Mathematics

in the
Modern World
Module 2
 Chapter 2
Mathematical Language and Symbols
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Chapter, you must be able to:
1. discuss the language, symbols, and convention of mathematics;
2. explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
3. perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly, its basic concepts and logic; and
4. appreciate that mathematics is a useful language.

Key Concepts

The Language, Symbols, Syntax, and Rules of Mathematics

The language of mathematics is the system used by mathematicians to communicate mathematical ideas
among themselves. This language consist of a substrate of some natural language using technical terms and
grammatical conventions that are peculiar to mathematical discourse, supplemented by a highly specialized
symbolic notation for mathematical formula.

Mathematics as a language has symbols to express a formula or to represent a constant. It has syntax to
make the expression well-formed to make the characters and symbols clear and valid that do not violate the
rules. Mathematical symbols can designate numbers, variables, operations, functions, brackets, punctuation and
grouping to help determine order of operations, and other aspects of logical syntax. A mathematical concept is
independentof the symbol chosen to represent it. In short, convention dictates the meaning.

The language of mathematics make it easy to express the kinds of symbols, syntax and rules that
mathematicians like to do and characterized by the following:
a. precise (able to make fine distinctions)
Example: The use of mathematical symbol is only done based on its meaning and purpose. Like + means
add, - means subtract, x means multiply and ÷ means divide.
b. concise (able to say things briefly)
Example: The long English sentence can be shortened using mathematical symbols. Eight plus two
equals ten which means 8+2=10.
c. powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative ease)
Example: The application of critical thinking and problem solving skill requires the comprehension,
analysis and reasoning to obtain the correct solution.

Writing Mathematical Language as an Expression or a Sentence

In mathematics, an expression or mathematical expression is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context. It is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used
to represent a mathematical object of interest. An expression does not state a complete thought; it does not make
sense to ask if an expression is true or false.

The most common expression types are numbers, sets, and functions. Numbers have lots of different
names; for example, the expression: 5 2+3 10/2 (6-2)+1 1+1+1+1+1, all look different,
but are all just different names for the same number. This simple idea – that numbers have lots of different names
– is extremely important in mathematics. The basic syntax for entering mathematical formulas or expressions in
the system enables you to quickly enter expressions using 2-D notation. The most common misktake is to forget
parenthesis”()”. For example, the expression: 1/(x+1) is different from 1/x+1 which the system interprets as (1/x)
+1.
Examples:
The use of expressions ranges from the simple:
8 x−5 ( linear polynomial )
3
7 x + 4 x−10 ( quadratic polynomial )
x−2
2
( rational fraction )
x +12

To the complex:
2π
1 dθ
∫
2 π 0 a+ b sin θ
 On the other hand, a mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. Sentence have verbs. In mathematical
sentence “3+4=7” the verb is ‘=’.

A sentence can be true, false or sometimes true / sometimes false. For example, the sentence ‘1+2=3’ is true.
The sentence ‘1+2=4’ is false.
The sentence ‘x=2’ is sometimes true / sometimes false: it is true when x is 2, and false otherwise. The
sentence ‘x+3 = 3+x’ is true, no matter what number is chosen for x.

Mathematical Convention
A mathematical convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage which is generally agreed upon by
mathematicians. For instance, the fact that one evaluates multiplication before addition in the expression
( 2+3 ) × 4 is merely conventional. There is nothing inherently significant about the order of operations.
Mathematicians abide by conventions in order to allow other mathematicians to understand what they write
without constantly having to redefine basic terms.

