UNIT 5

ADVANCED WASTE WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

SAND,COALAND ACTIVATED CARBON FILTERS

SAND FILTRATION

The process of passing the water through the beds of granular materials (filters)
known as filtration.

Purpose of filtration :

(i) To remove very fine suspended and colloidal particles that do not settle in th
sedimentation process.

(ii) To remove dissolved impurities in water.

(iii) To remove pathogenic bacteria from water.on (iv) To remove colour, odour,
turbidity in water.

Types of filters:

(i) Slow sand filters

(ii) Rapid sand filters

(iii) Pressure filter

Theory of filtration:

During filtration, the following actions take place:

(i) Mechanical straining

(ii) Sedimentation

(iii) Biological action

(iv) Electrolytic action

(i) Mechanical straining (for coarser particles)

When water passes through the filter media (sand), the suspended particles larger
than the pore-space of the filter media get trapped and removed. The trapped
particles form a mat on the filter media and help in straining more impurities.

(ii) Sedimentation (for finer particles)

The voids of the filter media acts as small sedimentation tanks and fine particles
giare removed by settling.

(iii) Biological action

Certain microorganisms and bacteria present in the voids of filters form coatings
over the sand grains. These organisms utilize the organic impurities in water as
their food and convert them into harmless compounds by biological metabolism.
They form a layer on the filter media called "schmutzdecke or dirty skin". This
layer further helps in absorbing and straining out the impurities in water

.(iv) Electrolytic changes (Ionisation)

The sand grains of filter media and impurities in water are oppositely charged.
When the impurities come in contact with the sand grains, their charges get
neutralised and changes the characteristics of water making it purer. After certain
period of time, the charge of sand grains gets exhausted and should be restored
by ge of s din cleaning the filters.

Filter Media:

Sand (fine or coarse) is generally used as filter media and supported on gravel.

(i) Sand:

The properties of filter sand are :

• It should be obtained from hard and resistant quartz or quartzite.

• Free from dirt and other impurities.

• It should not loose more than 5% of its weight when placed in hydrochloric acid
(HCI) for 24 hrs.

• Specific gravity = 2.55 to 2.65

• Effective size (a) 0.2 to 0.4 mm - slow sand filters.

(b) 0.35 to 0.55 mm – rapid sand filters..

• Uniformity co-efficient

(a) 1.8 to 2.5 - slow sand filters

(b) 1.3 to 1.7 - rapid sand filters

The uniformity characteristics of sand are expressed in terms of

(a) effective size (b) Uniformity coefficient.

Effective size or diameter (D10) represents a size of sieve in mm, throuth which
10% of the particles will pass i.e.,are finer than this size. Similarly, D 60 size
represent a size such that 60% particles are finer than it.

Uniformity coefficient (Cu) is a measure of the particle range i.e. variations in

size of particles.

(ii) Anthracite - Crushed anthracite can be used as filter media separately or

combined with sand (mixed media). It is costly than sand.

(iii) Garnet sand - It has high specific gravity (4.2) and is a dense material. Due
to high cost, it cannot be used as a sole filter material. However, it can be used in
mixed-media 30 so filter.

iv) Other materials - Locally available materials such as shredded coconut

husks, burned rice husks, crushed glass, slag, metallic ores etc. can be used as
filter material.

Slow Sand Filters (SSF)

The efficiency of slow sand filters is high and they can remove larger percentage
of cy of slow and filterich 000 oval base to siziano T suspended impurities and
becteria. The efficiency of bacteria removal is 98 to 99%.
These filters can also remove odours and tastes caused by organic impurities
(algae and plankton). They are less efficient in removing colour and can remove
turbidity only upto 50mg/1.

They are not suitable for sedimented waters with high turbidity.

The rate of filtration is less (i.e. 100 to 200 litres per hour per to rapid sand filters.

They also require large area of land and are costly to install.

Their use has therefore decreased and are preferred only in smaller water
treatment

Construction of Slow Sand filters

A slow sand filter consists of the following parts:

(i) Enclosure tank

It is an open basin, rectangular and built below ground level. The water-tight tank
is constructed of stone/brick masonry with coating of water proof material. The
floor has bed slope -1 in 100 to 1 in 200 towards the central drains. Surface area
of tank varies between 50 m2 to 1000 m2. Rate of filtration is - 100 to 200 litres
of water per square meter. Depth of tank varies between - 2.5 to 4 m.

(ii) Filter media

It consists of Sand layer, 90 to 110 cm thick placed over gravel.

