an engraving machine remains low.
5) Machine should be easy for handling for unskilled workers.
6) Engraving machine should be portable.

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 The three degree of freedom in this manipulator adds a feature to increase or
decrease the depth of engrave and thus can be used in metal engraving industries or
wood carving industries to copy the engraved design.
1.4 WHAT IS ENGRAVING?
The practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface, by cutting
grooves into it. Engraving is the machining process of using rotary cutters to
remove material from a work piece advancing (or feeding) in a direction at an
angle with the axis of the tool.It covers a wide variety of different operations and
machines, on scales from small individual parts to large, heavy-duty engraving
operations. It is one of the most commonly used processes in industry and machine
shops today for machining parts to precise sizes and shapes.
There are three basic types of mechanical engraving:
1) Diamond Drag (Scratch) engraving,
2) Burnishing,
3) Rotary engraving
1.5 METHODOLOGY
Pantograph is a geometrical instrument used in drawing offices for
reproducing given geometrical figures or plane areas of any shape, on an enlarged
or reduced scale. It is also used for guiding cutting tools. We use the same
pantograph mechanism for designing our engraving machine.
1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW
The history of Pantograph falls far behind in 1603.Christopher Scheiner,
(1603): The pantograph was originally invented as a means to trace original art and
then scale it up or down in size. "One arm of the pantograph contained a small
pointer, while the other held a drawing implement, and by moving the pointer over
a diagram, a copy of the diagram was drawn on another piece of paper. By
changing the positions of the arms in the linkage between the pointer arm and

4
drawing arm, the scale of the image produced can be changed. Benton Pantograph
1884: American typeface designer Linn Boyd Benton created the Benton
Pantograph, an engraving machine capable not only of scaling font design patterns
to a variety of sizes, but also condensing.
The Huge Impact of the Typographic Pantograph In an interview by Mark
Solsburg, Mathew Carter remarked on the repercussions of the pantograph on the
typographic com m unity. “A Milwaukee engineer named Linn Boyd Benton put
the first 'nail in the coffin' of local foundries in 1884 when he invented a
pantographic punch cutter, a router-like engraving machine for cutting the steel
punches for type. That was the most important technical development in
typography since Gutenberg’s invention of variable-width type moulds in the 15th
century.” "The machine age in the form of the pantograph and mechanical
typesetting was beating against the door of hand-work. By the 1920's the whole
process of type manufacture had been taken into mass production, and carried out
under factory conditions.

1.7 CUTTERS
The end mill cutter is the most vital single item on the engraving machine
and must always have the best possible cutting edge. Relate it to a cook's knife, a
carpenter's chisel, a hand graver. It must be sharp at all times, there is no substitute.
Any engraving instruction should begin with the cutter, the most basic and
essential piece of your equipment. I shall be emphasizing this over and over again.
Inexperienced engravers, for some reason have a terror of using a cutter grinding
machine, imagining that they have to be an engineer before they can attempt to use
such a device. Not so, in fact it's quite.

5
1.7.1 END MILL CUTTER

Fig.no.1.2 End mill cutter

A end mill is the type of milling cutter, a cutting tool used industrial milling
application .While a drill bit can only cut in the axial direction. A milling bit can
generally cut in all direction, though some cannot cut axially.

End mills are used in milling application such as profile milling, tracer
milling, and plunging. Several broad categories of end- and face-milling tools
exist, such as center-cutting versus non-center-cutting (whether the mill can take
plunging cuts); and categorization by number of flutes; by helix angle; by material;
and by coating material. Each category may be further divided by specific
application and special geometry. It is becoming increasingly common for
traditional solid end mills to be replaced by more cost-effective inserted cutting
tools (which, though more expensive initially, reduce tool-change times and allow
for the easy replacement of worn or broken cutting edges rather than the entire
tool). End mills are sold in both imperial and metric shank and cutting diameters.
In the USA, metric is readily available, but it is only used in some machine shops
and not others; in Canada, due to the country's proximity to the US, much the same
is true. In Asia and Europe, metric diameters are standard.

6
Tool geometry

A variety of grooves, slots, and pockets in the work-piece may be produced

from a variety of tool bits. Common tool bit types are: square end cutters, ball end
cutters, t-slot cutters, and shell mills. Square end cutters can mill square slots,
pockets, and edges. Ball end cutters mill slots or fillets. T-slot cutters mill exactly
that: T-shaped slots. Shell end cutters are used for large flat surfaces and for angle
cuts. There are variations of these tool types as well. There are four critical angles
of each cutting tool: end cutting edge angle, axial relief angle, radial relief angle,
and radial rake angle.

Depending on the material being milled, and what task should be performed,
different tool types and geometry may be used. For instance, when milling a
material like aluminium, it may be advantageous to use a tool with very deep,
polished flutes, a very sharp cutting edge and high rake angles. When machining a
tough material such as stainless steel, however, shallow flutes and a squared-off
cutting edge will optimize material removal and tool life.

1.7.2 DRILL BITS

Drill bits are cutting tools used to remove material to create holes, almost
always of circular cross-section. Drill bits come in many sizes and shapes and can
create different kinds of holes in many different materials. In order to create holes
drill bits are usually attached to a drill, which powers them to cut through the work
piece, typically by rotation. The drill will grasp the upper end of a bit called the
shank in the chuck. Drill bits come in standard sizes, described in the drill bit sizes
article. A comprehensive drill bit and tap size chart lists metric and imperial sized

7
drill bits alongside the required screw tap sizes. There are also certain specialized
drill bits that can create holes with a non-circular cross-section.While the term drill
may refer to either a drilling machine or a drill bit while in use in a drilling
machine, in this article, for clarity, drill bit or bit is used throughout to refer to a bit
for use in a drilling machine, and drill refers always to a drilling machine.

1.8 SQUARE CHANNELS

Channel Aluminum Channel 6061 Structural Aluminum channel is an

extruded product with inside radius corners used for structural applications and
fabrication where greater strength, lightweight and corrosion resistance are
important.

