BIO ATB

Localisation of Function

Localisation of function is the theory where certain functions correspond to the specific locations or areas
in the brain. This suggests that behaviour, emotions, and thoughts, originate in particular brain regions.
Therefore, damage to relevant areas can cause drastic loss in the corresponding human function.
According to the theory, the brain is split into two hemispheres, the left involves logic, problem-solving,
and body control whereas the right is responsible for creativity and emotion. While this theory is heavily
reductionist as it reduces the cause of complex behaviours to a brain area, localisation of function is
beneficial to the observation, understanding, and prediction of human behaviours.

Gilbertson et al (2002)
-​ Correlational relationship between PTSD formation in monozygotic twins and war experience
-​ Case study, longitudinal
-​ 34 sets of MZT
-​ #1 Co-twin: one twin trauma-exposed with PTSD, other twin trauma-unexposed
-​ #2 Co-twin: one twin trauma-exposed with no PTSD, other twin trauma-unexposed
-​ Trauma-exposed PTSD co-twins had a smaller hippocampal volume in comparison.
-​ The formation of PTSD is due to the hippocampal volume.

Raine et al. (1997)

-​ Functional differences in brain structures in criminals and non-criminals via PET scan
-​ Discover if murderers who have pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) show any
evidence of brain abnormalities
-​ 41 NGRI
-​ Matched pairs design with control group
-​ High occipital lobe activity
-​ Low prefrontal cortex activity
-​ Low corpus callosum activity
-​ Left and right hemispheres unbalanced
-​ High amygdala activity
-​ Low/high activity compared to control leads to aggression

Brain Imaging

There are two types of brain imaging technologies: functional and structural. Functional brain imaging is
used to measure brain function whereas structural imaging is used to measure brain structure. Brain
imaging is useful in psychology as it allows us to examine the brain without extremely intrusive methods
like autopsies. Additionally, imaging technology allows psychologists to observe processes taking place
in the brain and investigate what area of the brain is most implicated in a certain human behaviour. While
this technology is reductionist as it only focuses on the biological influences of complex behaviours, brain
imaging allows psychologists to understand and predict human behaviours.
Raine et al. (refer to LOF)
-​ PET scan (positron emission tomography) uses a radioactive glucose tracer
-​ Areas that show high glucose uptake show brighter (red) on the computer screen (vice versa).
-​ Pros:
-​ Not sensitive to movement
-​ Metabolic studies can track ongoing processes in the brain
-​ Cons:
-​ Images are low resolution compared to fMRI
-​ There is a limited number of times one can use a PET scan.
-​ Intrusive

Passamonti (refer to neurotransmission)

-​ fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) is part of an MRI machine and uses magnets and
radio waves to produce a 3D film of activity in the brain.
-​ fMRI measures oxygenated blood flow in the brain, most active areas receive more oxygenated
blood.
-​ Pros:
-​ Higher resolution
-​ Clear image of the function and structure of the brain
-​ No radiation
-​ Cons:
-​ Expensive
-​ Sensitive to movement
-​ May not truly represent moment-to-moment brain activity

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity is a physical change in the brain as a response to environmental stimuli. This theory
suggests that functions from certain brain areas can be allocated or compensated when damaged.
Psychologists suggest that the reason for neuroplasticity could be the branching of dendrites in neurons.
Dendritic branching allows new and more connections to neighbouring neurons, increasing brain activity.
However, if there is no frequent stimulation of a neural pathway, dendritic pruning, the loss of branches,
may occur. Although this theory is reductionist as it fails to consider cognitive and sociocultural
approaches to behaviour, neuroplasticity allows psychologists to discover how the brain can become
plastic when exposed to certain stimuli.

Rosenzweig and Bennett

-​ Relationship between sensory stimulation and development of grey matter in rats
-​ Male rates allocated to:
-​ Enriched (EC) 10-12 rats, toys, maze, training
-​ Deprived (DC) isolation, no toys, no training
-​ 30-60 days until killed to perform an autopsy
 -​ EC had a more heavy, more developed brain with a thicker cerebral cortex and larger frontal
lobes.
-​ The brain mass increased 7-10% and the synapse connection increased 20%

Lazar et al.
-​ Investigate the relationship between meditation and cortical thickness in brain
-​ Quasi-experiment, non-random assignment
-​ Matched pairs design: same sex, age, race, etc.
-​ Compare brains of 20 meditators to control group
-​ Significant cortical thickness in brain areas in the meditation group (e.x. PFC, decision making
and impulse control)

Neurotransmission

Neurotransmission is the process where chemicals send signals from one neuron to the other. These
signals are responsible for the continuation of electrical neural impulses to the next neuron,
Neurotransmission is sent down the axon. Vesicles begin to release neurotransmitters to the terminal and
axon tips. The chemicals bind to the postsynaptic neuron receptors at the synaptic gap. The binding sends
the signal to start the cycle over to the next neuron. Certain chemicals have been correlated with different
human behaviours and emotions. For example, serotonin is a neurotransmitter known to produce happy
emotions. However, low levels of serotonin have been correlated with impulsive and aggressive
behaviours. Through the observation of the neurotransmission of neurotransmitters, psychologists are able
to investigate the potential cause of human behaviour.