The following symbols are commonly used in the order of operations:

Symbol Meaning Example

+ Add 3+7=10
−¿ Subtract 5−2=3
× Multiply 4 ×3=12
÷ Divide 20 ÷ 5=4
/ Divide 20/5=4
π pi A=π r
2

∞ infinity ∞ is endless
= Equals 1+1=2
≈ approximately equal to π ≈ 3.14
≠ not equal to π ≠2
¿≤ less than, less than or equal to 2<3
¿≥ greater than, greater than or equal to 5>1
√ sqaure root (“radical”) √ 4=2
° degrees 20 °
∴ therefore a=b ∴ b=a

Perform Operations on Mathematical Expressions Correctly

In simplifying mathematical expressions, the following order of operations is one critical point to observe.
Order of operations is the heirarchy of mathematical operations. It is the set of rules that determines which
operations should be done before or after others. Before, we used to have the MDAS, that stands for
Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction. It was changed to ue PEMDAS which means Parentheses,
Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction. But now, most scientific calculators follow
BODMAS, that is Brackets, Order, Division and Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction.
The order of operations or BODMAS/PEMDAS is merely a set of rules that prioritize the sequence of
operations starting from the most important to the least important.
Step 1: Do as much as you can to simplify everything inside the Parenthesis first
Step 2: Simplify every Exponential number in the numerical expression
Step 3: Multiply and Divide whichever comes first, from left to right
Step 4: Add and Subtract whichever comes first, from left to right

Examples:
1. Evaluate: ( 11−5 ) ×2−3+ 1
Solution:
Remove the parenthesis: 6 ×2−3+1
Multiply: 12−3+ 1
Subtract: 9+1
 Add: 10

2. Evaluate: 10 ÷ 2+ 12÷ 2 ×3
Solution:
Using the PEMDAS rule, we need to evaluate the division and multiplication before subtraction and
addition. It is recommended that you put in parentheses to remind yourself the order of operation.
From the given, 10 ÷ 2+ 12÷ 2 ×3
¿ ( 10 ÷ 2 )+ ( 12÷ 2 ×3 )
¿ 5+18
¿ 23

3. Simplify 4−3 [ 4−2 ( 6−3 ) ] ÷ 2

Solution:
¿ 4−3 [ 4−2 ( 6−3 ) ] ÷ 2
¿ 4−3 [ 4−2 ( 3 ) ] ÷ 2
¿ 4−3 [ 4−6 ] ÷ 2
¿ 4−3 [ −2 ] ÷2
¿ 4 +6 ÷ 2
¿ 4 +3
¿7
2
4. Simplify 16−3 ( 8−3 ) ÷ 5.
2
Remember to simplify inside the parentheses before you square, because (8−3) is not the same as
2 2
8 −3 .
Solution:
2
¿ 16−3 ( 8−3 ) ÷ 5
2
¿ 16−3 (5 ) ÷ 5
¿ 16−3 ( 25 ) ÷ 5
¿ 16−75÷ 5
¿ 16−15
¿1

The Four Basic Concepts of Mathematics

1. Set
A set is a collection of well-defined objects that contains no duplicates. The objects in the set are called
the elements of the set. To describe a set, we use braces { }, and ue capital letters to represent it.
Examples: The following are examples of sets:
1. The books in the shelves in a library
2. The bank accounts in a bank
3. The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, …}.
4. The integer numbers Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
5. The rational numbers is the set of qoutients of integers Q={ p/q : p , q ∈ Z∧q=0}

The three dots in enumerating the elements of the set are called ellipsis and indicate a continuing
pattern. A finite set contains elements that can be counted and terminates at certain natural number, otherwise,
it is infinite set.
Examples:
Set A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
- the set of all even natural numbers less than or equal to 10. The order in which the elements
are listed is not relevant: i.e., the set {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} is the same as the set {8, 4, 2, 10, 6}.