Fig.no.1.3 Aluminium square channels

8
1.8.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

 It should have high strength.

 It should have good machinabilty.
 It should have low notch sensitivity factor.
 It should have good heat treatment properties.

1.8.2 STRESSES IN SQUARE CHANNELS

 Shear stress due to transmission of torque.

 Bending stress due to load of motor.
 Stress due to combined torsional and bending load.

1.9 SPRINGS

A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy. Springs are

typically made of spring steel. There are many spring designs. In everyday use, the
term often refers to coil springs.When a conventional spring, without stiffness
variability features, is compressed or stretched from its resting position, it exerts an
opposing force approximately proportional to its change in length (this
approximation breaks down for larger deflections). The rate or spring constant of a
spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in deflection of the
spring. That is, it is the gradient of the force versus deflection curve. An extension
or compression spring's rate is expressed in units of force divided by distance, for
example or N/m or lbf/in. A torsion spring is a spring that works by twisting; when
it is twisted about its axis by an angle, it produces a torque proportional to the
angle. A torsion spring's rate is in units of torque divided by angle, such as
N·m/rad or ft·lbf/degree. The inverse of spring rate is compliance, that is: if a
spring has a rate of 10 N/mm, it has a compliance of 0.1 mm/N. The stiffness (or

9
rate) of springs in parallel is additive, as is the compliance of springs in series.
Springs are made from a variety of elastic materials, the most common being
spring steel. Small springs can be wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger
ones are made from annealed steel and hardened after fabrication. Some non-
ferrous metals are also used including phosphor bronze and titanium for parts
requiring corrosion resistance and beryllium copper for springs carrying electrical
current (because of its low electrical resistance)

Fig.no.1.4 Springs

1.9.1 TYPES
Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:

 Tension/extension spring – the spring is designed to operate with a tension

load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it.
 Compression spring – is designed to operate with a compression load, so
the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it.
 Torsion spring – unlike the above types in which the load is an axial force,
the load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end
of the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied.
 Constant spring – supported load remains the same throughout deflection
cycle.
 Variable spring – resistance of the coil to load varies during compression

10
  Variable stiffness spring – resistance of the coil to load can be dynamically
varied for example by the control system,some types of these springs also
vary their length thereby providing actuation capability as well [7]

They can also be classified based on their shape:

 Flat spring – this type is made of a flat spring steel.

 Machined spring – this type of spring is manufactured by machining bar
stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than a coiling operation.
Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the
elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of
compression/extension, torsion, etc.
 Serpentine spring – a zig-zag of thick wire – often used in modern
upholstery/furniture.
 Garter spring - A coiled steel spring that is connected at each end to
create a circular shape.

The most common types of spring are:

 Cantilever spring – a spring fixed only at one end.

 Coil spring or helical spring – a spring (made by winding a wire around a
cylinder) is of two types:
 Tension or extension springs are designed to become longer under
load. Their turns (loops) are normally touching in the unloaded
position, and they have a hook, eye or some other means of
attachment at each end.

11
  Compression springs are designed to become shorter when loaded.
Their turns (loops) are not touching in the unloaded position, and they
need no attachment points.
 Hollow tubing springs can be either extension springs or compression
springs. Hollow tubing is filled with oil and the means of changing
hydrostatic pressure inside the tubing such as a membrane or
miniature piston etc. to harden or relax the spring, much like it
happens with water pressure inside a garden hose. Alternatively
tubing's cross-section is chosen of a shape that it changes its area
when tubing is subjected to torsional deformation – change of the
cross-section area translates into change of tubing's inside volume and
the flow of oil in/out of the spring that can be controlled by valve
thereby controlling stiffness. There are many other designs of springs
of hollow tubing which can change stiffness with any desired
frequency, change stiffness by a multiple or move like a linear
actuator in addition to its spring qualities.
 Volute spring – a compression coil spring in the form of a cone so that
under compression the coils are not forced against each other, thus
permitting longer travel.
 Hairspring or balance spring – a delicate spiral spring used in watches,
galvanometers, and places where electricity must be carried to partially
rotating devices such as steering wheels without hindering the rotation.
 Leaf spring – a flat spring used in vehicle suspensions, electrical switches,
and bows.
 V-spring – used in antique firearm mechanisms such as the wheellock,
flintlock and percussion cap locks. Also door-lock spring, as used in antique
door latch mechanisms.[8]

12
Other types include :

 Belleville washer or Belleville spring – a disc shaped spring commonly

used to apply tension to a bolt (and also in the initiation mechanism of
pressure-activated landmines)
 Constant-force spring — a tightly rolled ribbon that exerts a nearly
constant force as it is unrolled
 Gas spring – a volume of compressed gas
 Ideal Spring – a notional spring used in physics—it has no weight, mass, or
damping losses. The force exerted by the spring is proportional to the
distance the spring is stretched or compressed from its relaxed position.[9]
 Mainspring – a spiral ribbon shaped spring used as a power store of
clockwork mechanisms: watches, clocks, music boxes, windup toys, and
mechanically powered flashlights

 Negator spring – a thin metal band slightly concave in cross-section. When

coiled it adopts a flat cross-section but when unrolled it returns to its former
curve, thus producing a constant force throughout the displacement and
negating any tendency to re-wind. The most common application is the
retracting steel tape rule.[10]
 Progressive rate coil springs – A coil spring with a variable rate, usually
achieved by having unequal pitch so that as the spring is compressed one or
more coils rests against its neighbour.
 Rubber band – a tension spring where energy is stored by stretching the
material.
 Spring washer – used to apply a constant tensile force along the axis of a
fastener.

13
  Torsion spring – any spring designed to be twisted rather than compressed
or extended.[11] Used in torsion bar vehicle suspension systems.
 Wave spring – any of many wave shaped springs, washers, and expanders,
including linear springs—all of which are generally made with flat wire or
discs that are marcelled according to industrial terms, usually by die-
stamping, into a wavy regular pattern resulting in curvilinear lobes. Round
wire wave springs exist as well. Types include wave washer, single turn
wave spring, multi-turn wave spring, linear wave spring, marcel expander,
interlaced wave spring, and nested wave spring.

