materials

Article
Measurement Methods of the Thermal Resistance of Materials
Used in Clothing
Dubravko Rogale 1 , Snježana Firšt Rogale 1, * , Željko Knezić 2 , Nikolina Jukl 1 and Goran Majstorović 3

1 Department of Clothing Technology, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology,

10000 Zagreb, Croatia; dubravko.rogale@ttf.unizg.hr (D.R.); nikolina.jukl@ttf.unizg.hr (N.J.)
2 Department of Textile Design and Management, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology,
10000 Zagreb, Croatia; zeljko.knezic@ttf.unizg.hr
3 Department of Physics and Materials, Faculty of Technical Sciences Čačak, University of Kragujevac,
32102 Čačak, Serbia; goran.majstorovic@ftn.kg.ac.rs
* Correspondence: sfrogale@ttf.unizg.hr

Abstract: This paper describes methods for evaluating the thermal properties of textile materials,
clothing composites, and clothing using an integrated measurement system that includes a hot plate,
a multi-purpose differential conductometer, a thermal manikin, a temperature gradient measurement
device, and a device for measuring the physiological parameters of the human body during the
exact evaluation of garment thermal comfort. In practice, measurements were taken on four types of
materials widely used in the production of conventional and protective clothing. The measurements
were carried out using a hot plate and a multi-purpose differential conductometer, determining the
thermal resistance of the material both in its uncompressed form and when a force was applied
that was ten times greater than that needed to determine its thickness. Using a hot plate and a
multi-purpose differential conductometer, thermal resistances of textile materials were assessed at
different levels of material compression. On hot plates, both conduction and convection had an impact
on thermal resistance, but in the multi-purpose differential conductometer, only conduction did.
Moreover, a reduction in thermal resistance was observed as a result of compressing textile materials.

Keywords: textiles; clothing; thermal resistance; hot plate; multi-purpose differential conductometer
Citation: Rogale, D.; Firšt Rogale, S.;
Knezić, Ž.; Jukl, N.; Majstorović, G.
Measurement Methods of the
Thermal Resistance of Materials Used 1. Introduction
in Clothing. Materials 2023, 16, 3842. Advances in measurement methods and devices for measuring thermal resistance
https://doi.org/10.3390/ through textile materials, garment composites and clothing have occurred in clothing
ma16103842 engineering [1,2]. Thermal resistance is determined by experimental measurements and
Academic Editor: Barbara Simončič theoretical discussions. Both techniques highlight the exceptionally high complexity of
thermal transmittance of textile materials since textile materials are exceedingly inhomo-
Received: 4 May 2023 geneous materials beginning with non-uniform diameters and densities of textile fibres,
Revised: 14 May 2023
spinning of fibres into yarns that are likewise inhomogeneous. Yarns are used to make
Accepted: 16 May 2023
textile fabrics (woven and knitted fabrics) of various constructions and homogeneities.
Published: 19 May 2023
In clothing factories producing conventional and protective clothing to protect against
very high or low temperatures (for the army, police, mountain rescue, postal service, fire
department, etc.), testing the thermal properties of the incorporated materials is still rare,
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
despite this being critical to the realization of clothing with specific thermal characteris-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. tics [3–7].
This article is an open access article Most authors agree that thermal properties are most affected by entrapped air in fibres
distributed under the terms and and yarns or by contained air in woven and knitted fabrics. Air gaps or air layers have been
conditions of the Creative Commons observed in clothing composites, as well as larger gaps and air layers in clothing, which
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// significantly affect thermal properties [8–10].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Thus, according to Wilson et al. [11], research and content are related to (I) air contained
4.0/). in fabrics, air layers between fabric layers and air layers between fabric layers and the body,

Materials 2023, 16, 3842. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16103842 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 3842 2 of 18

(II) garment shapes and the presence and influence of different fasteners and openings, and
(III) the effects of wind and body movements of the wearer. In addition to these factors,
the impact of body posture and airflow within the garment’s microclimate, as well as air
exchange between the garment’s microclimate and the ambient air, will be investigated.
The indicators for changes in thermal resistance are limited to the change in airflow in
the microclimate of the garment or the change in energy required to keep the hot plate or
thermal manikin at a constant temperature.
Woven and knitted fabrics that are essentially two-dimensional are transformed into
3D clothing by constructing and then assembling garments. In addition to measuring size
and appearance, the thermal insulation properties of finished garments are also evaluated
in terms of thermal resistance. The size and shape of the air layers, as well as their impact
on thermal resistance, vary depending on factors such as the physical properties of the
textile fabric, the clothing configuration such as body posture and the degree of coverage
of the human body with clothing, wearer activity, and environmental conditions.
This review is divided into three major sections: (I) papers dealing with air in tex-
tile fabrics, between layers of integrated textile materials, between layers of integrated
textile materials and the human body, and with the airflow in the microclimate of the
garment relative to the ambient air [8–10]; (II) published research on clothing design issues,
including body posture, clothing fit, and the availability and effectiveness of clothing
fasteners and openings [12–16]; (III) influence of air flow (wind) in the environment on
body movements [17,18].
All types of textile yarns and textile fabrics contain textile fibres and air entrapped
within them, with the fibres being dominant in terms of mass and visibility and the air
being dominant in terms of volume. For instance, the percentage of air in woven textile
materials ranges from 60% to 90%, that in knitted fabrics ranges from 85% to 95%, and that
in products such as quilted blankets ranges from 95% to 99% [19].
Since the thermal conductivity of fibres is 5–20 times higher than that of air [20],
air entrapped inside yarns, textile fabrics, and garments contributes significantly to total
thermal resistance.
Given that the discovered impact of entrapped air in textile materials contributes
considerably to thermal resistance, it can be deduced that material thickness can be utilized
for assessing thermal resistance. However, the thickness of the material is only acceptable
for assessment if it is reliably measured because thickness measurements need compress-
ibility in the measuring sample. Bogaty [21] examined the compressibility of the measuring
sample during the measurement of a material’s thickness and discovered a certain nonlin-
earity. The linearity between thickness and thermal resistance ratio was also investigated
for multiple layers of lightweight breathable material with air layers in between, and a
non-linear dependence was found [22].
It is possible for air layers to form below, between, and above the surface of textile
fabrics, which can impact on the thermal resistance of multilayer materials. The properties
of air layers are determined by their thickness, shape and distribution. The geometry of
the surface changes when a 2D textile product is wrapped around a human body, and as a
result, the formation of layers next to one another may result in more air becoming trapped
between the layers of the material which, generally speaking, is not usually distributed
evenly. The textile covering is usually inhomogeneous and the distance between the textile
layers can vary between different points of the covered body.
The thermal properties of textile materials with contained air or with formed air layers
have been investigated using various laboratory techniques [23].
As the size of air layers increases, the relationship between thermal resistance and
number of layers becomes nonlinear [22,24].
Wilson et al. [11] demonstrated that air layers and the placement of layers inside
the garment composite affect the value of thermal resistance. Air layers increase thermal
resistance by 5–50%, and even small air layers can have an effect on resistance [24,25].
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 3 of 18