Higley et al.
-​ Investigate the relationship between serotonin levels and aggressive behaviours in monkeys
-​ Cerebrospinal fluid to measure serotonin by-product, 5-HIAA
-​ Monkeys with low levels of 5-HIAA have more scars and injuries. They exhibit more reckless
behaviour
-​ Low 5-HIAA correlate with low levels of serotonin being transmitted, leading too impulsive and
aggressive behaviour

Passamonti
-​ Investigate the effect of serotonin levels on activation of the amygdala under social threat
-​ Participants given drinks:
-​ Lack of tryptophan (amino acid) leading to the reduction of serotonin
-​ No alteration to tryptophan
-​ fMRI measure brain activity seeing sad, happy, and angry faces
-​ Serotonin depletion decreased frontal lobe activity when seeing the angry face
-​ Communication is weak between the amygdala and frontal lobe
Genetics

Genes are considered the basic units of heredity. Built from segments of DNA, they are inherited by the
offspring by the parent. Chromosomes in the body carry the genes that determine not only the offspring’s
physical features but behaviour as well. A specific gene that has been correlated with aggression, the act
of being hostile to oneself, others, or the environment, is the MAOA gene. Commonly known as the
warrior gene, it is responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine to reduce
its impact. Low expression of this gene has been suggested to be a predictor of aggressive behaviour in
test subjects. Through the observation of the MAOA gene and its possible influence on aggression,
psychologists are able to discover a biological approach to the cause of certain human behaviours.

Caspi et al.
-​ Cycle of violence in maltreated children
-​ 1000 males in NZ over 25 years
-​ Variance in the MAOA gene
-​ Maltreated from 3-11
-​ Aggressive by 26
-​ Maltreatment alone showed an increase in aggression
-​ MAOA-L gene alone showed no significant increase
-​ MAOA-L gene and maltreatment showed a high increase in aggression.

McDermott et al.
-​ Determine whether possession of the MAOA-L allele will increase aggression
-​ Male participants with MAOA-L or MAOA-H play a vocab game to win fake money
-​ Computer “fake opponent” steals
-​ Condition 1: 80% of money
-​ Condition 2: 20% of money
-​ Participants give hot sauce to opponent, measuring aggression
-​ Condition 1 gave more hot sauce than condition 2
-​ MAOA-L gave more

Evolution

A principle of evolutionary psychology is that as genes mutate, those that are advantageous in society are
passed down through the process of natural selection. Presented by Charles Darwin during the 1800s,
theorised that all living things descended from a common ancestor. He explained this through the theory
of natural selection where members of a species who have favourable characteristics get to survive and
pass down their characteristics to offspring. Evolutionary psychologists attempt to explain how certain
human behaviours have developed through the process of evolution to enhance survival. For example,
fear, the act of feeling unpleasant in response to a threat, has helped humans act aware during dire times
in order to survive. The human behaviour of fear may have been a favourable characteristic that helped
humans survive. Through the observation of the evolutionary history of fear, psychologists are able to
investigate the potential reason for the formation of human behaviours throughout history.

Charles Darwin
-​ Galapagos island finches
-​ Observed beaks corresponding to diet
-​ Survival of the fittest
-​ Adaptation relates to humans, fear response

Feinstein et al.
-​ SM, anonymous
-​ Case study
-​ Urback Wieth disease, autosomal disorder that increases collagen deposition in skin and tissues.
-​ Displayed no fear
-​ Brought to haunted house, snakes, etc.
-​ Importance of fear response

Twins

Twin studies consist of gathering groups of monozygotic twins (MZT) and dizygotic twins (DZT) in order
to observe whether environmental or biological factors have a larger impact on human behaviour. MZ
twins, commonly known as identical twins, are developed in the same zygote and share 100% of genetic
material. On the other hand, DZ twins, known as fraternal twins, are developed in two separate zygotes
and share roughly 50% of genetic material. Through the investigation of twin studies, psychologists are
able to observe whether human behaviour is influenced by biological factors such as hereditary genes or
environmental factors such as parenting and upbringing.

Raine and Baker

-​ Determine whether antisocial behaviours are dependent on genetics
-​ 1210 DZT and MZT
-​ Children, teachers, and caregivers given questionnaires to identify social behaviour.
-​ Data collected corresponds to genetic similarity
-​ Heritability of antisocial behaviours was 50% for both, meaning antisocial behaviour relies 50%
on bio, 50% on environmental

Gilbertson et al (2002)
-​ Correlational relationship between PTSD formation in monozygotic twins and war experience
-​ Case study, longitudinal
-​ 34 sets of MZT
-​ #1 Co-twin: one twin trauma-exposed with PTSD, other twin trauma-unexposed
-​ #2 Co-twin: one twin trauma-exposed with no PTSD, other twin trauma-unexposed
-​ Trauma-exposed PTSD co-twins had a smaller hippocampal volume in comparison.
-​ The formation of PTSD is due to the hippocampal volume.
Hormones

Human behaviour is the way humans react to internal and external stimuli in their environment. A
human’s behaviour can be influenced by hormones in the body. Hormones are chemical messengers that
travel through the bloodstream to regulate growth, metabolism, and sexual reproduction to name a few.
Hormones have been shown to trigger or elevate behaviour responses in humans. Some examples are
testosterone and cortisol, a hormone more prominent in men and a hormone that regulates the human
stress response. Several experiments have suggested that testosterone and cortisol create an impact on
human behaviour.