1.9.2 EXTENSION SPRINGS

Extension springs are attached at both ends to other components. When

these components move apart, the spring tries to bring them together again.
Extension springs absorb and store energy as well as create a resistance to a pulling
force. It is initial tension that determines how tightly together an extension spring
is coiled. This initial tension can be manipulated to achieve the load requirements
of a particular application. Extension Springs are wound to oppose extension. They
are often tightly wound in the no-load position and have hooks, eyes, or other
interface geometry at the ends to attach to the components they connect. They are
frequently used to provide return force to components that extend in the actuated
position.
Applications: Applications for extension springs include automotive interiors and
exteriors, garage door assemblies, vise-grip pliers, carburetors, trampolines,
washing devices, farm machinery, toys as well as thousands of other uses.
Configurations: Lee Spring's Stock Extension Springs are supplied with full

14
diameter loops (either machine or crossover center) at a random position. Loop
openings are approximately one wire diameter and the direction of wind is
optional. Lee Stock Extension Springs are available in both Inch and Metric
designs. If exact direction of helix is required, Custom Extension Springs can be
made to specification. To fit the function of extension springs, a multitude of hook
or loop configurations may be specified. Close winding of the body provides initial
tension in the spring to help manipulate the load and rate.

1.10 BOLTED JOINTS

Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and
machine design. They consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts, and are
secured with the mating of screw threads. There are two main types of bolted joint
designs: tension joints and shear joints.

Fig.no.1.5 Bolted joints

In the tension joint, the bolt and clamped components of the joint are
designed to transfer an applied tension load through the joint by way of the
clamped components by the design of a proper balance of joint and bolt stiffness.
The joint should be designed such that the clamp load is never overcome by the
external tension forces acting to separate the joint. If the external tension forces

15
overcome the clamp load (bolt preload) the clamped joint components will
separate, allowing relative motion of the components.

The second type of bolted joint transfers the applied load in shear of the bolt
shank and relies on the shear strength of the bolt. Tension loads on such a joint are
only incidental. A preload is still applied but consideration of joint flexibility is not
as critical as in the case where loads are transmitted through the joint in tension.
Other such shear joints do not employ a preload on the bolt as they are designed to
allow rotation of the joint about the bolt, but use other methods of maintaining
bolt/joint integrity. Joints that allow rotation include clevis linkages, and rely on a
locking mechanism (like lock washers, thread adhesives, and lock nuts).

Proper joint design and bolt preload provides useful properties:

 For cyclic tension loads, the fastener is not subjected to the full amplitude of
the load; as a result, the fastener's fatigue life is increased or—if the material
exhibits an endurance limit its life extends indefinitely.[1]
 As long as the external tension loads on a joint do not exceed the clamp
load, the fastener is not subjected to motion that would loosen it, obviating
the need for locking mechanisms. (Questionable under Vibration Inputs.)
 For the shear joint, a proper clamping force on the joint components
prevents relative motion of those components and the fretting wear of those
that could result in the development of fatigue cracks.

In both the tension and shear joint design cases, some level of tension preload in
the bolt and resulting compression preload in the clamped components is essential
to the joint integrity. The preload target can be achieved by a variety of methods:
applying a measured torque to the bolt, measuring bolt extension, heating to

16
expand the bolt then turning the nut down, torquing the bolt to the yield point,
testing ultrasonically, or by applying a certain number of degrees of relative
rotation of the threaded components. Each method has a range of uncertainties
associated with it, some of which are very substantial.

Typically, a bolt is tensioned (preloaded) by the application of a torque to

either the bolt head or the nut. The applied torque causes the bolt to "climb" the
thread causing a tensioning of the bolt and an equivalent compression in the
components being fastened by the bolt. The preload developed in a bolt is due to
the applied torque and is a function of the bolt diameter, the geometry of the
threads, and the coefficients of friction that exist in the threads and under the
torqued bolt head or nut. The stiffness of the components clamped by the bolt has
no relation to the preload that is developed by the torque. The relative stiffness of
the bolt and the clamped joint components do, however, determine the fraction of
the external tension load that the bolt will carry and that in turn determines preload
needed to prevent joint separation and by that means to reduce the range of stress
the bolt experiences as the tension load is repeatedly applied. This determines the
durability of the bolt when subjected to repeated tension loads. Maintaining a
sufficient joint preload also prevents relative slippage of the joint components that
would produce fretting wear that could result in a fatigue failure of those parts. The
clamp load, also called preload of a fastener, is created when a torque is applied,
and so develops a tensile preload that is generally a substantial percentage of the
fastener's proof strength. Fasteners are manufactured to various standards that
define, among other things, their strength. Torque charts are available to specify
the required torque for a given fastener based on its property class (fineness of
manufacture and fit) and grade (tensile strength).

17
 When a fastener is torqued, a tension preload develops in the bolt and an
equal compressive preload develops in the parts being fastened. This can be
modeled as a spring-like assembly that has some assumed distribution of
compressive strain in the clamped joint components. When an external tension
load is applied, it relieves the compressive strains induced by the preload in the
clamped components, hence the preload acting on the compressed joint
components provides the external tension load with a path (through the joint) other
than through the bolt. In a well designed joint, perhaps 80-90% of the externally
applied tension load will pass through the joint and the remainder through the bolt.
This reduces the fatigue loading of the bolt.

When the fastened parts are less stiff than the fastener (those that use soft,
compressed gaskets for example), this model breaks down and the fastener is
subjected to a tension load that is the sum of the tension preload and the external
tension load.

In some applications, joints are designed so that the fastener eventually fails
before more expensive components. In this case, replacing an existing fastener
with a higher strength fastener can result in equipment damage. Thus, it is
generally good practice to replace old fasteners with new fasteners of the same
grade.