There is exactly one set, the empty set or null set, ∅ ∨{}, which has no members at all. A set with only one
member is called a singleton or a singleton set.
Specification of Sets
There are three main ways to specify a set:
1. List Notation / Roster Method – by listing all its members
- list names of elements of a set, separate them by commas and enclose them in braces:
Examples: 1. {1, 12, 45}
2. {George, Washington, Bill Clinton}
3. {a, b, d, m}
4. “Three-dot abbreviation”: {1, 2, …, 100}

2. Predicate Notation / Rule Method / Set-Builder Notation – by stating a property of its elements. It has a
property that the members of the set share (a condition or a predicate which holds for members of this
set).
Examples: 1. {x / x is a natural number and x < 8} means “the set of all x such that x is a natural
number and less than 8”.
2. {x / x is a letter of Russian alphabet}
3. {y / y is a student of U Mass and y is older than 25}

3. Recursive Rules – by defining a set of rules which generates or defines its members.
Examples: 1. The set E of even numbers greater than 3:
a. 4 ∈ E
b. if x ∈ E , then x +2∈ E
c. nothing else belongs to E. les).
4. Equal Sets – two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements.
Examples: 1. {3, 8, 9} = {9, 8, 3}
2. {6, 7, 7, 7, 7} = {6, 7}
3. {1, 3, 5, 7} ≠ {3, 5}

5. Equivalent Sets – two sets are equivalent if they contain the same number of elements.
Examples: 1. Which of the following sets are equivalent?
{ θ , € , £ } , { ∞, ∟, ∩ } , { 1 , 4 , 3 } , { a , b , c } , { ♠ , ♡ , ♦ }
Solution: All of the given sets are equivalent. Note that no two of them are equal, but
they all have the same number of elements.

6. Universal Sets – A set that contains all the elements considered in a particular situation and denoted by
U.
Example: The universal set
a. Suppose we list the digits only.
Then, U ={ 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 , 8 , 9 } ,since U includes all the digits.
b. Suppose we consider the whole numbers.
Then U ={ 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 ,… } since U contains all whole numbers.

7. Subsets
A set A is called a subset of set B if every element of A is also an element of B .“ A is a subset of B is
written as A ⊆ B .
Example: Subsets
1. A={ 7 , 9 } is a subset of B= {6 ,9 , 7 }
2. D= {10 ,8 , 6 } is a subset of G= {10 , 8 , 6 }
A proper subset is a subset that is not equal to the original set, otherwise improper subset.
Example: Given {3, 5, 7} then the proper subset are { }, {5, 7}, {3, 5}, {3, 7}.
The improper subset is {3, 5, 7}.

8. Cardinality of the Set

It is the number of distinct elements belonging to a finite set. It is also called the cardinal number of the
set A denoted by n ( A ) or card ( A ) and | A|.
9. Power Set
It is the family of all the subsets of A denoted by Power ( A ) .
Given set A={ x , y } , the Power { A }={∅ , { x } , ( y ) , { x , y }∨{x∨x is a subset of A .
10. Operation on Sets
 Union is an operationd for sets A and B in which a set is formed that consists of all the elements included
in A or B or both denoted by ∪ as A ∪ B .
Examples:
1. Given U ={ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ,7 ,8 , 9 } , A={ 1, 3 , 5 ,7 } B={ 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 }∧C= {1 , 2 } ,find the
following:
a. A ∪ B b. A ∪ C c. ( A ∪ B ) ∪ { 8 }
Solution:
a. A ∪ B= {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 , 8 }
b. A ∪ C={ 1 ,2 , 3 , 5 ,7 }
c. ( A ∪ B ) ∪ { 8 }= {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 , 8 }

11. Intersection – is the set containing all elements common to both A and B, denoted by ∩.
Example: Given U ={ a , b , c ,d , e } , A={ c , d , e } , B= { a , c , e }∧C= {a }∧D= { e }
Find the following intersections of sets:
a. B∩ C b. A ∩C c. ( A ∩ B ) ∩ D
Solution:
a. B∩ C={ a } b. A ∩C=∅ c. A ∩ B= { c , e } , ( A ∩ B ) ∩ D= {e }

12. Complementation – is an operation on a set that must be performed in reference to a universal set,
denoted by A ' .
Example: Given U ={ a , b , c ,d , e } , A={ c , d , e } , Find A .
'

A ={a , b}
'
Solution:

2. Relation
A relation a rule that pairs each element in one set, called the domain, with one or more elements from a
second set called the range. It creates a set of ordered pairs.