Albert et al.
-​ Investigate relationship between level of testosterone in male rats and level of aggression and
social dominance
-​ Male rats placed in:
-​ Condition 1: castration
-​ Condition 2: castration with empty tube
-​ Condition 3: castration with testosterone tube
-​ Condition 4: sham castration
-​ Rats in conditions 3 and 4 displayed more aggression than those in 1 and 2
-​ Social dominance may be from testosterone

Sapolsky et al.
-​ Experiment on cortisol and the hippocampus
-​ Animal studies on monkeys
-​ Hyper-responsive amygdala leads to stress response
-​ Stress response activated through HPA axis where cortisol is secreted
-​ Cortisol can damage hippocampus
-​ Excess cortisol in brain over an extended period can shrink hippocampus
-​ Reduction in size can affect memory consolidation
-​ Impaired memory
-​ Cortisol, hormone released from adrenal glands
Agonists

Agonists are substances that bind to specific receptor sites in the brain and mimic the effects of naturally
occurring neurotransmitters. These substances can have a significant impact on the functioning of the
central nervous system and can be used to treat a variety of mental health conditions. In the field of
psychology, the study of agonists is particularly relevant to the study of neurotransmitters and their role in
behaviour and cognition. By understanding the effects of different agonists on specific neurotransmitters,
researchers can gain insight into the underlying mechanisms of various mental health conditions and
develop effective treatments.

Passamonti et al.
-​ Investigate the effect of serotonin levels on activation of the amygdala under social threat
-​ Participants given drinks:
-​ Lack of tryptophan (amino acid) leading to the reduction of serotonin
-​ No alteration to tryptophan
-​ fMRI measure brain activity seeing sad, happy, and angry faces
-​ Serotonin depletion decreases frontal lobe activity when seeing the angry face
-​ Communication is weak between the amygdala and frontal lobe
 COG ATB

Emotions

Emotion is a complex psychological phenomenon that has captivated researchers for centuries. At its
core, emotion refers to a subjective experience that is characterised by a range of feelings, such as
happiness, sadness, anger, and fear. These feelings are often accompanied by physiological responses,
such as changes in heart rate, breathing rate, and hormonal activity, as well as behavioural expressions,
such as facial expressions and body language. The study of emotion is a fascinating area of research
within the field of psychology, as emotions are closely linked to a wide range of cognitive and social
processes, including memory, decision-making, and motivation.

Brown and Kulik (1977)

-​ To investigate the determinants of flashbulb memories about assassinations, highly newsworthy,
and personally significant events
-​ Correlational data based on questionnaire
-​ Centred around 10 unexpected/novel events (9 regarding assassinations of political figures, 1
regarding personal shocking event)
-​ Quasi experiment elements, specifically choose people with a specific trait
-​ Differences investigated in between 40 Black and White Americans (ages 20-60)
-​ Participants asked to write free recall of the circumstances they were in when they first received
news of the event
-​ Rated each event on a 5-point consequentiality scale and the number of times they had related the
memory to someone else
-​ Black participants were more likely to have vivid flashbulb memories about national leaders
involved with civil rights (ie. Martin Luther King Jr.) —> assassination of these leaders had more
personal consequentiality to Black people than to White people. Occurrence of flashbulb
memories correlated with personal consequentiality as well as frequency of rehearsal
-​ Study did not directly test the role of eliciting surprise or covert rehearsal

Schema

Schema theory is a cognitive psychology concept that explains how our prior experiences shape our
understanding and interpretation of new information. It proposes that people organise information into
mental frameworks or schemas, which act as a lens through which they interpret and make sense of new
information. Schemas can include knowledge and beliefs about objects, events, people, and concepts, and
they influence our expectations, biases, and memory of information. However, there may be flaws that
arise when observing schema theory such as how they are acquired, how they are chosen, and how it
accounts for new information without a link to existing schemas.
Bransford and Johnson
-​ Investigate the impact of schemas on reading comprehension
-​ Participants were given a passage to read about an unfamiliar topic, either with or without
background information that provided a schema for understanding the content.
-​ Results showed that participants who had access to the background information had better reading
comprehension compared to those without it.
-​ This suggests that having a schema for the content can improve understanding and recall.

Memory

The Working Memory Model (WMM) is a theoretical framework proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in
1974 to explain the cognitive process of short-term memory. This model suggests that working memory is
a temporary storage system that allows us to process and manipulate information necessary for complex
cognitive tasks such as problem-solving, decision-making, and language comprehension. The WMM
comprises four main components: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive,
and the episodic buffer. The phonological loop is responsible for the processing and maintenance of
auditory and verbal information, while the visuospatial sketchpad is involved in the processing and
maintenance of visual and spatial information. The WMM has been an important contribution to our
understanding of how the human mind processes and manipulates information, and it continues to be a
crucial tool for investigating the cognitive processes underlying complex behaviour.