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1.11 WOODEN VICE

The plywood is used for making the wooden vice.The purpose of the
wooden vice is to clamp the wooden vice.It consists of the fixed jaw and the
movable jaw.The work piece Is mouted by using the movable jaw and the
movement of the leadscrew.The woode vice is fixed or mounted on the plywood
with the whole apparatus.The wooden vice is fixed with the help of bolted joints.

1.12 EXPERIMENTATIONS
A. Experiment no.1
Aim: To observe proper cutting of wood.
Objective: To cut wood smoothly.
The following experiment was performed with the Pantograph.
Firstly, to ensure that the tool is capable of cutting the wood, this experiment is
performed. The stylus is moved freely without any reference. Tool follows the
stylus in reduced scale. The wood is cut successfully.
Conclusion: Hence wood is cut successfully without any difficulty.
B. Experiment no. 2
Aim: Straight Line Tracing
Objective: To trace a straight line.
The stylus is moved along a straight line. The cutter follows the path exactly as the
stylus. A straight line is traced successfully.
Conclusion: Hence the straight line is traced successfully without any difficulty.
C. Experiment no. 3
Aim: Curve Tracing
Objective: To trace a curve.

19
The Pantograph is clamped to the table. The stylus was moved along a circle. The
wood used is a soft wood. The cutter cuts the wood exactly as the circle. The circle
is traced successfully.
Conclusion: Hence the curve is traced successfully without any difficulty.
D. Experiment no. 4
Aim: Letter Tracing
Objective: To trace letters.
Stylus is moved freely in a shape of letter A. The letter was traced but not
accurately. It says that a stencil is necessary for accurate tracing.
Conclusion: Hence the letters are traced successfully without any difficulty.

1.13.1 ADVANTAGES
The main advantage is that the Pantograph is Portable. The Pantographs that
are available in market are bulky and are very expensive. The design of the
portable Pantograph is such that, it reduces the weight up to 10 times. The cost is
also reduced to a great extent. The Pantograph is cheap in price. The Scaling factor
can be adjusted according to the need with slight changes in the design depending
on if the sclae has to be reduced or enlarge. It works with accuracy. The template
that has to be copied can be done with precision. It has a highly effective working
mechanism.
1.13.2 DISADVANTAGES
Pantograph has a poor Damping factor. While working it creates noise and
vibration which are difficult to avoid. The mechanism is very easy to copy by
anyone. So commercially, it is non-profitable. It can have many copyright issues.
Automatic system can be incurred. Automatic path follower Stylus can be
installed. By changing the tool only, various operations can be performed. Rigidity
of the structure can be increased for cutting metals

20
1.14 APPLICATIONS

Perhaps the pantograph that is most familiar to the general public is the
extension arm of an adjustable wall-mounted mirror. In another application similar
to drafting, the pantograph is incorporated into a pantograph engraving machine
with a revolving cutter instead of a pen, and a tray at the pointer end to fix precut
lettered plates (referred to as 'copy'), which the pointer follows and thus the cutter,
via the pantograph, reproduces the 'copy' at a ratio to which the pantograph arms
have been set. The typical range of ratio is Maximum 1:1 Minimum 50:1
(reduction) In this way machinists can neatly and accurately engrave numbers and
letters onto a part. Pantographs are no longer commonly used in modern engraving,
with computerized laser and rotary engraving taking favor.

The device which maintains electrical contact with the contact wire and
transfers power from the wire to the traction unit, used in electric locomotives and
trams, is also called a "pantograph".

Some types of trains on the New York City Subway use end pantograph
gates (which, to avoid interference, compress under spring pressure around curves
while the train is en route) to prevent passengers on station platforms from falling
into or riding in the gaps between the cars.

Some commercial vehicles have windscreen wipers on pantographs to allow

the blade to cover more of the windscreen on each wipe.

Old-style 'baby gates' used a 2-dimensional pantograph mechanism (in a

similar style to pantograph gates on subway cars) as a means of keeping toddlers
away from stairways. The openings in these gates are too large to meet modern
baby gate safety standards.

21
 Herman Hollerith's "Keyboard punch" used for the 1890 U.S. Census was a
pantograph design and sometimes referred to as "The Pantograph Punch".

An early 19th-century device employing this mechanism is the polygraph,

which produces a duplicate of a letter as the original is written. In churches in
many countries (generally before modern animal welfare), dog whippers used 'dog
tongs' with a pantograph mechanism to control dogs at a distance.The fencing and
swordsmanship manual Ms.Thott.290.2º written in 1459 by Hans Talhoffer
includes what appears to be an extending blade working on the same principle.

In 1886, Eduard Selling patented a prize-winning calculating machine based

on the pantograph, although it was not commercially successful.

In many cartoons, the bird in a cuckoo clock is depicted as extending on a

pantograph mechanism, although this is seldom the case in actual clocks.

Expanding fences or trellises use folding pantograph mechanisms, for ease

of transport and storage.

Long arm quilting machine operators may trace a pantograph, paper pattern,
with a laser pointer to stitch a custom pattern onto the quilt. Digitized pantographs
are followed by computerized machines. Linn Boyd Benton invented a
pantographic engraving machine for type design, which was capable not only of
scaling a single font design pattern to a variety of sizes, but could also condense,
extend, and slant the design (mathematically, these are cases of affine
transformation, which is the fundamental geometric operation of most systems of
digital typography today, including PostScript). Pantographs are also used as guide
frames in heavy-duty applications including scissor lifts, material handling
equipment, stage lifts and specialty hinges (such as for panel doors on boats and

22
airplanes). Richard Feynman used the analogy of a pantograph as a way of scaling
down tools to the nanometer scale in his talk There's Plenty of Room at the
Bottom.

Numerous trade-show displays use 3-dimensional pantograph mechanisms

to support backdrops for exhibit booths. The framework expands in 2 directions
(vertical and horizontal) from a bundle of connected rods into a self-supporting
structure on which a fabric backdrop is hung.