Effective size - 0.2 to 0.35

Uniformity coefficient - 2 to 3

Sand is placed in layers of 15cm, with finer sand on the top layer and coarser sand

(iii) Base material (Gravel)

The base material is gravel, which supports the sand. It consists of 30 to 75cm
thick gravels placed in three to four layers, each of 15 to 20 cm depth. The coarser
gravel in the bottom layer and finest gravel in the topmost layer. The gravel size
in different layers is given below:

Top 15 cm layer – Gravel size 3 to 6 mm

Intermediate layers - 6 to 20 mm / 20 to 40 mm

Bottom most 15 cm layer - Gravel size 40 to 65 mm

(iv) Under-drainage system

Filter media (sand) and base material (gravel) are laid over the under-drainage
system. It consists of a central drain and lateral drains. Laterals are open jointed
pipe or porous drains placed at 3 to 5m spacing on the bottom floor and sloping
towards the central drain. Filtered water is collected by the laterals and discharged
into the central main drain and then to the filtered water well.

(v) Inlet and Outlet arrangements

An inlet chamber admits water from the plain sedimentation tank and distributes
over the filter media.
A filtered water well on the outlet side, collects the filtered water coming out
from the main drain.

An adjustable telescopic tube in the outlet chamber maintains constant discharge

through the filter.

Inlets and outlets are controlled by automatic valves.

(vi) Other appurtenances

* Vertical air pipe – is provided passing through the sand layers for proper
functioning loving 192 of filtering layers. O

* Arrangements to control depth of water above sand layer (1 to 1.5m)

A meter is used to measure the flow and a gauge to measure the loss of head.

Operation and cleaning of Slow Sand Filters.

The treated water from the sedimentation tank is allowed to enter the inlet
chamber of the slow sand filter and get distibuted uniformly over the filter bed.
The water percolates through the filter media and gets purified during filtration.
The water then enters the gravel layers and comes out as filtered water. It gets
collected in the laterals (porous pipes), which discharges into the central main
underdrain and finally into the 'filtered water well'. The filtered water is then
taken to storage tanks for supply and distribution. The rate of filtration is kept
constant by the telescopic tube.

The water entering the slow sand filter should not be treated by coagulants,
because it may affect the formation of 'dirty skin or Schmutzdecke layer' and the
functioning of the filter.

The depth of water above the sand layer should be kept equal to the depth of filter
sand.

The loss of head called filter head or filtering head is limited to a maximum value
of 0.7 to 1.2m. It is the difference of water levels between the filter tank and
filtered water well. It is the resistance offered by the sand grains to the flow of
water. For a freshly cleaned filter unit, the resistance offered is less, loss of head
or filter head is small, say 10 to 15 cm. But as filtration continues, due to clogging
of filter bed, the head loss will go on increasing. When this head loss becomes
high i.e. 0.7 to 1.2m, the filter unit must be cleaned.

The cleaning of slow sand filters is done by scrapping and removing the 1.5 to
3cm of top sand layer. The top surface is finally raked, roughened, cleaned and
washed with good water. The amount of wash water required is 0.2 to 0.6 percent
of the total water filtered. Cleaning is repeated until the sand depth is reduced to
40cm. Then new sand is added. Though the quantity of wash water required is
less, cleaning involves lot of manual labour.

Slow sand filters work on the principles of mechanical straining and

microbiological action. A surface coating is formed over the filter media by sticky
deposits of partly decomposed organic matter. This layer is called 'Schmutzdecke'
or dirty skin. This layer being sticky absorb more impurities on it which is
decomposed by the micro organisms present in it. The layer increases in thickness
as the filtration continues.

After 2-3 weeks of starting the operation of filters, the uppermost layer of sand
will be coated with a thick film of algae, bacteria, protozoa, suspended particles
and organic matter. The efficiency of the filtration process depends on the
formation of 'Schmutdecke layer'. The bacteria in the layer breaks down the
organic matter into simple unobjectionable compounts.

Efficiency and Performance of Slow Sand Filters

The rate of filtration is 100 to 200 litres per hour per m2 of filter area.

They are highly efficient in removing suspended solids and bacteria. The bacteria
removal is 98 to 99%.

They also remove odours and tastes due to organic impurities (algae and
plankton.)

• They are less efficient in removing colour of raw waters.

• They can remove turbidities only upto 50 mg/l. They are not suitable for highly
201 abnU turbid waters.

• They are suitable for small treatment plants for purifying water with low
colours, low turbidities and low bacteria.
• Because of the slow rate of filtration, they require large area.

• They are costly and uneconomical for large WTPs.

