Loads

Concept of MW, MWh, Units, Million Units (MU)

Structure of Power System
Power Generation
Concept of Frequency
Prime movers and Generators
Salient Pole and Cylindrical type Alternators
Sources of Energy
 How can we keep providing humankind with energy-derived advantages without
damaging the environment, affecting societal stability or threatening the wellbeing of
future generation?
 Sustainable energy can be thought of as a living harmony between the equitable
availability of energy sources to all people and the preservation of earth for future
generations.
 Electricity is an intermediate energy product that is made from primary energy sources.
Power is the rate of energy exchange between two systems.
 The various sources of energy in the Zambia context are as follows. As is obvious, the
major source of generation is Hydro based thermal power plant. Thermal, nuclear and
hydro powers are known as conventional energy sources which is the subject matter of
this course.

Hydro Power Potential

 P = g*ρ*Q*H
Where; P = Power available in water
g = 9.81 m/s2
Q = flow or discharge (m3/s)
H = Height of fall of water or head (m)
P = 9.81*1000*Q*H*10-3 kW = 9.81 QH kW
P= 9.81 QHη kW where η = efficiency of the turbine-generator assembly
 Rain falling on earth’s surface has potential energy relative to oceans.
 This energy is converted to shaft work when the water falls through a vertical distance.
  This shaft work is used to drive water turbines to generate electricity.

Hydrology
 First requirement – Q (discharge)
 Hydrology deals with occurrence and distribution of water over and under earth’s
surface.
 Surface Water Hydrology
 Ground Water Hydrology
 Watershed, catchment area or drainage area: length of the river, size and shape of the
area it affects, tributaries, lakes, reservoirs etc.
 Investigation of run-off for past few years is required for power potential studies of a
HPP.

Objectives of Hydrology
 To obtain data regarding the stream flow of water that would be available,
 To predict the yearly possible flow
 To calculate the mean annual rainfall in the area under consideration from a record of the
annual rainfall for a number of years, say 25 to 30
 To note the frequency of dry years
 To find maximum rainfall and flood frequency
Various terms related to Hydrology
 Rainfall is also known as precipitation and can be measured by rain gauges.
 Some part of precipitation is lost due to evaporation, interception and transpiration.
 Transpiration: Plants absorbing moisture and giving it off to the atmosphere
 Stream flow = precipitation – losses
 Stream flow = surface flow + percolation to ground
 Surface flow is also known as run-off.
 Hydrograph:
 shows the variation of stream flow in m3 / s with time for a particular river site.
The time may be hour, week, month or a year.
 The area under hydrograph gives the total volume of flow
  Flow duration curve:
 shows the percentage of time during the period when the flow was equal to
greater than the given flow.
 The area under FDC gives the total quantity of run-off during a period
 Mass curve
 indicates the total volume of run-off in cubic meters up to a certain time.
 the slope of the curve at any point shows the rate of flow at that time
 Used for estimating the capacity of storage reservoir
 Storage:
 to ensure water availability during deficient flow and thus increasing the firm
capacity
 Storage also results in more energy production
 Pondage:
 Storing water in small ponds near the power plant as the storage reservoir is
away from plant
 To meet the power demand fluctuations over a short period of time e.g. 24 hours
 Primary Power: power that will be available 90 % of the time
 Secondary Power: power that will be available 75 % of the time
 Dump Power: power that will be available 50 % of the time.
 Maximum flow estimation: gives estimation of floods and helps in design of dam and
spillway.

Site Selection for Hydropower Plants

 Availability of Water: Run-off data for many years available
 Water Storage: for water availability throughout the year
 Head of Water: most economic head, possibility of constructing a dam to get required
head
 Geological Investigations: strong foundation, earthquake frequency is less
 Water Pollution: excessive corrosion and damage to metallic structures
 Sedimentation: capacity reduces due to gradual deposition of silt
 Social and Environmental Effects: submergence of areas, effect on biodiversity,
cultural and historic aspects
 Access to Site: for transportation of construction material and heavy machinery new
railway lines or roads may be needed
 Multipurpose: power generation, irrigation, flood control, navigation, recreation;
because initial cost of power plant is high because of civil engineering construction work.