Examples: 1. Given:
Regular Holidays in the Philippines Month and Date
1. New Year’s Day January 1
2. Labor Day May 1
3. Independence Day June 12
4. Bonifacio Day November 30
5. Rizal Day December 30

A clearer way to express a relation is to form a set of ordered pairs;

(New Year’s Day, January 1), (Labor Day, May 1), (Independence Day, June 12), (Bonifacio Day,
November 30), (Rizal Day, December 30). This set describes a Relation.

3. { {1, 4}, {4, 5} } is not a relation but just a set of ordered pairs.
4. {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)} is a relation. The domain of the relation is the set {1, 2, 3} and the range is {4, 5, 6}.

3. Function – is a rule that pairs each element in one set, called the domain, with exactly one element from a
second set, called the range. This means that for each first coordinate, there is exactly one second coordinate or
for every first element of x, there corresponds a unique second element y.
Remember: A one-to-one correspondence and many-to-one correspondence are called Functions while one-
to-many correspondence is not.
Example: The function can be represented using the following:
1. Table.
The perimeter of a square is four times the length of its side.

Side (S) 1 3 5 7 9
Perimeter (P) 4 12 20 28 36

2. Ordered Pairs
{(1, 4), (3, 12), (5, 20), (7, 28), (9, 36)}

3. Mapping

1 4
3 12
5 20
7 28
9 36
 Therefore, this is a function.

4. Graphing.
Using vertical line test, that is, a set of points in the plane is the graph of a function if and only if no
vertical line intersects the graph in more than one point. Below in figure A is not a function.

4. Binary Function
A binary operation on a set is a calculation involving two elements of the set to produce another element of
the set.
A new math (binary) operation, using the symbol *, is defined to be a * b = 3a + b, where a and b are real
numbers.
Examples:
1. What is 4 * 3?
Solution: 4 * 3 = 3(4) + 3 = 12 + 3 = 15
2. Is a * b commutative?
Solution: Verify if a * b = b * a .
3a + b = 3b +a? Not true for all real numbers.
If a = 4 and b = 2, then 3(4) + 2 = 3(2) + 4 is not true.
Therefore: the operation * is not commutative for all real numbers
3. Is a * b * c associative?
Solution: Verify if a * (b*c) = (a*b) * c
a * (3b+c) = (3a+b) + c
3a + (3b+c) = 3(3a+b) + c
If a = 2, b = 3, c = 4;
3(2) + (3(3)+4) ≠ 3 ( 3 ( 2 )+ 3 ) +4
6+13 ≠ 3 ( 9 ) + 4
19 ≠ 31
The operation * is not associative for real numbers.

Sometimes, a binary operation on a finite set (a set with a limited number of elements) is displayed in a
table which shows how the operation is to be performed. A binary operation, * is defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}.
The table below shows the 16 possible answers using this operation.

(To read the table: read the first value from the left hand column and the second value from the top row. The
answer is the intersection point).
* 1 2 3 4
1 4 3 2 1
2 3 1 4 2
3 2 4 1 3
4 1 2 3 4
Examples:
1. What is 2 * 2? Answer: 1
 2. Is 4 * 3 commutative? Answer: 4 * 3 = 3 and 3 * 4 = 3
3. What is the identity element for the operation * ? Answer: 4 (Find the single element that will always
return the original value. The idenitity element is 4. You will have found the identity element when all of the
values in its rows and its column are the same as the row and column headings).
4. Is associative for these values? 4∗( 3∗2 ) =( 4∗3 )∗2
4∗4=3∗2
4=4
Answer: Yes, it is associative for values 4, 3, and 2.

Elementary Logic
According to David W. Kueker (2009), logic is simply defined as the analysis of methods of reasoning. In
studying these methods, logic is interested in the form rather than the content of the argument. Mathematical
Logic is at least in its origins, the study of reasoning as used in mathematics. Mathematical reasoning is
deductive – that is , it consists of drawing conclusions from given hypotheses. Thus the basic concept is that of a
statement being a logical consequence of some other statements. In ordinary mathematical English the use of
“therefore” customarily indicates that the following statements is a consequence of what comes before.
Examples:
1. All men are mortal. Luke is a man. Hence, Luke is mortal.
2. All dogs like fish. Cyber is a dog. Hence, Cyber like fish.