Robbins et al.
-​ Dual-task experiments with chess
-​ Interference on working memory
-​ True experiment, lab
-​ 20 male chess players, Cambridge
-​ Memorise and recreate set-up
-​ Verbal interference: say “The” repeatedly
-​ Visual interference: type sequence on keyboard
-​ Level of accuracy analysed
-​ Verbal 16/25
-​ Visual 4/25
-​ Limited capacity in visual store
-​ Proof there are two separate systems

The multi-store memory model is a theoretical framework that proposes that memory is composed of
different storage systems that operate together to encode, store, and retrieve information. According to the
model, there are three distinct memory stores, sensory store, short-term memory store, and long-term
memory store. Sensory memory is where information from the environment is briefly stored for a very
short time (less than a second) in its sensory form. Sensory memory has a large capacity but a very short
duration. In Short-Term Memory, memory processing and involves the temporary storage of information
that is being actively processed. Short-term memory has a limited capacity and a brief duration (around
20-30 seconds), but information can be maintained longer through rehearsal. Long-Term Memory is the
final stage of memory processing, where information that has been processed in short-term memory can
be transferred for more permanent storage. Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity and information
can be stored for an extended period of time, from minutes to decades. The multi-store memory model
proposes that information is processed through these different stages of memory, with attention, rehearsal,
and encoding strategies playing key roles in the transfer of information.

Peterson & Peterson

-​ True experiment (laboratory): conducted under highly controlled conditions.
-​ 24 participants (psychology students) were shown trigrams.
-​ Asked to count backwards in intervals from a random specified number until a red light appeared.
-​ 80% of trigrams were recalled after a 3 seconds delay and less than 10% of the trigrams were
recalled correctly after a 18 second delay.
-​ In the absence of rehearsal, STM's duration appears to be very short.
-​ Provided evidence for the differences between short term and long term memory and the way that
short term memory is needed for long term memory.
-​ IMPORTANT - Provided key empirical support for building the multi store memory model

Reliability of Memory

There has been a debate if people actively or passively process new information or experiences, and the
current understanding of psychologists is that people actively process memory. Active processing implies
that people constantly process new information based on previous-existing information and therefore,
unlike passive processing, it does not result in the pure acceptance of the information itself. Memory is a
cognitive process consisting of three mechanisms: encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Each
mechanism may be influenced by different factors such as emotion and schema activation. For instance, if
new information does not match the pre-existing information (aschematic information), the memory of
information may be distorted due to the reconstructive nature of memory, thus decreasing the reliability of
memory. The distortion of memory may occur when people change the new information to fit their
pre-existing information (assimilation), change their schema to fit the new information (accommodation),
or discard both pre-existing and new information.

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

-​ To investigate if memory can be altered by misleading post-event information (in an eyewitness
situation, legal)
-​ Experiment, individual measures design
-​ Experiment #1
-​ Five groups of participants asked to give a numerical estimate of how fast the
two cars were going at the point of the accident.
-​ Independent variable that varied between the groups was the intensity of the
word used in the question.
-​ Group 1 was asked a question using the word "contacted" while group 5 was
asked a question using the word "smashed."
 -​ In result, participants in group 5 generally gave a faster numerical estimate
compared to the participants in group 1, suggesting the unreliability of
eyewitnesses.
-​ Not able to define if the result was because of a response bias - participants
respond in a different way because of different wordings of leading questions - or
because memory itself was reconstructed.
-​ Experiment #2
-​ 120 participants divided into three groups.
-​ Participants were given the same questions with different wordings to describe
the speed of the cars at the time of the accident.
-​ After a week, they were asked to answer the question asking them if there was
broken glass after the accident.
-​ 32% of the participants who were asked the question with the word "smashed"
-​ 14% of the participants who were asked the question with the word "contacted"
answered "yes" to the question
-​ Implies that it was not the response bias but the reconstructed memory that was
related to the result of experiment 1.

Decision-making

The dual processing model suggests that thinking and decision-making are based on two systems: system
1 and system 2. System 1 is known for being quick and efficient, carrying little to no thought. This can
lead to errors in human decisions. System 1 is based on the principle that humans are cognitive misers and
do not actively process information thoroughly. On the other hand, system 2 is a slower and more rational
process, taking account all possible outcomes and scenarios. However, judgements made by System 2
may not have as much confidence as System 1. Through the investigation of decision-making in humans,
psychologists are able to understand why humans make the decisions they do.

Tversky and Kahneman

-​ Ascending and descending multiplication problems and anchoring bias
-​ To determine whether anchors have an impact on decision and judgement
-​ IV: lower demand characteristics
-​ HS students randomly assigned:
-​ Ascending: 1-8
-​ Descending: 8-1
-​ Hypothesis descending>ascending
-​ Ascending answer median: 512
-​ Descending answer median: 2250
-​ Actual answer: 40320
 SOC ATB
Culture

The sociocultural approach to behaviour provides valuable insights into the complex interplay between
culture and human behaviour. One particular facet of this approach is the examination of honour cultures,
where societal norms and values are deeply rooted in the concept of honour. Honour cultures emphasise
the importance of reputation, respect, and maintaining social hierarchies, often shaping individuals'
thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. Understanding the sociocultural dynamics of honour cultures can
shed light on a wide range of human phenomena, including interpersonal relationships, social norms,
moral judgments, and even acts of aggression. By exploring the influence of honour culture on behaviour,
psychologists can gain a deeper understanding of how cultural contexts shape our actions and perceptions,
ultimately highlighting the intricate relationship between society and the individual.