23
 CHAPTER 2
DESIGN CALCULATION
2.1 DESIGN OF SPRING
Axial load W=100N
Deflection of the spring due to the axial load ∂=74.5 mm
Number of turns n =33
Modulus of rigidity G=85 KN/mm2

∂ = 8 W.C3.n/G.d
Where ,
C-spring index
d-Diameter of the spring wire

C3/d=74.5*85*103/8*100*33
d=2 mm
C3= 239.86*2
C =7.83
Mean diameter of the coil D = C.d
=7.83*2
D =15.65 mm
Outer diameter of the spring coil D0 = D + d
=15.65 + 2
D0 =17.65 mm
Maximum shear stress induced
Whal’s stress factor,
K = 4C-1/4C-4 + (0.615/C)
K = 4*7.83-1/4*7.83-4 + (0.615/7.83)

24
 K = 1.18
Maximum shear stress induced,
€ = K*8W.C/πd2
= 1.18*8*100*7.83/π*22
€ = 592.36 N/mm2
2.2 DESIGN OF BOLTED JOINTS
Number of bolts
Primary shear load on bolt = W/2
= 100/2
∑ = 50 N
Secondary tensile load on bolt ∑t= W*L*L1/2l12
Where, L – vertical load acting distance
L1- bolt distance from the lower edge
= 50*450*500/2*4502
= 27.7 N/mm2
Maximum principal stress = ∑t/2 +[(∑t/2)2 + €2]1/2
Where , ∑t – tensile load
€ - shear stress of the material
= 27.7/2 + [(27.7/2)2 + 3002]1/2
Resultant load = 314.15 N
Permissible stress = Resultant load/Area of the bolt
Assume, Permissible stress of the bolt = 84 N/mm2
Area of the bolt = load/stress
π/4*d2 = 314.15/84
d = 3.89 ≈ 4 mm
Standard diameter = 4 m
Size of the bolt M4

25
2.3 CALCULATION OF WEIGHT OF EACH LINK
Link A
Length of link A = 0.6m
Thickness of link A = 1*10-3m
Width of link A = 20*10-3m
Height of link A = 15*10-3m
Volume of A link = 0.16239.53*10-3m3
Density of Al = 2640 kg/m3
Mass of Al =Volume * density
= (0.16239.53*10-3) * (2640)
= 0.4 kg
Weight of Al = Mass * Acceleration due to gravity
= 0.43 * 9.81
Weight of Al = 4.21

Link B
Length of link B = 0.24+0.12+0.24= 0.6m
Thickness of link B = 1*10-3 m
Width of link B = 20*10-3 m
Height of link B = 15*10-3 m
Volume of link B = 0.16239.55 *10-3 m
Density of Al = 2640 kg/m3
Mass of Al =Volume * density
= (0.16239.53*10-3) * (2640)
= 0.4 kg
Length of Mild steel = 0.12 m
Width of mild steel = 20.2*10-3 m
Thickness of mild steel = 1.5*10-3 m
Volume of mild steel = 9.09*10-6 m3
Density of mild steel = 7700 kg/m3
Mass of mild steel portion= Density * Volume
= 7700*9.09*10-6
=0.07 kg
Total mass of link B = 0.4+0.07
= 0.48 kg
Weight of link B = Mass * Acceleration due to gravity
= 0.48*9.81
= 4.07 N

Link C

26
 Length of link C = 0.3 m
Width of link C = 1*10-3 m
Thickness of link C = 20*10-3 m
Volume of link C = 1.515*10-4 m3
Density of link C = 2640 kg/m3
Mass of link C = Density * Volume
= 2640*1.515
Mass of link C = 0.4 kg
Weight of link C = Mass * Acceleration due to gravity
= 0.4*9.81
Weight of link C = 3.922 N

Link D
Length of link D = 0.4 m
Width of link D = 1*10-3 m
Thickness of link D = 20*10-3 m
Volume of link D = 1.515*10-4 m3
Density of link D = 2640 kg/m3
Mass of link D = Density * Volume
= 2640*1.55
Mass of link D = 0.41 kg
Weight of link D = Mass * Acceleration due to gravity
= 0.41*9.81
Weight of link D =4N
Total weight of links = A+B+C+D
= 4.216+4.707+3.922+4
= 16.9 N

2.4 BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM

Link A,B self weight = 0.43 kg
Link D self weight = 0.48 kg
Link C self weight = 0.4 kg
Total self weight = 12.74 N

27
 Fig.no.2.1 Bending moment and Shear force diagram
Shear force,
At C = weight of four links + motor weight
= 12.74 +1.4
= 26.47 N
At B = 26.47 + (0.43+0.48+0.4)
= 39.31 N
At A = Existing force + steel frame weight + plywood weight
=39.31+ (2*9.81)+(5*9.81)
= 108 N
Bending moment,
BM at C = 0
BM at B = -26.47*0.55
= -14.55 N
BM at C = -14.55 - (39.41 * 0.45)
= -32.2845 N
28
2.5 MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS
Table 2.1 Motor specification
Chuck size 100mm

Chuck type jawed

No. of speeds 1
No load speeds 2300rpm
Type Hand drill with piston grip

Power source Corded

Power requirement 220volts,50hz
Width*Length*Height 8cm*20cm*25cm

Weight 1.4kg

CHAPTER 3
29
 FABRICATION PROCESS

3.1 FABRICATION OF FRAME

The four square channels of 1.9cm*1.9cm are taken to a length of 30cm each
for seven channels.The welding is done by connecting the seven square channels
to the required model.

The holes are drilled with the dia of 4.5 mm drillbits with the help of hand
driller of drilling machine at the required place.

The two cylindrical rods of length 40cm are taken and welded with frame at
the place to give rigidity.

Fig.no.3.1 Frame

30
 The cylindrical rods are connected by the lean cylindrical rod of 8mm with
two springs and joined by means of welding.

The pivoted point or rectangular section is created by the welding

joints.The 10cm*26cm of square channels are taken and welded and the drilling is
done by 4.5mm drillbits at the required place and the link fix or pivoted point is
joined by bolted joints by allowance or by tolerance of 2 to 3mm and fixed loosely.