Guidelines for Design of Slow Sand Filters :

The Manual on Water Supply and Treatment prepared by CPHEEO (Central

Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation) gives the following
guidelines :-

Description Recommended design value

Hence, use 6 filter units with one unit as standby, each unit of size 36 m x 18 m,
arranged in series with 3 units on either side.

Rapid Sand Filter

Rapid Sand Filter: Gravity Type

Rapid sand filters are of two types:

(i) Gravity type - It uses larger and coarser sand as filter media to increase the rate
of filtration.

(ii) Pressure type - Water is filtered under pressure, thereby increasing the rate of
filtration.

A gravity type rapid sand filter consists of the following parts:

1. Enclosure Tank:- It is smaller in size, generally rectangular in shape,

constructed 3.5m. Surface area of each unit is 20 to 50 m2 and are arranged in
series. The L/B ratio is 1.25 to 1.35. RCC or CI troughs are provided in the tank
to distribute water during operation and for collection of wash water during
cleaning (backwashing) m.pables

2. Filter Media (Sand) : Sand should be free from dirt, organic and suspended
matters Hard and resistant preferably quartzite; depth of sand 0.6 to 0.9m;
Effective size 0.35 to 0.6mm; Uniformity coefficient 1.2 to 1.7. Due to increased
effective size and decreased uniformity coefficient, the void space is more which
increases the rat of filtration.

3. Base Material (Gravel): The sand media is supported on graded gravel layers
Gravel should be free from clay, dirt and organic matter and should be hard,
durabl not and round. Its depth is 45 to 60 cm and normally laid in layers:

4. Underdrainage system: It serves two purposes

(i) Collects the filtered water

(ii) Distribute wash water uniformly upward during cleaning (backwashing)

The under drainage system consists of manifold and laterals. The manifold is a
40cm diameter pipe running lengthwise at the centre of the floor bottom. Laterals
are 10 cm dia pipes that take off from the manifold in both direction at right angles
at 15 to 30 cm spacing. There are two types of manifold and lateral systems:

(i) Perforated pipe type: In this, the lateral drains are provided with holes at
bottom side.

(ii) Pipe and Strainer type: In this, strainess are placed on laterals. A strainer is a
small brass pipe closed at its top by a perforated cap.

The following rules are followed in the design of under drainage system :

a) The total cross-sectional area of perforations = 0.2 percent of total filter area.

(b) The cross-sectional area of each lateral = 2 to 4 times total cross-sectional

(c) The cross-sectional area of the manifold = twice the cross-sectional area of
the lateral drains.

5. Other Appurtenances

(i) Wash water troughs: They are provided at the top of filter to collect the
backwash water and to drain it into gutters. They are CI or RCC troughs of square,
V-shaped or semi-circular provided across the width or length of tank at a spacing
of 1.5 to 2m. The bottom of the trough is kept atleast 5cm above the top level of
sand.

Size of the trough can be found by using the following expression:

Q = 1.376 by3/2

where,

Q = total water received by the trough, in m3/s

b = width of trough, in m

y = depth of water at the upper end of trough, in m.

(ii) Air compressors: They supply air for the agitation of sand grains during
backwashing. The wash air storage tank should hold atleast double the capacity
of air required to wash one filter. The compressed air is supplied at the rate 0.6 to
0.8 cubic metre per minute per m2 of filter area for 5 minutes.

(iii) Rate control device: Flow of influent, effluent, wash water supply and wash
water waste must be controlled. A constant rate of filtration is maintained
irrespective of the head loss by using rate controllers (venturi type). Otherwise
sudden change in the rate of filtration could damage the sand filter bed.

Working and washing of Rapid Sand Filters :

The working of rapid sand filter is controlled by 6 valves:

Valve A : Inlet/ Influent valve through which water from coagulation-

clarification basin enters the filter unit.

Valve B: Filtered water storage tank valve.

Valve C: Waste water valve to drain water from main drain.

Valve D: Waste water valve to drain water from inlet chambers

alve E: Wash water storage tank valve

(i) During Normal Working condition:

All valves are closed except A and B, which are kept opened.

Valve A: To permit water from coagulation-sedimenation basin to inlet chamber.

Valve B: To carry filtered water to filtered water storage tank. 2 m head of water
is maintained above the sand bed.
Filtration rate is 3000 to 6000 litres/hr/m2 of filter area

(ii) During Backwashing :

The Loss of head initially in a clean filter bed is usually 15 to 30 cm.

As filtration continues, impurities are trapped in the filter media and it provides
greater resistance to the flow of water, due to which the head loss goes on
increasing.

The permissible head loss in rapid sand filter is 2.5 to 3.5m.