Types of Dams

Figure 1: Earth and Rockfill Dam

 Figure 2: Arc Dam

Figure 3: Arc Gravity Dam

Classification of Hydropower Plants
 According to water flow regulation:
 Runoff river plants without pondage
 Runoff river plants with pondage
 Hydroelectric plants with storage reservoir
 According to Load:
 Base load plants
 Peak load plants
 Pumped storage plants
 According to head:
 High head plants (>100m)
 Medium head plants (30-100 m)
 Low head plants (<30 m)

Components of a HPP

Figure 4: Schematic of a Hydropower Plant

 The various components of HPP are as follows:
 Catchment area
 Reservoir
 Dam
 Spillways
 Conduits
 Surge tanks
 Draft tubes
 Power house
 Switchyard for power evacuation
 Dam
 Develops a reservoir to store water
 Builds up head for power generation
 Spillway
 To safeguard the dam when water level in the reservoir rises.
 Intake
 Contains trash racks to filter out debris which may damage the turbine
 Forebay
 Enlarged body of water just above the intake

Figure 5: Forebay
 Conduits
 Headrace is a channel which lead the water to the turbine
 Tailrace is a channel which carries water from the turbine
 A canal is an open waterway excavated in natural ground following its contour.
 A flume is an open channel erected on a surface above ground.
 A tunnel is a closed channel excavated through an obstruction.
 A pipeline is a closed conduit supported on the ground.
 Penstocks are closed conduits for supplying water “under pressure” from head pond
to the turbines.

Figure 6: Forebay with Penstock

 Figure 7: Penstocks
 Surge Tank
 A surge tank is a small reservoir in which the water level rises or falls to reduce
the pressure swings so that they are not transmitted to the penstock.
 Water Hammer
o Load on the turbine is suddenly reduced
o Governor closes turbine gates
o Sudden increase of pressure in the penstock
 Negative Pressure
o Load on the generator is suddenly increased
o Governor opens the turbine gates
o Tends to cause a vacuum in the penstock
 When the gates are closed, water level rises in the surge tank and when the gates
are suddenly opened, surge tank provides the initial water supply.
 Figure 8: Surge Tank
 The function of the draft tube is to
 To reduce the velocity head losses of the water
 To allow the turbine to be set above the tailrace to facilitate inspection and
maintenance

Figure 9: Elbow Type Draft Tube

Figure 10: Straight conical type draft tubes

 Scroll Casing:
Takes the water from penstock to turbine blades

Figure 11: Scroll Casing

 Tailrace:
 A tailrace is required to discharge the water leaving the turbine into the river.
 The design of the tail race should be such that water has a free exit.
 Figure 12: Tail race
 Power House
 Hydraulic turbines
 Electric generators
 Governors
 Gate valves
 Relief valves
 Water circulation pumps
 Air ducts
 Switch board and instruments
 Storage batteries
 Cranes
 Switchyard
 Step up transformers
  Instrument transformers
 Transmission lines

Figure 13: A switchyard under construction

Hydraulic Turbines
Types of Hydraulic Turbines
 According to the head and quantity of water available
 Low head (2-15m)
 Medium head (16-70m)
 High head (71-500m)
 Very high head (>500m)
 According to the name of the originator
 Francis
 Kaplan
 Pelton
  According to the nature of working of water on blades

Table 2: Impulse and Reaction Turbines

Impulse Reaction
Available head of water converted into kinetic Flow of water takes place in a closed conduit
energy in a nozzle system
The free jet strikes a bucket which revolves Part of P.E. is converted into K.E. and part into
around a shaft pressure energy
Turbines are above ground Water flows in a closed conduit system and
turbines are submerged in water
After energy production, water falls freely Water falls through a draft tube
through the passage into tail race

 According to the direction of flow of water

 Radial
 Axial
 Tangential (Deriaz)
 According to the axis of the turbine shaft: vertical, horizontal

Comparison of Turbines
Table 3: Comparison of Turbines
Figure 14: Kaplan Turbine
 Figure 15: Kaplan Turbine

Figure 16: Francis Runner

Figure 17: Francis Runner
Figure 18: Francis Runner
Figure 19: Francis Runner
Figure 21: Pelton Turbine
Specific Speed (Ns)