The polishing is done in all the sides of the surfaces of mild steel square
channels and the painting works are done.chamfering is also done in all edges of
the mild steel tubes.The channels are get required rigidity due to the finishing
touches.

3.2 FABRICATION OF BASE

The base is created by the raw material of 2m*1.5m are cut by using the
woodruff cutters and the cutting is done. The edges are chamfer by using the
woodruff cutter and polished and fillet is done for the required level of cutting. The
plywood is done surface finishing. The drilling is done by required drillbits of
required places at the plywood to the placement of wooden vice and the frame in
the plywood. We are choosing plywood because of following properties.These are
high impact resistance, high strength,panel shear,chemical resistance,flexibility,fire
resistance.plywood is a material manufactured from thin layers of “plies” of wood
veneer that the glued together with adjacent up to 90 degrees to one another.The
main purpose of the base is to withstand the full load of our project.many types of
base are used in various project.These are wood or plywood ,steel,and etc.,most of
the project used wooden base because of low cost and the other main point is ,the
wooden base is a weight less.so it is easy to portable.

31
3.3 FABRICATION OF LINKS

The links are produced by the aluminium square tubings and mild
steel.Aluminium tubings are cut for the required sizes by using the hacksaw and
the chamfering is done on the edges.This is followed by the process for making
four more links and equal of four links are done.The drilling is done at the required
spaces and places.The marking is done by using chalk piece and punch at the
required spaces and the drilling is done.

Fig.no.3.2 Fixed links with Pivot points

32
3.3.1 DRILLING

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular
cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often
multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the work-piece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

In rock drilling, the hole is usually not made through a circular cutting
motion, though the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is usually made by
hammering a drill bit into the hole with quickly repeated short movements. The
hammering action can be performed from outside the hole (top-hammer drill) or
within the hole (down-the-hole drill, DTH). Drills used for horizontal drilling are
called drifter drills. In rare cases, specially-shaped bits are used to cut holes of non-
circular cross-section; a square cross-section is possible.Drilled holes are
characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side and the presence of burrs on
the exit side (unless they have been removed). Also, the inside of the hole usually
has helical feed marks.

Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the work piece by creating
low residual stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of highly
stressed and disturbed material on the newly formed surface. This causes the work
piece to become more susceptible to corrosion and crack propagation at the
stressed surface. A finish operation may be done to avoid these detrimental
conditions.

For fluted drill bits, any chips are removed via the flutes. Chips may form
long spirals or small flakes, depending on the material, and process parameters. [3]

33
The type of chips formed can be an indicator of the machinability of the material,
with long chips suggesting good material machinability.

When possible drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the work

piece surface. This minimizes the drill bit's tendency to "walk", that is, to be
deflected from the intended center-line of the bore, causing the hole to be
misplaced. The higher the length-to-diameter ratio of the drill bit, the greater the
tendency to walk. The tendency to walk is also preempted in various other ways,
which include:

 Establishing a centering mark or feature before drilling, such as by:

 Casting, molding, or forging a mark into the work piece
 Center punching
 Spot drilling (i.e., center drilling)
 Spot facing, which is machining a certain area on a casting or forging
to establish an accurately located face on an otherwise rough surface.
 Constraining the position of the drill bit using a drill jig with drill bushings

Surface finish produced by drilling may range from 32 to 500 microinches.

Finish cuts will generate surfaces near 32 microinches, and roughing will be near
500 microinches. Cutting fluid is commonly used to cool the drill bit, increase tool
life, increase speeds and feeds, increase the surface finish, and aid in ejecting
chips. Application of these fluids is usually done by flooding the work piece with
coolant and lubricant or by applying a spray mist.

In deciding which drill(s) to use it is important to consider the task at hand

and evaluate which drill would best accomplish the task. There are a variety of drill
styles that each serve a different purpose. The subland drill is capable of drilling

34
more than one diameter. The spade drill is used to drill larger hole sizes. The
indexable drill is useful in managing chips.

The purpose of spot drilling is to drill a hole that will act as a guide for
drilling the final hole. The hole is only drilled part way into the work piece because
it is only used to guide the beginning of the next drilling process. Centre drill is A
two-fluted tool consisting of a twist drill with a 60° countersink; used to drill
countersink center holes in a work piece to be mounted between centers for turning
or grinding. Deep hole drilling is defined as a hole depth greater than ten times the
diameter of the hole.[4] These types of holes require special equipment to maintain
the straightness and tolerances. Other considerations are roundness and surface
finish.

Deep hole drilling is generally achievable with a few tooling methods,

usually gun drilling or BTA drilling. These are differentiated due to the coolant
entry method (internal or external) and chip removal method (internal or external).
Using methods such as a rotating tool and counter-rotating work piece are common
techniques to achieve required straightness tolerances. Secondary tooling methods
include trepanning, skiving and burnishing, pull boring, or bottle boring. Finally a
new kind of drilling technology is available to face this issue: vibration drilling.
This technology breaks up the chips by a small controlled axial vibration of the
drill. The small chips are easily removed by the flutes of the drill.

A high tech monitoring system is used to control force, torque, vibrations,

and acoustic emission. Vibration is considered a major defect in deep hole drilling
which can often cause the drill to break. A special coolant is usually used to aid in
this type of drilling.

35
 Gun drilling was originally developed to drill out gun barrels and is used
commonly for drilling smaller diameter deep holes. The depth-to-diameter ratio
can be even greater than 300:1. The key feature of gun drilling is that the bits are
self-centering; this is what allows for such deep accurate holes. The bits use a
rotary motion similar to a twist drill; however, the bits are designed with bearing
pads that slide along the surface of the hole keeping the drill bit on center. Gun
drilling is usually done at high speeds and low feed rates.