Cohen et al. (1996)

-​ To test whether there was a difference in readiness to commit acts of violence in individuals from
the north or south of the USA.
-​ 42 northerners
-​ 41 southerners
-​ Students asked to fill a questionnaire which they had to take at a table at the end of a long narrow
hallway
-​ A confederate working at a filing cabinet had to push in the drawer of the cabinet as the
participants walked past
-​ When forced to do it again on the way back, the confederate did it again with greater force,
bumped into the participant and would insult them
-​ Control group ran without the bump or insult
-​ Two observers rated emotional reaction
-​ After the corridor incident, participants perform a story completion exercise
-​ Northerners were rated as more amused when they were bumped
-​ 75% of southerners were much more likely to end the scenario in violence to confederate than
control group
-​ Southerners may have been more surprised for the rudeness than Northerners and have different
schemas for being insulted. In a culture of honour, small insults become of great importance as
they are a threat to masculinity.

SCT

Social Cognitive Theory, suggested by Albert Bandura, assumes that humans learn behaviour through
observational learning. The theory includes four factors: attention, retention, motivation, and mobility.
The observer must pay attention to the model they wish to mimic. Then the learner must later remember
the wanted behaviour in order to repeat it the next day or year. Next, the learner must examine the positive
and negative consequences of the behaviour, if the model received an award for the behaviour, it is more
likely the learner will reenact the behaviour. Lastly, the learner must be physically capable to perform the
specific behaviour. The SCT has been evaluated by several psychologists in order to understand how the
behaviour of others influences a human’s choice.

Bandura
-​ Whether children would imitate the aggression of an adult model and would imitate same-sex
over opposite
-​ 36 boys and girls
-​ Matched aggression
-​ Adult aggression model, building model, no model
-​ Same-sex
-​ Opposite sex
-​ Examined solo for 20 mins

SIT

According to Tajfel and Turner, humans naturally form social groups. Fellow members of a social group
will share similar values, characteristics, and even personalities. The formation of social groups involves
three stages: social categorisation, social identification, and social comparison. Social categorization is
one’s tendency to create social groups, with which they may then join a specific social group. When one
identifies with a specific social group, that group is called the in-group (social identification) while all
other groups that are considered the out-group. Due to the category accentuation effect, the in-group will
appear heterogeneous and the out-group homogenous (all identical in traits, characteristics, and values).
Social comparison posits the tendency for one to compare the in-group with the out-group, and the
in-group will always appear superior (positive distinctiveness effect). The minimal group paradigm argues
that positive distinctiveness, more specially in-group bias can occur simply by being a member of a group
(such as by assignment).

Cialdini et al.
-​ To investigate the role of social identity in self-esteem
-​ Fans from large U.S. prestigious football universities were participants in a field experiment (in
large lecture halls across 7 different schools) where they observed student clothing/apparel on a
Monday following a big football game. Next, researchers decided to call students and interview
them about the performance of their school's football team following a game.
-​ Students tended to wear more apparel associating themselves with their own university (e.g.
jersey or sweatshirt) when the football team won compared to when they lost.
-​ People tended to use the pronoun "we" more to describe their team when they won and "they"
more when the team lost.
-​ In some experiments, researchers manipulated the feelings of the participants via distraction tasks
and gave positive/negative feedback.
-​ The researchers were able to show that people tend to associate with positive others most closely
when their own public image is threatened.

Stereotypes
Stereotypes are over-generalizations of individuals based on their social group. This also relates to SIT,
wherein individuals naturally categorise people into social groups (social categorization). Due to the
category accentuation effect, everyone who is not of the in-group is seen as identical, or homogeneous,
compared to other members within the out-group. This is also called generalisation, and it is this that
causes us to form stereotypes of various social groups. In addition, the general characteristics of another
social group can be a result of one’s personal experiences or the existence of gatekeepers. Gatekeepers are
parents of media figures that can reinforce stereotypes by displaying stereotypical behaviours or
characteristics. This also relates to the idea of illusory correlation, or correlating two variables just
because one has seen them together (such as correlating black hair with Asians because one sees many
Asians with black hair). Illusory correlations are also reinforced by confirmation bias or the tendency for
us to confirm the validity of our stereotypes of others by seeing an example of it in our environment.
Cases that contradict our existing stereotypes are usually ignored and seen as less significant.