When head loss increases beyond permissible value, the filter bed requires
cleaning, which is done between 2 to 4 days interval.

During backwashing, high velocity air and water is made to flow upwards either
in combination or first compressed air followed by wash water.

The following sequence of operations is followed :

Close influent Valve A - Allow the filter to operate till the water level falls to the
edge of troughs or 15 cm from top of sand.

Close effluent valve B. Open air valve F - Air is blown at a rate of 1 to 1.5 m3 of
air/min/ m2 of filter area for 2 to 3 minutes which loosens the scum/ dirt.

Close air valve F.

Open wash water valve E - and waste water valve D-Wash water jets flow
upwards (and the waste water from backwashing is drained into

Cleaning is continued till the wash appears clear.

Close wash water valve E. Close waste water valve D.

Allow the solids to settle and form sticky layer on filter media.

Open valve C leading filtered water to wash water drain for few minutes.

Close valve C.

Open valve B - Normal filtration operation is continued.

• The permissible filter bed expansion during backwashing is 25 to 50% of its
depth.

• Rate of application of wash water is 600 litres per sq. m. of filter area.

The rapid sand filters get clogged very frequently and have to be washed every
24 to 48 hours. Normally 10 to 30 minutes is required for backwashing.

DESIGN OF RAPID SAND FILTERS

Problem 2.4:

Design a set of rapid gravity filters for treating water required for a population of
50,000; the rate of supply being 180 litres per day per person. The filters are rated
to work 5000 litres per hour per sq.m. Assume whatever data are necessary.

Solution:
Hence, two units of size 10 m x 6.75 m are provided with one additional unit as
stand-by.

Problem 2.5:

Design a rapid sand filter for 4 MLD of supply with all its principal components.

Solution:

Water required per day = 4 million litres

Assuming 4% of filtered water is used for backwashing

Total filtered water required per day

= 1.04 x 4 ML = 4.16 MLD

Assuming 0.5 hr (30 min) is lost in backwashing everyday

Filtered water required per hour = 4.16/23.5ML/hr (operation time is 23.5 hours)

= 0.177 ML/hr

Assuming rate of filtration = 5000 l/hr/sq.m.

0.177×106

Area of filter required = 0.177 x 106/5000

1/hr / 1/hr/m2 = 35.4m2

Sbie Todtio no almstel 28

Assuming that 2 units are provided

Area of each unit =35.4./ 17.7m2

Assuming = L/B =1.5

Area = L x B = 17.7 m2

(1.5B)B = 17.7

B = 3.43 m/L = 1.5 x 3.43 = 5.14m

Hence, adopt 2 filter units with dimensions

5.2 m x 3.4m

Design of under-drainage system (Manifold and Lateral system)

Total area of perforations = 0.2% of total filter area

(assuming 13 mm dia)

= 0.2 /100 x (5.2×3.4)

= 0.035 m2

Total area of laterals = 2 x total area of perforations

= 2 x 0.035 = 0.070 m2

Area of manifold = 2 x area of laterals

= 2 x 0.07 = 0.14 m2

Diameter of manifold (circular pipe) π/4 I d2 = 0.14 m2

Use 45 cm dia manifold pipe laid lengthwise along the centre of filter bottom.
Laterals are laid perpendicular to manifold width-wise at spacing of 15 cm.
ACTIVATED CARBON FILTER
Activated carbon filtration is one of the procedures frequently used in water
purification. Since, it can also remove odour-causing contaminants it is frequently
used to make drinking water more pleasant, to consume. In this article, we will
explain the working of activated carbon filters and its various uses.
Filtration and its evolution
For thousands of years, people have used filtration to remove rust,
suspended particles, and other impurities from water. This is accomplished by
putting the contaminated influent (input water) through a filtration medium. The
filter media substance traps the impurities as the water flows through it.
Several different physical and chemical mechanisms are involved in removing
impurities from the water, depending on the impurities and the media. Some of
the equipment’s used for these processes have undergone significant changes
over time. Our understanding of the basic physical and chemical processes
involved in filtering has also improved. These developments have made it
possible for experts in water purification, to maximise the removal of impurities
from the water.

ACTIVATED CARBON FOR WATER PURIFICATION

 As we are aware that because of the huge surface area of the filter media,
filtration systems not only remove particulate matter but can also be used to
trigger chemical reactions, which remove a variety of contaminants.
Activated carbon or AC is a carbonaceous adsorbent with higher internal
permeability, and an internal surface area. The interior surface area of commercial
activated carbon grades ranges from 500 to 1500 m2/g.
There are three main categories of activated carbon that are used for water
purification:
· Particle sizes of activated carbon powder which range from 1 to 150 m.
· 0.5 to 4 mm-sized granular activated carbon particles.
· Activated carbon extruded with 0.8–4 mm-sized particles.