Greater thermal resistance can be better achieved by using multiple small air spaces between
the layers of the garment composite than by using a larger air space of consistent thickness.
A number of authors have attempted to describe variables influencing the distribution
and thickness of airspaces inside garment composites, as well as their thermal resistance.
Variables include (I) material parameters (density, mass per unit area, fibre fineness, number
of yarns and twisting, crimping, and compressibility) [26,27]; (II) manufacturing procedures
(design of surface features and applications of finishing technologies) [28]; (III) garment
design (including fit and composites), garment surface and geometric effects [29]; (IV) con-
ditions of use (such as environmental conditions, airflow, and the intensity and type of
physical activity of the clothing wearers) [30,31].
Most published test methods aimed at measuring thermal resistance through textiles
are designed to minimize or specify the air space. Some authors increased the number of
air spaces in order to get more realistic conditions.
On the garment and in garment composites, air gaps may be irregularly shaped, of
varying thicknesses, distributed in various ways, oriented either horizontally, at an oblique
angle or vertically, and may be either closed or open to the surrounding environment.
Whether the airspace is closed or open to the environment, the convection currents in
the airspace are influenced by the orientation and thickness of the air layers. The differences
in heat losses across the layers also depend on the orientation of the layers, such as heat
transfer through horizontal airbags.
The complexity of the terms dealing with the thermal properties of textiles, clothing
composites and clothing is also reported by Xu et al. They demonstrate very clearly the
problems with measuring on the hot plate when the material sample is put directly on the
test plate and, in principle, air gaps can be eliminated. Airbags occur between the thermal
manikin and the layers of the garment composite when clothing composites are tested on
a thermal manikin. As a result, significant variations in measurements emerge. Air has
excellent insulating properties with a thermal conductivity of 0.026 Wm−1 K−1 at ambient
temperature. The thermal conductivity of airbags can fluctuate inside air gaps owing to
airflow between the body and clothing, clothing and the external environment, the chimney
effect [32], the pumping effect [33] (air displacement resulting from sporadic mechanical
movements of the body limbs), natural convection, close contact with the skin and fabric
surface, irregularly shaped air gaps that are internally caused by the weight of clothing or
externally caused by pressure force, clothing construction, the wearer’s body posture, ease
allowances, and other factors.
Measurements show that an air gap of about 5 mm improves insulation performance
by 0.2 to 0.5 Clo [34,35].
These measurement results also confirm theoretical discussions on the contribution
of air gaps to the overall thermal resistance of garment composites. Notably, 3D body
scanning revealed that when a garment is placed on a thermal manikin, the layer of air
that forms around the body and the surface of the garment can be as thick as 85 to 100 mm.
Moreover, air gaps exist not only between the skin and the inside of the garment, but also
between the layers of the garment composites. Therefore, thermal resistance measurements
of garment composites on a hot plate may not accurately reflect the performance of garment
composites in clothing. Furthermore, the airflows surrounding the measuring sample on
the hot plate and on the manikin are determined by various speeds in accordance with the
standard (1 ms−1 in a hot plate and 0.4 ms−1 in a thermal manikin). Therefore, the flow
speeds must be equalized in order for the results to be comparable based on this parameter.
Regardless of the highly exact and reliable results acquired by various measuring
methods of assessing thermal qualities, the subjective sense of wearing garments are still
required [36].
 Materials 2023, 16, 3842 4

Regardless of the highly exact and reliable results acquired by various measu
methods of assessing thermal qualities, the subjective sense of wearing garments are
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 4 of 18
required [36].

2. A Newly Developed Integrated Method of Measuring the Thermal Properties of

2. A Newly Developed
Clothing Integrated Method of Measuring the Thermal Properties
of Clothing
This paper describes a newly developed integrated measuring system for thoro
This paper describes a newly developed integrated measuring system for thorough
evaluations of the thermal properties of clothing. The system consists of five measu
evaluations of the thermal properties of clothing. The system consists of five measuring
methods and devices (hot plate, multipurpose differential conductometer, thermal m
methods and devices (hot plate, multipurpose differential conductometer, thermal manikin,
kin, device for measuring temperature gradients, device for measuring physiologica
device for measuring temperature gradients, device for measuring physiological parameters
rameters of the human body in the precise evaluation of the thermal comfort of cloth
of the human body in the precise evaluation of the thermal comfort of clothing) that
that have been developed and calibrated, patented and/or used by the authors of thi
have been developed and calibrated, patented and/or used by the authors of this paper.
per. To measure the thermal properties of textile materials used in clothing compo
To measure the thermal properties of textile materials used in clothing composites and
and garments,
garments, a measuring systema measuring system
and associated and associated
procedures procedures
are installed at the are installedofat the Un
University
sity of Zagreb Faculty of Textile Technology in the Laboratory
Zagreb Faculty of Textile Technology in the Laboratory for Thermal Insulation Properties for Thermal Insula
Properties of the Department
of the Department of Clothing Technology. of Clothing Technology.
The guarded hotTheplate,
guarded
Figurehot1,plate, Figure
consists 1, measuring
of the consists of system
the measuring system and the temp
and the temperature
regulation system for the measuring area of the measuring device which is based onwhich
ture regulation system for the measuring area of the measuring device the is base
electronic power control, the so-called PMW (pulse width modulation) technology. The techno
the electronic power control, the so-called PMW (pulse width modulation)
The
measuring unit is measuring
a rectangularunit is a rectangular
aluminium aluminium
plate, 10 mm thick,plate, 10 mm
connected tothick,
a metal connected
block to a m
block containing electric heating elements. The measuring
containing electric heating elements. The measuring area (0.4 × 0.6 m) is surrounded area (0.4 × 0.6 m) is surroun
by an
by an insulating insulating
thermal thermal
shield shield
designed todesigned to prevent
prevent lateral heatlateral heat the
loss from losssides
from ofthe sides o
the gauge andgauge
fabricand fabric
edges. Theedges. Theelements,
heating heating elements, locatedthe
located below below the measuring
measuring surface, surface,
conduct heat duct
to theheat to the measuring
measuring surface whilesurface while preventing
preventing heat loss fromheattheloss fromofthe
bottom thebottom o
measuring unit. This device design conducts heat upward
measuring unit. This device design conducts heat upward only in the direction of the only in the direction o
specimen
specimen thickness [37]. thickness [37].