Stone et al. (2010)

-​ Schematic activation initiating stereotypes about athletes
-​ College-aged participants
-​ Asked to listen to a basketball game (a radio commentary) and make judgements about one of the
players in the game
-​ They were shown a picture of the player they were supposedly listening to
-​ Half were shown an image of a black player, the other half a white player (IV) to activate their
schemas
-​ They were then asked to make judgements (DV)
-​ Black athlete condition: rated him a “significantly more athletic and having played a
better game” than those who thought he was white
-​ White athlete condition: more likely to judge the player as “exhibiting significantly more
basketball intelligence and hustle.”
-​ Activating a particular social schema (someone’s race) can influence our processing of new
information. We focus on schema-consistent information, which reinforces that schema.
-​ Stereotypes can be reinforced because of our innate tendency to focus on schema
consistent-information. Stereotypes can lead to confirmation bias, which just reinforces the
stereotype (this is one way stereotypes affect behaviour)
-​ Bias in thinking (confirmation bias): this study demonstrates confirmation bias and how it could
reinforce stereotypes.

Acculturation

Acculturation involves adopting the new norms and values of another culture. However, this is not always
the case as defined by the four types of acculturation: integration, assimilation, separation, and
marginalisation. Integration is when one keeps the values of the old culture while also adopting those of
the new culture. Assimilation is one abandons the old culture and completely adopts the new culture.
Separation occurs when one rejects the new culture but keeps the old culture. Marginalisation is when
both the old and new cultures are abandoned.

Berry et al. (2006)

 -​ To discover if there is a relationship between acculturation and positive adaptation strategies to a
new culture
-​ Correlational Study - cannot manipulate culture (IV) so cannot be experimental
-​ Use of Surveys & Interviews (both are “Self Reports”)
-​ Researchers studied immigrant youth aged 13 – 18 (immigrants to the USA). Limited
Generalizability?
-​ They found that participants who adopted an integration acculturation profile (meaning that they
viewed both their original and new culture positively and had frequent contact with both cultures)
adapted to life in the new culture most “successfully”.
-​ This was in comparison to participants who focused primarily on their original culture, or their
new culture, or who were confused about their cultural identity.
-​ Acculturation is more successful and less stressful when an individual seeks integration with their
new culture, as well as maintaining contact with their original culture

Enculturation

Enculturation is the process by which one adopts the norms or values of his or her heritage culture (the
culture that they were born into). Also called cultural transmission, enculturation can be explained within
the framework of Tajfel and Turner’s Social Identity Theory. Mainly, a person’s cultural group is one out
of a few social groups first introduced to them when they are children. As such, social identification with
one’s heritage cultural group is almost inevitable as well as being crucial for the successful integration of
a person into society.

Berry and Katz (1967)

-​ To find out if individualistic cultures (Inuit Tribes of Canada) and collective cultures (Temne
Tribes of Sierra Leone) differed in their rates of conformity.
-​ Berry hypothesised that they would show differences.
-​ Cross-cultural study and replication of Asch’s (1953) experiment on conformity to the majority
group - the “line” study” using confederates
-​ Inuit participants spoke much less frequently to one another when making decisions (suggesting
independent thought) and chose the correct lengths more often.
-​ Temne people sided with the made-up norms more often and more frequently chose the incorrect
lengths. Temne people also tended to talk between themselves when making decisions.
-​ “When Temne people choose a thing, we must all agree on the decision – that is what we call
cooperation.”
-​ Results support the hypothesis that participants from collectivistic cultures would conform more
often than those from individualistic cultures.
-​ Inuit participants conformed more frequently to the made-up (contrived) group norms compared
to the Temne participants.
-​ Inuits were more likely to ignore normative expectations and assert their independence
Globalisation

Barry et al. (2006) (EMIC)

-​ To discover if there is a relationship between acculturation and positive adaptation strategies to a
new culture
-​ Correlational study, survey and interview
-​ They studied immigrant youth aged 13 – 18 (to the USA)
-​ It was found that participants who adopted an integration acculturation profile (meaning that they
viewed both their original and new culture positively and had frequent contact with both cultures)
adapted to life in the new culture most “successfully”.
-​ This was in comparison to participants who focused primarily on their original culture, or their
new culture, or who were confused about their cultural identity.
-​ This finding supports the claim that acculturation is more successful and less stressful when an
individual seeks integration with their new culture, as well as maintaining contact with their
original culture.

Lamn et al (2018) (ETIC)

-​ Comparing the ability of German and Cameroonian 4-year-old preschool children to delay
gratification and wait for a treat
-​ First study
-​ “The Marshmallow Test” was designed by Stanford Psychologist Walter Mischel in the
1960s”
-​ Ability to delay gratification
-​ Almost 70% of the Cameroonian kids were able to wait for a treat, compared to around
30% of German kids.
-​ 8 Cameronian kids fell asleep during the delay, but this didn’t happen to any German kids
-​ Second study
-​ Different parenting styles
-​ Cameroonian mothers placed more emphasis on “hierarchical relational socialisation”
(e.g. obeying and respecting elders) and they placed strict emphasis on conforming to
social norms
-​ The German mothers, on the other hand, had more emphasis on “psychological
autonomous socialisation,” which means they allowed more individuality and personal
freedom
-​ How different enculturation processes can have an effect on the behaviour of children
-​ See how parents values have been passed onto the kids
-​ Simple demonstration of how different cultural values or norms can have an influence on
behaviour.
Cultural Dimensions