3.3.2 SURFACE FINISHING

Surface finish, also known as surface texture or surface topography, is the

nature of a surface as defined by the three characteristics of lay, surface roughness,
and waviness.[1] It comprises the small, local deviations of a surface from the
perfectly flat ideal (a true plane). Surface texture is one of the important factors
that control friction and transfer layer formation during sliding. Considerable
efforts have been made to study the influence of surface texture on friction and
wear during sliding conditions. Surface textures can be isotropic or
anisotropic.Sometimes, stick-slip friction phenomena can be observed during
sliding, depending on surface texture. Each manufacturing process (such as the
many kinds of machining) produces a surface texture. The process is usually
optimized to ensure that the resulting texture is usable. If necessary, an additional
process will be added to modify the initial texture. The latter process may be
grinding (abrasive cutting), polishing, lapping, abrasive blasting, honing, electrical
discharge machining (EDM), milling, lithography, industrial etching/chemical
milling, laser texturing, or other processes.

36
3.3.2 CHAMFERING

A chamfer is a transitional edge between two faces of an object. A form of

bevel, it is created at a 45° angle to two adjoining right-angled faces. A lark's
tongue is a chamfer which ends short of a piece in a gradual upward curve, leaving
the balance as a right angle. Chamfers may be formed in either inside or outside
adjoining faces of an object or room. They are also used to "ease" otherwise sharp
edges, both for safety and to prevent damage to them. By comparison, a fillet is the
rounding-off of an interior corner, and a "round" (or "radius") the rounding of an
outside one. Chamfers are commonly employed in mechanical and manufacturing
engineering, and in poured-in-place concrete formwork. They are used in furniture
such as counters and table tops to ease their edges; when the edges are rounded
instead they are called bullnosed. Special tools such as chamfer mills and chamfer
planes are used. Chamfers are necessary in parabolic glass mirror manufacture and
desirable in certain printed circuit boards

Chamfers are commonly used in architecture, both for functional and

aesthetic reasons. The base of the Taj Mahal is a cube with chamfered corners,
thereby creating an octagonal architectural footprint. Its great gate is formed of
chamfered base stones and chamfered corbels for a balcony or equivalent cornice
towards the roof.

Many city blocks in Barcelona, Valencia and various other cities in Spain,
and street corners (curbs) in Ponce, Puerto Rico, are chamfered. The chamfering
was designed as an embellishment and a modernization of urban space in
Barcelona's mid-19th century for example or Expansion District, where the
buildings follow the chamfering of the sidewalks and streets. This pioneering
design opens up broader perspectives, provides pleasant pedestrian areas and

37
allows for greater visibility while turning. It might also be considered to allow for
turning to be somewhat more comfortable as, supposedly, drivers would not need
to slow down as much when making a turn as they would have to if the corner
were a square 90 degrees though in Barcelona, most chamfered corners are used as
parking spaces or loading-unloading zones, leaving the traffic to run as in normal
90-degree street corners.

3.3.4 CUTTING

Metal cutting is “the process of removing unwanted material in the form of

chips, from a block of metal, using cutting tool”. A person who specializes in
machining is called a machinist. A room, building or company where machining is
done is called a Machine Shop.

The basic elements involved in this process are:

i) A block of metal (work piece).

(ii) Cutting Tool.

(iii) Machine Tool.

(iv) Cutting Fluid.

(v) Cutting speed (Primary Motion).

(vi) Feed (Secondary Motion).

(vii) Chips.

(viii) Work holding and Fixturing.

(ix) Force and Energy Dissipated, and

(x) Surface Finish.

38
The essential conditions for successful metal cutting are:

(a) Relative motion between work and cutting tool.

(b) Tool material must be harder than work material.

(c) Work and tool must be rigidly held by jig and fixtures.

(d) Sharp Cutting edge of cutting tool.

(e) Primary Motion (Cutting Speed).

(f) Secondary Motion (Cutting Feed).

3.3.5 WELDING

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually

metals or thermoplastics, by using high heat to melt the parts together and allowing
them to cool causing fusion. Welding is distinct from lower temperature metal-
joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal.

In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to

the joint to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint
that, based on weld configuration (butt, full penetration, fillet, etc.), can be stronger
than the base material (parent metal). Pressure may also be used in conjunction
with heat, or by itself, to produce a weld. Welding also requires a form of shield to
protect the filler metals or melted metals from being contaminated or oxidized.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas
flame (chemical), an electric arc (electrical), a laser, an electron beam, friction, and
ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding may be performed in many
different environments, including in open air, under water, and in outer space.
Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns,

39
electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and
exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge
welding, which blacksmiths had used for millennia to join iron and steel by heating
and hammering. Arc welding and oxy-fuel welding were among the first processes
to develop late in the century, and electric resistance welding followed soon after.
Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as the world
wars drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following
the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed, including manual
methods like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the most popular welding
methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc
welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag welding.
Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding, electron beam
welding, magnetic pulse welding, and friction stir welding in the latter half of the
century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace
in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods
and gain greater understanding of weld quality.

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) it is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick
welding. Electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and
consumable electrode rod, which is made of filler material (typically steel) and is
covered with a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation and contamination
by producing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas during the welding process. The electrode
core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary.

40
 The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive
equipment, making it well suited to shop jobs and field work. An operator can
become reasonably proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve
mastery with experience. Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable
electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux,
must be chipped away after welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited
to welding ferrous materials, though special electrodes have made possible the
welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminum, copper, and other metals. Gas metal arc
welding (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas or MIG welding, is a semi-
automatic or automatic process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode and
an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to protect the weld from contamination. Since
the electrode is continuous, welding speeds are greater for GMAW than for
SMAW.

A related process, flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), uses similar equipment

but uses wire consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill material.
This cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate
fumes and/or slag, but it permits even higher welding speed and greater metal
penetration.

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a
manual welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode, an inert or
semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding
thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds,
but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively
low speeds.