Propositions and Connectives

A Propositions (or statement) is a sentence that is either true or false (without additional information).
The Logical connectives are defined by truth tables (but have English language counterparts).
Logic Math English
Conjunction ∧ and
Disjunction ∨ or (inclusive)
Negation not
Conditional ⇒ if…then…
Biconditional ⇔ if and only if

A denial is a statement equivalent to the negation of a statement.

Example:
1. The negation of P ⇒ Q is ( P ⇒ Q ) .
2. A denial of P ⇒ Q is P ∧ Q .
A tautology is a statement which is always true.
Examples:
1. A ∨ ( B ∧C ) ⇔ ( A ∨ B ) ∧ ( A ∨C ) Distributive Law
2. ( A ∨ B) ⇔ A ∧ B
3. P ⇔ ( P)

A contradiction is a statement which is always false.

Example:
1. ( A ∨ A)⇒( B ∧ B) a contradiction.
The contrapositive of the statement if P then Q is if Q then P . An implication and its contrapositive are
logically equivalent, so one can always be used in place of the other.

A predicate (open sentence) is a sentence containing one or more variables which becomes a
propositions upon replacement of the variables.
Example:
1. The integer x is even.
2. y = 5

3. Triangle ABC is isosceles.

However, a predicate is not a proposition. It does not have a truth value. One can however use quantifiers to
make propositions about predicates. For instance, the universal / general quantifier (∀) is used to say that a
given predicate is true for all possible values of its variables. This is a proposition, since it is either true or false.
Similarly, the existential quantifier (∃) is used to say that there is some value of the variables which makes the
predicate a true statement.
Example:
1. Let x be a real number. x 2−1=0 is not a proposition, it is a predicate.
2
2. “There exists an x so that x −1=0” is a proposition (true).
3. “For all x, x 2−1=0” is also a propositions (false).
4. These are written as:
( ∃ x ∈ R ) ( x 2−1=0 ) and ( ∀ x ∈ R ) ( x2−1=0 )
Assessment Tasks 1.
Identify the following questions. Write your answer in an UPPERCASE manner on a separate sheet of paper.

_____1. This system which used by mathematicians to communicate mathematical ideas among themselves.
_____2. Used to express formula or to represent a constant.
_____3. Make the expression well-formed to make the characters and symbols valid that do not violate rules.
_____4. It dictates the meaning of a mathematical concept.
_____5. A characteristics of language of mathematics able to make very fine distinctions.
_____6. A characteristics of language of mathematics able to say things briefly.
_____7. A characteristics of language of mathematics able to express complex thoughts with relative ease.
_____8. In mathematics, it is a finite combination of symbols that is well-formed according to rules that depend
on the context.
_____9. It is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought.
_____10. It is a fact, name, notation, or usage which is generally agreed upon by mathematicians.
_____11. A basic concepts of mathematics, which is a collection of well-defined objects that contains no
duplicate.
_____12. It is a three dots enumerating the elements of the set and indicate a continuing pattern.
_____13. A subset that is equal to the original set.
_____14. A subset that is not equal to the original set.
_____15. A set that contains all the elements considered in a particular situation and denoted by U .
_____16. A set with limited number of element.
_____17. A set with no limited number of element.
_____18. X on a set stands for?
_____19. Y on a set stands for?
_____20. A set that has no members at all.

Assessment Task 2.
Direction: Answer the following question. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1-4. MDAS stands for?

5-10. PEMDAS stands for?
11-16. BODMAS Stands for?
17-19. Characteristics of language of mathematics.
20-22. Ways to specify a set.
23-26. Basic concepts of Mathematics.
27-29. Most common types of mathematical expression.
30. He define logic is simply defined as the analysis of methods of reasoning.