Cultural dimensions are the collection of values, traditions, norms, and other characteristics that make up
a culture. Individualistic cultures emphasise the importance of the self. This can include personal
freedoms, rights, values, and even leisure. People with an individualistic culture are generally more
concerned with the present and thus value personal leisure time overworking. However, collectivistic
cultures stress the importance of self-sacrifice for the benefit of society as a whole. As such, personal
freedoms, rights, and values are seen as less important and can be sacrificed for the benefit of society. In
addition, personal leisure time is also not viewed as important.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions (1980)

-​ 117,000 IBM employees
-​ To identify dimensions underlying cultural differences in values, attitudes and behaviour
-​ Worldwide survey of values was conducted between 1967 and 1973. A factor analysis was carried
out on the results, focusing on the key differences submitted by the employees in different
countries.
-​ Cultural dimensions observed
-​ Power Distance Index
-​ Individualism vs Collectivism
-​ Refer to Enculturation (Berry and Katz (1967))
-​ Uncertainty Avoidance Index
-​ Masculinity vs Femininity
-​ Long Term vs Short Term Orientation
-​ Indulgence vs Restraint
-​ Refer to Globalisation (Lamm et al. (2018))
 Abnormal Psychology
Etiologies

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a complex psychological disorder that develops in response to
experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. In the field of psychology, understanding the etiologies of
PTSD is crucial for comprehending the underlying factors that contribute to its manifestation. Etiology
refers to the study of the causes and origins of a particular condition, and in the case of PTSD, it involves
exploring a range of factors including biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences. Although it
is hard to fully understand the complex factors contributing to the formation of PTSD, observing how
reactions to stimuli or biological onsets helps psychologists understand the potential causes of the
promotion of PTSD within humans when exposed to traumatic events.

Buchanan and Lovallo (MEMORY & PTSD)

-​ 48 participants (24 male/female)
-​ Healthy participants (screened for psychiatric and neurological conditions)
-​ Double-blind, independent samples design
-​ Participants received 20mg of cortisol or a placebo
-​ Shown a range of images on a TV
-​ Pleasant scenes (eg. nice food, mountain scenery)
-​ Unpleasant scenes (e.g. disfigured people, threatening weapons)
-​ Neutral scenes (e.g. a bicycle)
-​ Participants ranked how emotionally arousing they found the images
-​ One week later the participants’ memories of the images were tested (they were not told about the
memory test beforehand)
-​ Both groups remembered the emotionally arousing images better than the neutral images.
-​ Cortisol group remembered significantly more emotionally arousing images than the control
group
-​ The strongest effect was found in cued memory – when participants where given a category title
(e.g. injured people, food, sports) and asked to recall the images

Gilbertson et al (PTSD)
-​ Correlational relationship between PTSD formation in monozygotic twins and war experience
-​ Case study, longitudinal
-​ 34 sets of MZT
-​ #1 Co-twin: one twin trauma-exposed with PTSD, other twin trauma-unexposed
-​ #2 Co-twin: one twin trauma-exposed with no PTSD, other twin trauma-unexposed
-​ Trauma-exposed PTSD co-twins had a smaller hippocampal volume in comparison.
-​ The formation of PTSD is due to the hippocampal volume

Sapolsky et al. (MEMORY & PTSD)

-​ Experiment on cortisol and the hippocampus
-​ Animal studies on monkeys
 -​ Hyper-responsive amygdala leads to stress response
-​ Stress response activated through HPA axis where cortisol is secreted
-​ Cortisol can damage hippocampus
-​ Excess cortisol in brain over an extended period can shrink hippocampus
-​ Reduction in size can affect memory consolidation
-​ Impaired memory
-​ Cortisol, hormone released from adrenal glands

Prevalence Rate

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a complex psychological disorder that develops in response to
experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. Understanding the prevalence rate of PTSD is essential in
the field of psychology as it provides crucial insights into the scope and impact of this condition.
Prevalence refers to the proportion of individuals within a population who have been diagnosed with a
particular disorder. Although there are numerous factors that can impact the prevalence of PTSD in a
group, sociocultural influences, factors that can affect an individual’s beliefs and attitudes due to set
norms and practices, can be a potential influence on the prevalence of this disorder. By examining the
sociocultural influences, like socioeconomic status or societal standards to name a few, on the prevalence
rates of PTSD, psychologists can gain a better understanding of the extent to which individuals are
affected by trauma and the associated mental health challenges

Garrison et al.
-​ Racial differences and PTSD after Hurricane Andrew (1995)
-​ Cross-cultural differences in the US
-​ 350 Black, Hispanic, and White teenagers 6 months after Hurricane
-​ Interview to gather data
-​ Results
-​ Women: 9%
-​ Men: 3%
-​ Black: 8.3%
-​ Hispanic: 6.1%
-​ Women and ethnic minorities in the US more likely to develop PTSD after the event
-​ Financial status? Socioeconomic status? Stress?