(a) (b)
Figure elements
Figure 1. Constituent 1. Constituent
of hotelements
plate: (a)ofexternal
hot plate: (a) external
appearance; (b)appearance; (b)point
interior with interior with point he
heaters,
temperature
temperature sensors sensors and microprocessor
and microprocessor system. system.

A segmented A segmented
metal mould metal mould anatomically
anatomically designed
designed to simulate tohuman
the simulate the human
body, called body, c
the thermal mannequin,
the thermalconsists of 24 consists
mannequin, human body segments
of 24 human with
body built-in with
segments electric heaters,
built-in electric hea
temperature sensors, 14 microcontroller
temperature interfaces, and
sensors, 14 microcontroller a pneumatic
interfaces, and system for arm
a pneumatic and for arm
system
leg movements, as shown in Figure 2. The thermal mannequin is used to determine static
and dynamic measurements consistent with the simulation of human walking.
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 5 of 18

Materials 2023, 16, 3842 5 of 18

leg movements, as shown in Figure 2. The thermal mannequin is used to determine static
and dynamic measurements consistent with the simulation of human walking.

(a) (b)
FigureFigure
2. Thermal mannequin:
2. Thermal (a) in climactic
mannequin: (a) chamber with hot
in climactic plate; (b)
chamber withinterior of thermal
hot plate; (b) man-
interior of
nequin.
thermal mannequin.

OnceOnce the clothing is placed

the clothing on the
is placed on thermal
the thermal mannequin,
mannequin, thethe
determination
determination of of
itsits
ther-
thermal
mal properties
properties under dynamicconditions
under dynamic conditionsisisperformed
performed inin such
such a way
a way thatthat simulates
simulates the
the wearer’s
wearer’s
gait,gait,
withwithbothboth
armsarms and and
legslegs
moving moving in opposite
in opposite phase.
phase. TheThe limbs
limbs are are
movedmoved using a
usingpneumatic
a pneumatic linkage system built into the thermal mannequin. The
linkage system built into the thermal mannequin. The movement speed of the movement speed
of thelimbs
limbscancanbebevaried
variedover overa wide
a wide range
range andand precisely
precisely adjusted
adjusted byby
thethe
airair damper
damper to
to achieve
achieve a movement
a movement speedspeed
of 45of±45 ± 2 double
2 double steps/min
steps/min and 45and± 45 ± 2 double
2 double arm move-
arm movements/min
ments/min for walking,
for walking, which which is in accordance
is in accordance with the with the standard
standard EN ISOEN ISO 15831:2004.
15831:2004 [38]. The [38].
method
The method
of control,of control, regulation,
regulation, measurement
measurement and calculation
and calculation of thermal
of thermal systemssystems on
on the garment
the garment was introduced
was introduced using a segmented
using a segmented metal castingmetalmodelled
casting modelled after the
after the human human
body, with the
body,possibility
with the possibility
of activatingof activating and deactivating
and deactivating all segmentsall segments (of the
(of the entire entire or
casting) casting)
any group
or anyofgroup
segmentsof segments of the casting,
of the casting, and of introducing
and of introducing and setting
and setting measurement
measurement pa- in
parameters
accordance
rameters with the
in accordance standards
with for experimental
the standards research.
for experimental research.
WhenWhen stablestable environmental
environmental conditions
conditions (temperature,
(temperature, relative
relative humidity
humidity andand air air
ve-veloc-
ity)
locity) areachieved
are achievedin in the
the climatic chamber,
chamber,the thevalue
valueofofthethe
device constant
device constantof the
of guarded
the
hot plate
guarded and/or
hot plate thermal
and/or mannequin
thermal mannequin should be determined,
should be determined,and can
andbe obtained
can be obtainedaccording
to the following equation:
according to the following equation:
( Ts − Ta )· A
𝑇 −𝑇
Rct0 = ∙𝐴 (1)
𝑅 = H0 (1)
𝐻
where: Rct0 —resultant total thermal resistance of the measuring device including the
where: Rct0—resultant
thermal insulation total thermal
of the resistance
boundary of them
air layer, measuring device including
2 KW−1 ; A—total surface area the of
ther-the hot
mal insulation of the boundary 2 air layer, m 2KW−1; A—total surface area of the hot
plate/thermal manikin, m ; Ts —mean skin surface temperature of the hot plate/thermal
plate/thermal
manikin, manikin,
◦ C; T —air
a
mtemperature
2; Ts—mean skin surface temperature of the hot plate/thermal
within the climate-controlled chamber, ◦ C; and H0 —total
heating power supplied to the hot plate/ thermal manikin, W.
The clothing composite under test is placed on a hot plate after determining the
resulting total thermal resistance of the gauge and measuring the heat flow through the
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 6 of 18

test specimen after new stable conditions have been reached. The evaluation of the thermal
properties of the clothing using the thermal mannequin is performed by placing the selected
clothing or ensemble around its body in either static or dynamic mode of operation. In
dynamic measurement, the thermal mannequin simulates the wearer walking, with both
the legs and arms of the manikin moving in phase reversal, with a specified number of
movements per minute and a specified stride length. The measurements can be performed
under static or dynamic environmental conditions simulated in the climatic chamber. After
determining the thermal comfort, which can be seen from the stabilization of the parameter
values (numerical and shown in diagrams), measurements are made and the thermal
resistance is calculated using Equation (2) [39]:

( Ts − Ta )· A
Rct = − Rct0 (2)
H
where: H—location where the electrical power required to maintain the temperature of the
measuring surface on which the measurement sample is positioned is provided.
A multi-purpose differential conductometer [40] is used to measure: (I) The resistance
to the passage of heat or thermal conductivity at one or more cutting positions on the
garment to be produced. In this way, the success of choosing is tested for the built-in
materials, and the type and number of layers in the garment or composite that will be
built into in the garment. This invention also enables measurements on a pre-fabricated
garment when it is necessary to determine thermal properties at specific locations in a
non-destructive manner. (II) The thickness of garments or composites at different locations,
whereby thickness measurements can be made when the measuring sample is loaded with a
specific pressure (as in standard measurements of the textile materials thickness with the so-
called preload) or not. (III) Compressibility of measured clothing parts, i.e., compressibility
of clothing or laminate parts under certain forces or pressures, and drawing functional
diagrams of changes in clothing or laminate thicknesses with changes in compressive forces
or specific pressures. (IV) Resistance to the passage of heat at different values of material
compression or its thickness, which is often the case when wearing clothing or objects
on clothing (e.g., backpacks). (V) Differential temperatures between the individual layers
in the garment in free and compressed state whereby the garment constructor obtains
information on the success of applying the thermal properties of each of the designed layers
in the garment and on the possible need for correction.
According to expert knowledge and a search of the available literature, there is no simi-
lar device or measurement system to the device designed, calibrated, installed and patented
at the Faculty of Textile Technology, which as a multi-purpose differential conductometer
for textile composites and clothing.
A multi-purpose differential conductometer, Figure 3, consists of a measuring cylinder
(1) with heaters (2) and temperature sensor (3). The measuring cylinder is thermally
insulated with Teflon (4) and is located in the first heat holder (5), which is heated by
heaters (6) and has a temperature sensor (7). The second heat holder (8) is placed on the
measuring base (10) and the Teflon ring (11). The heat holders have measurement control
systems (12 and 13), and the measuring cylinder has a measurement control system (14).
These systems are used to measure steady-state maintenance performance. Sensors (15)
between layers measure differential temperature with assembly (16), measurement base
temperature with assembly (17), and measurement base temperature with assembly (18).
The data is entered into the computer (19), which contains software for calculating the
thermal properties of samples in the relaxed or compressed state. The compressed state is
achieved by means of a support (20), a dynamometer (21), a console (22) and a movable
mechanism (23) with guides (24) for connecting the measuring cylinder with a sample
determined by the video camera (25) and a monitor (27) or a dynamometer press with
displacement measurement data (27).
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 7 of 18

Materials 2023, 16, 3842 7 of 18

determined by the video camera (25) and a monitor (27) or a dynamometer press with
displacement measurement data (27).

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. Multi-purpose
Multi-purpose differential
differential conductometer: (a) schematic diagrams; (b) realized device.

If there
If thereisisno
nocontact
contactorornono reaction
reaction of of
thethe textile
textile fibres
fibres on upper
on the the upper contact
contact plate,plate,
that
that is, no contact heat transfer, the conductometer displays the value zero. At
is, no contact heat transfer, the conductometer displays the value zero. At zero load, therezero load,
there
is is no contact
no contact betweenbetween the material
the material and measuring
and measuring cylinder,
cylinder, so thermal
so thermal flux cannot
flux cannot be es-
be established.
tablished.
When stable conditions are established—i.e., the heat flow from the measuring cylinder
to the measuring base is in steady state—the temperature of the measuring cylinder, the
measuring base, and the electric power supplied to the measuring cylinder required to
 Materials 2023, 16, 3842 8 of 18

Materials 2023, 16, 3842 8 of 18

When stable conditions are established—i.e., the heat flow from the measuring cyl-
inder to the measuring base is in steady state—the temperature of the measuring cylinder,
the measuring base, and the electric power supplied to the measuring cylinder required
maintain thethe
to maintain steady state
steady areare
state read, and
read, andthe thermal
the thermalresistance
resistanceisisdetermined
determinedusing
usingthe
the
Equation where H
Equation (1), where H0 is total heating power supplied to the measuring cylinder,W.
(1), 0 is total heating power supplied to the measuring cylinder, W.
On
Onestablishing
establishingthermal
thermalequilibrium
equilibrium(steady
(steadystate),
state),the
thepower
powerrequired
requiredto
tomaintain
maintain
thermal
thermal equilibrium of the measuring cylinder is calculated using the followingequation:
equilibrium of the measuring cylinder is calculated using the following equation:
∙ 𝑃M
Ug2𝑈· PPW
H0 𝐻= = (3)
(3)
R g𝑅
where: U
where: Ugg—the
—the voltage
voltageofofthethestabilized
stabilizedsource
sourcethat supplies
that the the
supplies non-inductive
non-inductivepointpoint
heat-
ers of the
heaters multi-purpose
of the multi-purpose differential conductometer;
differential conductometer; PPWM —the
PPWM ratio
—the of the
ratio PWM
of the PWM at the in-
at the
terface output; and Rg —the total electrical resistance of the non-inductive
interface output; and Rg —the total electrical resistance of the non-inductive point heaters.point heaters.
Thegeneral
The generalexpression
expressionfor forcalculating
calculatingthe
thethermal
thermalresistance
resistanceininone
oneorormore
morelayers
layersofof
the composite clothing R using the parameters shown, after restoring the
the composite clothing Rct using the parameters shown, after restoring the stationary state
ct stationary state
(Tss == const.,
(T const., TTaa==const.,
const.,HH
0 = const. and q = const.), takes the form of equation:
0 = const. and q = const.), takes the form of equation:
𝑇 −𝑇 ∙𝐴 ∙𝑅
𝑅 (=TMC − TMB )· A MC · R g (4)
Rct = 𝑈 ∙𝑃 (4)
Ug2 · PPW M
where: AMC—total surface area of the measuring cylinder, m2; TMC—mean skin surface
where: AMC —total
temperature of thesurface
measuringarea cylinder,
of the measuring cylinder,
°C; TMB—mean m2surface
skin ; TMC —mean skin surface
temperature of the
temperature of the measuring cylinder, ◦ C; T —mean skin surface temperature of the
measuring base. MB
measuring base.
The measurement of the temperature gradients [41,42] also only begins once steady
stateThe
hasmeasurement
been established, of the temperature
and proceeds ingradients
such a way [41,42]
that also only begins values
the temperature once steady
of the
state
four has been(T
sensors established,
1 to T4, Figureand4)proceeds in such athe
placed between way that
four the temperature
clothing layers arevalues of the
outputted to
four sensors (T to T , Figure 4) placed between the four clothing layers are
the measuring amplifier and temperature compensator at the cold end of the thermocouples,
1 4 outputted to the
measuring
and then toamplifier
the measuringand temperature
computer, compensator
as shown in Figureat the 4.
cold end of the thermocouples,
and then to the measuring computer, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure4.4.The
Figure Themeasurement
measurementof
ofthe
thetemperature
temperaturegradients
gradientsininclothing.
clothing.