41
 GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often
applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are
extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval applications. A related
process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to
make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse
control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized
process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of
material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and it is much faster. It can be
applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium, and automated
welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of
the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in

which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality,
since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms
on the weld generally comes off by itself, and combined with the use of a
continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are
much improved over other arc welding processes, since the flux hides the arc and
almost no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry,
especially for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels. [39]
Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, electro slag
welding (ESW), electro gas welding, and stud arc welding. ESW is a highly
productive, single pass welding process for thicker materials between 1 inch
(25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to vertical position.

42
3.4 FARICATION OF WOODEN VICE

The plywood is used to making of our vice. Because of its have high
strength and low cost. The plywood is cut in to dimension of 30*30cm by using
woodruff cutter. After cut the vice polishing process takesplace. The drilling holes
places are marked by the chalk piece in the required places. The drilling process is
done by the drill machine. Adjustable bolt is fit in the plywood by the drilled holes
and small bolts. The wooden vice is adjusted by the two and three small wooden
pieces for the depth of cut. The wooden vice one end is fixed and another end is
movable by the adjustable bolt. The important or mainly purpose of the bolt was
fixed the work piece.

Fig.no.3.3 Wooden vice

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3.5 FABRICATION OF SCREW THREADS

Screw threads in wide ranges of size, form, precision and volume are
produced in lathes ranging from centre lathe to single spindle automats, Threads
are also produced in special purpose lathe and conc. lathe including Turing
centre .External threads are produced in centre lathe by various method .Single
point and multi point chasing, as schematically showin thisis process is slow but
can provide high quality.Multi point gives more productivity.

There is variousmethodsd for generating screw threads. The method chosen

for anyone application is chosen based on constraints.

3.5.1 EXTERNAL SCREW THRAEDS

External screw threads are produced in centre lathe by various methods

namely, 1.single and multi point chasing and 2.Thread milling.

3.5.2 SINGLE AND MULTI POINT CHASING

This process is very slow but can provide high quality, multipoint chasing
gives more productivity but the cost of quality to some extent.

3.5.3 THREAD MILLING

This process gives quite fast production by using suitable thread milling
cutter in centre lathe. The milling attachment is mounted on the saddle of the lathe.
Thread milling is of two types

1. Long thread milling

2. Short thread milling.

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1. Long thread milling

Long and large diameter screws like machine lead screws are reasonably
accurately made by using a large disc type form milling cutter.

2. Short thread milling

Threads of shorter length and fine pitch are machined at high production
rate using a HSS milling cutter having a number of annular threads with axial
grooves cut on it for generating cutting edges. Each job required only around 1.25
revolution of the blank and very short axial and radial travel of the rotating tool.

45
 CHAPTER-4

ASSEMBLY AND TESTING

The links are drilled at the required centers .The base is fixed with any table
or grounded. Then the frame is perfectly welded at the required places and joined
together. The drilling process is held wherever the holes are needed. The holes are
produced within the help of hand driller with the required drill bit. The mild steel
frame makes a rigid surface and grip to the entire pantograph and the pivot point.

Then the rectangular and pivot point box is made with the required
dimensions are assembled with the bolted joints .The frame is fixed to the base
plywood with the bolted joints .The riveted joints are used to joined the link at the
pivot point. Then the link A and B are joined with the help of bolted joints .The
motor link and link C are fixed with help of the bolted joints .Then C and a links
are joined with the pivot point with the help of riveted joints. Then the stylus is
joined to the B link with the chuck key with the grip in the link .Then the wooden
vices ready with the help of screws and to the base. Then the height of the wooden
vice is increased by setting to wooden blocks on the base with holes. Then the
movable and fixed jaws are assembled in the wooden vice. The fixed jaw is fixed
in the wooden vice. Then the lead screw is used for moving the movable jaw. The
bolt of lead screw is welded with any metal sheet and it is screwed with the
wooden vice and welded. Then the movement of the lead screw is designed and
fabricated. Then the hand drill or the motor with end mill cutter is fixed with link
D with the help of the bolted joints. (Mean chuck key with drilled holes).

46
Then testing is done by making the work piece fix in the wooden vice and zero
point is set at the point of the stylus and fixed. The tracing point is marked and the
diagram or any test written or die is fixed. And tracing point traces with the help of
our hand and the motor with end mill cutter engraves the letters or text in the work
piece. The experimentation has been given in the introduction on the chapter 1.12.

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4.2 COST ESTIMATION

Table 4.1 Cost estimation

S.NO COMPONENTS QUANTITY MATERIAL COST($)
1 ALUMINIUM 2m ALUMINIUM 300
SQUARE
PIPES
2 MILD STEEL 1.5m MILDSTEEL 300
DUCTS
3 ENDMILL 1 HSS 700
CUTTER
4 HAND 1 ------------- 900
DRILLER
5 PLYWOOD 2m*1m WOOD 600

TOTAL (RS) 2800

4.3 LOGISTICS COST

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 Table 4.2 Logistics cost

TRANSPORTATION COST (RS) 200

LABOUR COST (RS) 700

TOTAL (RS) 900

TOTAL COST=MATERIAL COST+_LOGISTICS COST

=2800+900

TOTAL COST= RS.3700

CHAPTER 5

49
 CONCLUSION

In this mini project work, “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

PANTOGRAPH WOODEN ENRAVER” was done by using various machining

process such as welding, drilling, chamfering, grinding. Pantograph may be old

mechanism, but still in present days it has many beneficial uses. Pantograph is

parallelogram linkage which is used in our wood engraving purpose on material.

This machine is having low weight, portable and easy to handle for unskilled

persons also than other complicated engraving machines. We designed such

mechanism for engraving machine which is safe; hence there are no problems in

manufacturing too.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

50
1.Theory of machines by R.S.Khrumi,J.K.Gupta.

2.Kinematics of machinery by V.Jayakumar.

3.Design of machine elements by V.B.Bhandari.

4.P.S.G design data book.

5.http://www.wikepedia.com/php.

APPENDIX

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Fig.no.4.1 Full Apparatus

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