The right activated carbon has several distinctive qualities, including an

internal surface area, specific (surface) chemical properties, and excellent
accessibility of internal pores. The best fit relies on the molecules to be trapped,
the phase (gas, liquid), and the treatment conditions. The pore size distribution is
also crucial for practical application. Therefore, combining the appropriate raw
material and activation circumstances, results in the desired pore structure of an
activated carbon product.

Working principle of activated carbon

One of the most commonly used but least understood words in filtration
discussions is "adsorption." Adsorption is the process by which a contaminant
is transferred from a liquid to the surface of a solid. When adsorption takes place,
a water-born, floating particle sticks to a solid surface.
 Atoms, electrons, or molecules from a gas, liquid, or solid adhere to a
surface through a process known as adsorption. When it comes to water filtering,
the liquid's suspended solid particles will stick to the media's solid surface.
In most cases, activated carbon works by adsorbing impurities from
liquids, gases, or vapours. It is crucial to match the pore size of the activated
carbon media with the molecules and particles you are trying to adsorb, because
this happens in pores that are just a little bit larger than the molecules that are
being adsorbed.
Working of activated carbon in water purification systems
Anthracite or bituminous coal and coconut shells are biological sources of
activated carbon. When an organic source is burned without air, carbon is
produced. Only about 30% of the organic mass remains after this procedure, and
this eliminate heavy organic molecules.
The organic material must then be "activated" before it can be used to treat
water. The carbon's enormous numbers of pores are opened up during activation,
which also further chases away undesirable molecules. The open pores are what
enable the carbon to capture contaminants.

Methods of activated carbon activation

Two primary triggering techniques exist:
1: Steam activation method
It is done using steam at temperature between 800 and 1000 degrees Celsius. The
carbonised material gasifies instantly at these temps due to the Water-Gas
reaction. The vapours are then burned off without burning the carbon with the
addition of air.
This procedure yields activated carbon that has been evaluated, screened, and
dusted. The small pore structure of carbon that has been activated by steam,
makes it perfect for adsorbing both liquid phase and vapour phase substances.
2: Chemical activation method
With chemical activation, a strong dehydrating agent is first added to the carbon,
usually in the shape of phosphoric acid (P2O5) or zinc chloride paste (ZnCl2). The
carbon is activated by heating the mixture to a range of 500°C and 800°C.
The wide pore structure of activated carbon that results from chemical activation,
makes it better suited, for adsorbing large molecules.
Uses of activated carbon in water purification
There are essentially two uses for activated carbon water purification, and each
one operates in a completely unique manner.
1. Chlorine removal: It can be accomplished using activated carbon with less
deterioration or harm to the carbon. Rapid de-chlorination and high flow rates are
common.
However, a large quantity of surface area is needed for this process, and
eventually water organics will fill up and block the carbon's pores.
2. Organic matter: These are removed by the "adsorption" process, which traps
particles and compounds inside an activated carbon filter as water flows through
it.
Factors which affect adsorption process in the purification of water
The following crucial variables affect the adsorption process:
1) The surface area and pore size distribution of the activated carbon;
2) The amount of hydrogen and oxygen in the carbon source;
3) The chemical composition and concentration of the contaminant;
4) The pH and temperature of the water; and
5) The amount of time the water is exposed to the activated carbon filter (called
empty bed contact time or EBCT)

Applications of activated carbon filter (ACF)

Activated carbon filters have a wide range of uses. Some of them are mentioned
below:
· Free elimination of chlorine
· Removing organic matter
· Odour elimination
· Removing bromate (After Ozonation of SWRO Permeate)
· Color removal from Sugar dissolving (White Sugar Manufacturing)
· Molasses coloration removal
Features of activated carbon filter
· The filter is made up of different types of carbon granules that are held in
place by gravel, pebbles, and sand.
· Depending on the sort of treatment needed, different grades of carbon are
used.
· The best iodine value for efficient contamination elimination can be found
in activated carbon.
· Long-lasting activated carbon for dechlorination, organic contaminant
elimination, and colour removal with a 900 Iodine value.
· Offers consistently high-quality purified water.
· Pressure containers made of non-corrosive FRP and have UPVC front
piping.
· Designed to operate between 3.5 and 5.0 kg/cm2 of pressure with a
minimum input TSS of 5 ppm.