Steady state
Steady state for
for the measured
measured samples
samples cancanbe beachieved
achievedininaboutabout7 7min.
min.Due Due to the
to
variation
the in measurement
variation in measurement conditions, measurements
conditions, measurements of all of
measurement samples
all measurement should
samples
start after
should start10after
min.10After
min.that, measurement
After of the temperature
that, measurement gradients gradients
of the temperature can take placecan
every
take minute
place everyforminute
20 min,forafter which
20 min, average
after which values
averageof the temperatures
values are calculated,
of the temperatures are
similar to the
calculated, thermal
similar to themannequins, accordingaccording
thermal mannequins, to EN ISO to 15831:2004 [38]. If using
EN ISO 15831:2004 [38]. Ifa using
meas-
auring
measuring
devicedevice
withoutwithout a cover,
a cover, it is desirable
it is desirable fortothis
for this be to be placed
placed in theinair-handling
the air-handlingunit,
unit, together with the thermal mannequin, in order to ensure the same measurement
conditions; alternatively, the measuring device can be constructed as a separate device with
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 9 of 18

Materials 2023, 16, 3842 9 of 18

together with the thermal mannequin, in order to ensure the same measurement condi-
tions; alternatively, the measuring device can be constructed as a separate device with
componentsdetermining
components determiningthethe condition
condition of
of the
the miniature
miniature air-handling
air-handling unit
unit under
under the
the cover.
cover.
Figure 5 shows a new measuring instrument developed by the Faculty of Textile
Figure 5 shows a new measuring instrument developed by the Faculty of Textile Technology Technol-
ogy
to to assess
assess the physiological
the physiological properties
properties of the human
of the human body bybody by accurately
accurately assessingassessing the
the thermal
thermal comfort
comfort of clothing. of clothing.

Figure5.
Figure 5. Measurement
Measurement system
system and
and method
method for
for assessing
assessing the
the physiological
physiologicalproperties
propertiesof
ofthe
thehuman
human
body by accurately evaluating the thermal comfort of clothing using temperature (1) and humidity
body by accurately evaluating the thermal comfort of clothing using temperature (1) and humidity
(2) sensors and pulse oximeters (3).
(2) sensors and pulse oximeters (3).

The measurement
The measurementmethodmethodforformeasuring
measuringthethe physiological
physiologicalparameters
parametersof of the
the human
human
body in the exact assessment of thermal comfort of clothing was determined
body in the exact assessment of thermal comfort of clothing was determined according according to
thethe
to ENENISO 9886:2004standard
ISO 9886:2004 standard43].[43].
Thermal comfort
Thermal whenwhen
comfort wearing garments
wearing can becan
garments meas-
be
ured by the
measured bywearer’s subjective
the wearer’s expression
subjective or by
expression orprecise measuring
by precise of physiological
measuring pa-
of physiological
rameters: skin
parameters: temperature
skin temperature(as(asmeasured
measuredusing
usingthe
themethod
method ofof four, eight, or
four, eight, or fourteen
fourteen
points from which the mean weighted skin temperature is obtained), relative
points from which the mean weighted skin temperature is obtained), relative skin moisture skin mois-
ture (sweating), and heart
(sweating), and heart rate. rate.
The mean
The mean weighted
weighted skin
skin temperatures
temperatures are
are calculated
calculated according
according to to the
the following
following
equations[43,44]:
equations [43,44]:
𝑇 = 0.28 × 𝑇 + 0.28 ×T𝑇 +=0.16
0.28××𝑇T2++0.28
0.28××𝑇T5 + 0.16 × T7 + 0.28 × T12 (5)(5)
sk4

𝑇 = 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.175 × 𝑇 + 0.175 × 𝑇 + 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.05 × 𝑇 + 0.19 × 𝑇 + 0.20 × 𝑇 (6)

Tsk8 = 0.07 × T1 + 0.07 × T3 + 0.175 × T4 + 0.175 × T5 + 0.07 × T6 + 0.05 × T7 + 0.19 × T10 + 0.20 × T13 (6)
𝑇 = 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.07 × 𝑇 + 0.07 ∙ 𝑇
Tsk14 = 0.07 × T1 + 0.07 × T2 + 0.07 × T3 + 0.07 × T4 + 0.07 × T5 + 0.07 × T6 + 0.07 × T7 + 0.07 × T8 + 0.07 × T9 (7)
+ 0.07 ×+𝑇0.07
+ 0.07 (7)
× T10×+𝑇 0.07
+ 0.07
× T11×+𝑇 0.07
+ 0.07
× T12×+𝑇 0.07
+ 0.07
× T13×+𝑇 0.07 × T14
where: Tsk—mean weighted skin temperature, °C; and T—temperatures, °C on: forehead
where: Tsk —mean weighted skin temperature, ◦ C; and T—temperatures, ◦ C on: forehead
(T1), neck (T2), right shoulder (T3), left upper chest (T4), right scapula-back (T5), left arm
(T1 ), neck (T2 ), right shoulder (T3 ), left upper chest (T4 ), right scapula-back (T5 ), left arm
(T6), left hand (T7), right abdomen (T8), left paravertebral (T9), right anterior thigh (T10), left
(T6 ), left hand (T7 ), right abdomen (T8 ), left paravertebral (T9 ), right anterior thigh (T10 ),
posterior thigh (T11), right shin (T12), left calf (T13), right instep (T14).
left posterior thigh (T11 ), right shin (T12 ), left calf (T13 ), right instep (T14 ).
The human physiological parameter measuring device for accurately assessing the
The human physiological parameter measuring device for accurately assessing the
thermal comfort of clothing consists of four modules: (I) skin temperature measurement
thermal comfort of clothing consists of four modules: (I) skin temperature measurement
module, (II) heart rate measurement module, (III) module for measuring the relative
humidity of the skin (sweat) and (IV) module for measuring the temperature between
layers of clothing.
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 10 of 18

This device reduces the subjectivity of the assessment and highlights the importance
of accurate measurements.
The module for measuring the skin temperature of the wearer of the clothing system
can measure the skin temperature in four, eight, or fourteen points and calculates the
weighted average skin temperature according to the EN ISO 9886:2004standard [43]. In or-
der to accurately assess the thermal comfort of clothing in a hot environment by measuring
the physiological characteristics of the human body, the temperature is measured at four
points on the body in accordance with Equation (5); for neutral climatic conditions—at 8
points according to Equation (6); and for a cold environment, temperature measurements
are taken at 14 points on the body according to Equation (7). Each measuring point has a
specific coefficient.
The module for measuring the heart rate of the wearer of the garment system is also
defined by the ISO 9886:2004 standard [43].
The module for measuring the relative humidity of the skin (sweating) of the wearer
of the clothing system and the presentation of the measurement results, as well as the
module for measuring the temperatures between the individual clothing layers to determine
the percentage of the heat insulation effect of each layer in the clothing system, are an
addition to the standard method, and thus the modified method allows for more scientific
understanding of heat transfer between the wearer’s body (through clothing composites
integrated into the clothing) and the environment.
The methods and equipment described can be used to determine the thermal proper-
ties of all building materials in clothing (textile materials, knitted fabrics, nonwovens, etc.),
their composites, and all types of clothing for various conditions and types of heat transfer.

3. Materials and Methods

The choice of materials for the production of test samples is based on many years
of practical experience, working as a chief technologist and technical director of various
production systems for the production of professional, protective and other special clothing.
As a result, essential professional expertise was obtained, as well as access to specific
cutting-edge integrated materials for protective clothing that are not available through
traditional commercial channels.
The necessary technical properties of the selected sample production materials were
analysed, followed by the thermal resistance of the material itself in flat shape using the
hot plate method.
First, the technical qualities of the raw materials utilized to make the sample
were examined.
The selected integration materials include fleece-material (M1), spacer material (M2),
lining material (M3) and double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted lining (M4); their technical
characteristics are presented in Table 1. Figure 6 shows microscopic images of these materials.

Table 1. Overview of the analysed technical characteristics of the sample of the integration material.

Technical Fleece Spacer Material Lining Double-Faced, Diamond-Shaped

Characteristics Material (M1) (M2) Material (M3) Quilted Lining (M4)
Cover fabrics: Polyester 100
Raw material Acetate 50
Polyester 100 Polyester 100 Lining: Polypropylene 100
composition, % Viscose 50
Padding: Polyester 100
Total: 278.3
Mass per unit area, Cover fabrics: 68.3 × 2
298.8 315.9 69.6
gm−2 Lining: 12.4
Padding: 129.3
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 11 of 18
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 11 of 18

Table 1. Cont.
Lining: 12.4
Technical Fleece Spacer Material Lining Double-Faced,
Padding: Diamond-Shaped
129.3
Characteristics Material (M1) (M2) Material (M3) Quilted Lining (M4)
Vapour permeability,
Vapour permeability, 4341.8 3723.7 4575.75 2577.9
gm−2day−1 4341.8 3723.7 4575.75 2577.9
gm−2 day−1
Air permeability,
Air permeability, 19.33 91.66 13.99 8.8
m3m−2min−1 19.33 91.66 13.99 8.8
m3 m−2 min−1

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Microscopic
Microscopic images
images of
of integration
integration materials:
materials: (a)
(a) front
front and
and back
back side
side of
of fleece
fleece material
material (M1);
(M1);
(b) cross-section of fleece material (M1); (c) front side of spacer material (M2); (d) back side spacer
(b) cross-section of fleece material (M1); (c) front side of spacer material (M2); (d) back side spacer
material (M2); (e) cross-section of spacer material (M2); (f) front and back side of lining material
material (M2); (e) cross-section of spacer material (M2); (f) front and back side of lining material (M3);
(M3); (g) cross-section of lining material (M3); (h) front and back side of double-faced, diamond-
(g) cross-section of lining material (M3); (h) front and back side of double-faced, diamond-shaped
shaped quilted lining (M4); (i) cross-section of double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted lining (M4).
quilted lining (M4); (i) cross-section of double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted lining (M4).
Figure 7 shows the typical measurement of the thermal resistance of the material on
Figure 7 shows the typical measurement of the thermal resistance of the material on a
a hot plate (Figure 7a) and the measurement of the thermal resistance of the material with
hot plate (Figure 7a) and the measurement of the thermal resistance of the material with a
a multi-purpose differential conductometer in the initial state (F = 0.95 N) (Figure 7b) and
in the compressed state (F = 9.5 N) (Figure 7c).
 Materials 2023, 16, 3842 12 of 18

Materials 2023, 16, 3842 12 of 18

multi-purpose differential conductometer in the initial state (F = 0.95 N) (Figure 7b) and in
the compressed state (F = 9.5 N) (Figure 7c).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7. Measurement
Figure 7. Measurement of the
of thermal resistance
the thermal of theofmaterial:
resistance (a). on(a).
the material: hot on
plate;
hot(b) on multi-pur-
plate; (b) on multi-
pose differential
purpose conductometer
differential in the initial
conductometer in thestate (F =state
initial 0.95 (F
N)=(b,c).
0.95 in
N)the compressed
(b,c). state (F = 9.5
in the compressed state
N).(F = 9.5 N).

A heat
A heat flux QHP
flux is generated
QHP is generated whenwhen thethehothotplate
platereaches
reachestemperature
temperature Ts.TThis
s . This fluxflux
travels
travelsthrough
through the the
material
material M and M andis then released
is then at temperature
released Ta andTflow
at temperature a and rate
flow v a into
rate va
theinto
surrounding air. Theair.
the surrounding material sample,sample,
The material shown in Figure
shown in7a, is xm7a,
Figure thick
is xand
m is
thick not and com- is not
pressed.
compressed.
WhenWhen measuring
measuring thermal
thermal resistance
resistance with
witha amulti-purpose
multi-purposedifferential
differentialconductome-
conductometer,
ter,asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure 7b,7b,a heat
a heat flux Q is
flux Q created
is created fromfrom TMCTMC
thethe temperature
temperature measuring
measuring roller
through
roller through the the
material M to
material Mthe MBMB
to the measuring
measuring basebase
withwithTMBTtemperature.
MB temperature.

To To determine
determine thethe material
material thickness,
thickness, the measuring
the measuring cylinder
cylinder pressespresses
it withit with
a force a force
of
F =of0.95
F =N0.95 N in accordance
in accordance with EN withISO EN ISO 5084:1996
5084:1996 [45], resulting
[45], resulting in a smallin aamount
small amount of flat- of
flattened
tened material.material. The height
The height of theunder
of the roller rollerthis
underforcethis force
is the is the
value whichx0is, which
x0,value the initial is the
initial reference position for generating and
reference position for generating and measuring the heat flux QC0. measuring the heat flux Q C0 .
EvenEven greater
greater material
material compression
compression is attained
is attained whenwhen thethe compressive
compressive forceforce of of thethe
measuring
measuring cylinder
cylinder is increased
is increased by by a factor
a factor of 10,
of 10, to 9.5
to 9.5 N, N, with
with thethe cylinder
cylinder positioned
positioned at at
position
position x1 x(compression
1 (compression displacement),where
displacement), wherethe the heat flow Q
heat flow QMC1 is created
MC1 is createdand andmeasured.
meas-
TheThe
ured. measuring
measuring sample
sample is is
removed
removed atatthe
theend
endofofthe themeasurement,
measurement, and and the measuring
the measur-
cylinder MC is lowered to the height x
ing cylinder MC is lowered to the height x22 as shown in Figure 7c. Thus, Equation (8)
as shown in Figure 7c. Thus, Equation (8) cancan be
used to calculate the compressibility:
be used to calculate the compressibility:
𝑥 x
𝑆 = S×=1001 ,× %100, % (8) (8)
𝑥 x2
Integration
Integrationmaterials
materialsforfor
thermal inserts
thermal andand
inserts lining materials
lining materialsmust meet
must thethe
meet profes-
profes-
sional criteria of vapour permeability, water resistance and air tightness. The
sional criteria of vapour permeability, water resistance and air tightness. The measured measured
parameters
parametersandand
their results
their areare
results directly related
directly to the
related knowledge
to the knowledge of the properties
of the of the
properties of the
integration materials intended for the protective clothing and affect the future condition
integration materials intended for the protective clothing and affect the future condition of
of the
the systems
systems inside
inside the
the garment.
garment.
Measurement
Measurement of the thermal
of the thermalresistance of materials
resistance of materialsused in clothing
used was
in clothing carried
was outout
carried
using a hot
using plate,
a hot shown
plate, shown in in
Figure 2. 2.
Figure TheThehothot
plate was
plate developed
was developed at the University
at the Universityof of
Zagreb Faculty of Textile Technology.
Zagreb Faculty of Textile Technology.

4. Results and Discussion

The results of the measurement of thermal resistances of the materials used in the
clothing carried out with the hot plate according to Figure 7 are shown in Table 2. In Table
3, the measurements of the thermal resistance with the multi-purpose differential conduc-
tometer are shown.
The selected integration materials of fleece material (M1), spacer material (M2) and
double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted lining (M4) are outstanding thermal insulators.
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 13 of 18

4. Results and Discussion

The results of the measurement of thermal resistances of the materials used in the
clothing carried out with the hot plate according to Figure 7 are shown in Table 2. In
Table 3, the measurements of the thermal resistance with the multi-purpose differential
conductometer are shown.

Table 2. The results of the measurement of thermal resistance of the materials used in the clothing
carried out with the hot plate.

Double-Faced,
Fleece Spacer Lining
Force [N] Test Element Diamond-Shaped Quilted
Material (M1) Material (M2) Material (M3)
Lining (M4)
Thermal resistance,
0 0.0156 0.0153 −0.0019 0.0871
m2 KW−1

Table 3. The results of the measurement of thermal resistance of the materials used in the clothing
carried out with multi-purpose differential conductometer.

Double-Faced,
Fleece Spacer Lining
Force [N] Test Element Diamond-Shaped Quilted
Material (M1) Material (M2) Material (M3)
Lining (M4)
Thickness of the
2.92 3.28 0.24 5.36
material, x2 , mm
0.95
Thermal resistance,
0.0172 0.1045 0.0081 0.2229
Rct , m2 KW−1
Compression
displacement, 0.67 0.69 0.09 3.11
x1 , mm
9.5
Compressibility, S, % 23 21 37.5 58
Thermal resistance, Rct
0.0164 0.0853 0.0076 0.1095
[m2 KW−1 ]

The selected integration materials of fleece material (M1), spacer material (M2) and
double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted lining (M4) are outstanding thermal insulators.
These materials have excellent water vapour permeability, as can be seen in Table 1. The
thickening of the fibres within the structure of the double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted
lining system results in a decrease in water vapour permeability (2577.9 gm−2 day−1 ). The
results obtained indicate adequate wearing comfort, as sweat transport is made possible by
the integration of these materials.
Air permeability tests show different results for some types of materials. Due to their
structure, spacer materials have very high air permeability (average 91.66 m3 m−2 min−1
and up to immeasurably high values), whereas double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted
materials exhibit restricted air permeability (8.8 m3 m−2 min−1 ). The cause for the decreased
air permeability is the development of a sandwich consisting of single or double lining
fabric as the padding, inside which are the polyester fibres, within the diamond-shaped
quilt placed on a specific surface, giving the effect of a filled insert with voluminous fibres.
The double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted lining construction limits air exchange and
retains air inside the insert or chamber, so creating an air barrier.
From a technical point of view, there are two ways of considering the air. The first
is that air is free to circulate inside the chambers of spacer material and exchange with
the environment, whereas the second is that air entrapped inside the chambers of double-
faced, diamond-shaped quilted material has reduced internal mobility and exchange with
the environment.
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 14 of 18

In terms of heat-insulating material qualities, the exception is fleece material, which

has very good vapour permeability (4341.8 gm−2 day−1 ). Due to the construction of the
fleece material, the water vapour is not bound, but guided directly through the material.
The fleece material has a maximum moisture absorption of up to 4%, and because the
fibres are intertwined and amorphous, there is less air exchange; therefore, these qualities
accentuate its thermal insulation capabilities.
Lining materials of polyester raw material composition (M3) are utilized to make the
lower layers of the outer shell and the lower layers of the thermal insert. Those on the
inside round out the garment system and provide comfort when worn. In principle, this
material is not a thermal insulator.
Except for the lining, all of the integration materials have a very noticeable material
thickness characteristic. Thermal resistance is exhibited by fleece materials, spacer materials,
and double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted linings, which prevent heat passage. They are
distinguished by a decrease in electric power as well as a decrease in the thermodynamic
balance between the power required to maintain the constant temperature on the surface of
the hot plate and the heat radiated to the environment by the material being measured. As
a result, the calculation has shown a favourable resistance to heat transfer, demonstrating
the ability of the measured materials to provide thermal insulation.
A broad range of thermal resistance values can be seen in the established results of the
tested thermal resistance on the hot plate (Table 2). The values of spacer (0.0153 m2 KW−1 )
and fleece (0.0156 m2 KW−1 ) materials are low. Spacer materials have extremely high
air exchange values, even immeasurably so, and this contributes to heat exchange with
the environment and a reduced thermal resistance value. Fleece materials with lower
air permeability values have higher thermal resistance values than spacer materials, al-
though a double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted lining with a polyester insert achieves
adequate results.
Characteristic of the lining fabric is the fact that no decrease in electrical power was
detected at the established thermodynamic power balance required to maintain a constant
temperature of the hot plate surface and the heat radiated into the environment through the
measured material. On the other hand, there was a rise in the amount of electrical power
needed to keep thermodynamic equilibrium, and the calculation revealed negative thermal
resistance (−0.0019 m2 KW−1 ), indicating that the measured material loses its insulating
capabilities and acquires heat conductivity properties.
The apparent anomaly observed may be accounted for by the fact that the thickness
of the lining material is only a few tenths or hundredths of a millimetre, thereby lacking
the characteristics of a thermal insulator, but instead exhibiting those of a comparatively
efficient thermal conductor. Thus, the reason for this measurement result is that the test
material lacks the required thickness or voluminosity, and as a result, lacks the capacity
to retain air in its structure, which is a prerequisite for the determination of the thermal
insulation properties of materials used in clothing.
During measurements, the fleece material (M1) achieved the maximum thermal re-
sistance of 0.0156 m2 KW−1 on the hot plate, while the spacer material (M2) achieved a
slightly lower thermal resistance of 0.0153 m2 KW−1 . Due to the inadequate measurement
of materials with protruding segments on the hot plate, the double-faced, diamond-quilted
lining acquired a relatively low thermal resistance of 0.0871 m2 KW−1 . The double-faced,
diamond-shaped lining has a bulge in the centre of the rhombus and channels running
along the quilted seams. When measured on the hot plate, heat is thought to move down
the quilted channels by convection, affecting the measured amount of thermal resistance.
Higher values of thermal resistance for the same materials were obtained in the measure-
ments with the multi-purpose differential conductometer. The conductometer simply
measures the thermal contact conductivity between the outside and inside of the textile
material, excluding heat transfer by means of convection. As a result, the thermal resistance
values are higher than those of the hot plate. The impact of heat conduction through textile
materials and convection in the gaps between textile fibres, yarns, warp and weft threads in
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 15 of 18

woven fabrics or loops in knitted fabrics is significantly more noticeable with hot plates. The
lining fabric (M3) had the lowest thermal resistance of 0.081 m2 KW−1 , which also decreases
with ten times higher force when evaluating compressibility at 0.0076 m2 KW−1 . When
measured, the double-faced, diamond-shaped lining has the highest thermal resistance due
to its maximum thickness of 5.36 mm and the greatest volume with the compressibility of
58%. The design of the multipurpose differential conductometer prevents heat dissipation
by convection flow along the quilted channels, which significantly affects the accuracy of
the measurements and the accuracy of the measurement results. Because of its very great
thickness, the spacer material (M2) also has a comparatively high thermal resistance. The
fleece material (M1) has lower thermal resistance than the spacer material due to the high
density of the textile materials, which results in relatively good thermal conduction, while
spacer materials (M7) are dominated by integrated air chambers, which effectively improve
thermal resistance. The lowest degree of compressibility, found in the spacer materials,
was 21% at tenfold compression, while the double-faced, diamond-shaped quilted lining
had a compressibility of 58%. Material compressibility is directly related to the decrease in
thermal resistance, which is due to the increased compaction of textile fibres, yarns and
fabrics, as well as reduced thickness, all of which increase thermal conduction through
textile materials.
According to measurements made using a multipurpose differential conductometer,
the thermal resistance of a material can be reduced by 94–49% after being compressed
10 times compared to its original value while uncompressed.
It is reasonable to anticipate that the thermal resistance measurements obtained from
the hot plate and multi-purpose differential conductometer appear to be comparable and
may yield comparable outcomes. Nonetheless, they are fundamentally different due to a
significant reduction in thermal conductivity (resistance) detected in the conductometer,
which assesses thermal contact conductivity. When measuring thermal contact conductivity,
a pressure similar to that used when measuring the thickness of a textile sample is applied
to the sample to reduce the thickness of the sample. Air layers between layers of textile
materials, measurement surfaces of a multifunctional differential conductometer, and inside
layers of composite garments are also removed. As the sample is compressed, the thermal
resistance reduces further. This is because the entrapped air volume in the textile material
reduces and the conductivity of the textile fibres, yarns, and constructions of woven or
knitted fabrics becomes more significant.

5. Conclusions
This manuscript aims to present measurement methods and an integrated measure-
ment system consisting of five measurement methods and devices developed and patented
at the University of Zagreb Faculty of Textile Technology. For this reason, only prelimi-
nary results are presented, indicating large differences in the values of thermal properties
that depend on the different types of heat transfer through textiles and clothing. Further
research will be directed towards determining the thermal properties of textile materials,
their composites and clothing in order to clarify the factors influencing heat transfer.
The high complexity of measuring thermal resistance through textile materials is
evident when considering the obtained results and the application of the new measuring
devices described in this paper. Because measurements on a hot plate could have an impact
on two different types of heat transfer (conduction and convection), it is clear that not
all influencing factors can be captured with this single piece of measuring equipment;
by contrast, the conductivity meter measurement result is mainly determined by heat
conduction. Similarly, the conductometer allows measurements of heat transfer at varied
degrees of material compression, thickness, and particular pressures that affect the material.
The type of materials from which textile fabrics are made, their construction and the
entrapped air inside them have an important influence on thermal resistance. All of this
implies that the measurement of thermal resistance must take into account the measurement
methods used, an in-depth knowledge of the type and structure of the textile materials,
Materials 2023, 16, 3842 16 of 18

as well as their raw material composition; in light of this, defining all the influencing
parameters will be a scientific challenge for a long time to come.
The conductometer is used to measure the thermal contact conductivity between
two plates at different temperatures. It is therefore necessary to establish physical contact
between plates and materials (woven fabrics, knitted fabrics, yarns and textile fibres within
the fabric structure). To establish the contact, the material must be slightly compressed; for
this purpose, it is necessary to choose the same specific pressure, which corresponds to
the pressure applied to the textile material when measuring its thickness according to the
standard and the method of measuring the thickness of textile materials.
The design of the multi-purpose differential conductometer avoids possible errors,
especially the heat flow on the measuring cylinder. The measuring cylinder is fenced with
a heat holder, which prevents heat flow to the side and upwards. Therefore, heat flow is
possible only from the measuring cylinder to the measuring base. To prevent heat flow to
the side for thicker materials and their composites, as well as for parts of clothing, another
outer shield has been added.
The hot plate and the thermal mannequin are placed in the same climatic chamber and
the measurements are performed under the same environmental conditions as specified by
the standard EN ISO 15831:2004 [38]. The determination of thermal properties of textile
materials and clothing composites on the hot plate is performed in turbulent flow, as it is
on the thermal mannequin, unlike other hot plates where measurements are performed in
laminar flow. This allows the determination of thermal properties of insulation materials in
the development of clothing with predefined and desired thermal properties.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.R. and S.F.R.; methodology, D.R., S.F.R. and Ž.K.;
validation, D.R. and G.M.; formal analysis, S.F.R. and Ž.K.; investigation, D.R., S.F.R., N.J., G.M. and
Ž.K.; resources, D.R.; data curation, G.M., Ž.K. and N.J.; writing—original draft preparation, D.R. and
S.F.R.; writing—review and editing, S.F.R. and Ž.K.; visualization, S.F.R.; supervision, D.R.; project
administration, S.F.R.; funding acquisition, D.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Croatian Science Foundation through the project “Devel-
opment and thermal properties of intelligent clothing”—(ThermIC), grant number IP-2018-01-6363.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this article are available upon request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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