Luby et al.
-​ If poverty was correlated with brain development and to see if there were mediating variables
related to stress and parenting that could explain this relationship.
-​ MRI used to measure correlations between poverty, stressful events and parenting styles with
hippocampal volume
-​ 145 children over a 10 year period
-​ Measured the parent-child interactions by giving the child a small gift but telling them they must
wait until their parent finishes completing a questionnaire.
-​ Designed to stress the child and to test the patience of the parent.
 -​ How parents dealt with the nagging of the child was recorded by researchers standing
behind a two-way mirror and interactions between child and parent are recorded.
-​ Results showed a positive correlation between lower socioeconomic status and hippocampal
volume (poorer kids had smaller hippocampus).
-​ Socioeconomic status was also positively correlated with amygdala volume (lower status =
smaller amygdalae).
-​ The more positive the parent-child interactions were during the waiting for the gift task, the
higher the hippocampal volume.

Biological/Psychological Treatments

In the field of psychology, the exploration of effective treatments for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD) encompasses a wide range of approaches, including biological and psychological interventions.
Biological treatments focus on the physiological and neurochemical aspects of PTSD, aiming to alleviate
symptoms and restore balance within the body and brain. These treatments often involve the use of
medications or procedures that target specific biological mechanisms implicated in PTSD. On the other
hand, psychological treatments aim to address the underlying mechanisms of PTSD, targeting the
intrusive memories, hyperarousal, avoidance, and negative thoughts that characterise the disorder. The
integration of biological and psychological interventions with psychological therapies provides a
comprehensive approach to addressing the complex nature of this disorder.

McNamara et al. (BIO)

-​ Study of war veterans and cognitive reappraisal tasks
-​ Participants: 34 male veterans of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom
-​ 17 were diagnosed with PTSD while the rest were not
-​ Underwent fMRI scan while doing emotional regulation tasks that required top-down processing
+ cognitive reappraisal of emotional stimuli
-​ Participants had to maintain or reappraise when viewing unpleasant images
-​ Maintain condition experienced images naturally while reappraise condition used strategies to try
to reduce the negative effect of the unpleasant images
-​ 12 week break between first and second set of gathering data
-​ Within the 12 weeks the participants with PTSD were treated with SSRI (Selective Serotonin
Reuptake Inhibitor)
-​ Second set of gather data showed SSRI was effective in reducing symptoms of PTSD
-​ 70% of PTSD group showed at least a 50% reduction in their PTSD symptoms
-​ SSRIs can increase function in areas within the Pfc during cognitive reappraisal → increase in
activation in the dorsolateral PFC with the maintenance of emotional regulation
-​ Increased activation in the supplementary motor area (SMA) which has been correlated with
top-down processing and down-regulation of the amygdala
-​ Gives a clearer understanding of how SSRIs might treat the symptoms of PTSD → increasing the
levels of serotonin available in particular areas of the brain, e.g PFC and SMA, may be able to
improve function → may lead to the individuals suffering from PTSD to perform important
cognitive task having reduced anxiety and stressful reactions to emotional stimuli (including
cognitive reappraisal)
Urry et al. (COG)
-​ To see the correlation between cognitive reappraisal and brain function
-​ 19 participants (no PTSD) were exposed to a range of emotional stimuli when in fMRI
-​ Asked to cognitively re-appraise the stimuli by increasing, decreasing or attending stimulus
-​ Increase = happening to someone they loved
-​ Decrease = imagine it is not real
-​ Attend = focus on details
-​ Negative correlation between vmPFC and amygdala activation (higher activity in the vmPFC
resulted in lower amygdala activation)
-​ Underfunctioning and reduced volume of vmPFC with patients who have PTSD
-​ vmPFC lower volume OR underfunction = etiology of PTSD
-​ Treatment = through cognitive reappraisal, participants can learn to increase function of the
vmPFC in order to decrease the activity in the amygdala when perceiving emotional stimuli —>
PTSD is theorised to be controlled by the amygdala thus activation of the amygdala may induce
PTSD symptoms

Role of Culture and Treatment/Diagnosis

Culture plays a vital role in the treatment and diagnosis of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) within
the field of psychology. As a complex psychological condition resulting from experiencing or witnessing
a traumatic event, PTSD can be influenced by cultural factors that shape how individuals perceive,
express, and cope with trauma-related distress. Cultural beliefs, values, and practices significantly impact
the manifestation and interpretation of symptoms, help-seeking behaviours, and attitudes toward mental
health. Therefore, it is essential for psychologists to consider cultural contexts when diagnosing PTSD
and developing appropriate treatment approaches. By understanding and exploring the complex interplay
between culture and psychological interventions, psychologists can provide more culturally sensitive and
effective care, tailored to the unique needs and perspectives of individuals affected by PTSD.

Turvey et al.
-​ Compared attitudes towards depression in Russian, South Korean and American participants over
the age of 60.
-​ 6% Americans viewed depression as a sign of weakness
-​ 61% Russians viewed depression as a sign of weakness
-​ 78% Koreans viewed depression as a sign of weakness
-​ With this attitude attached to depression in some cultures, individuals may be less likely to seek
help for fear that they may be labelled as weak.
-​ Health care professionals need to be aware of the potentially detrimental effects a diagnosis of a
disorder may have on an individual. Existing attitudes might also influence how openly someone
may discuss their symptoms, which could also affect the validity of diagnosis.
-​ Existing attitudes may influence people and how open they are about discussing their symptoms
(Social desirability bias) which can affect the diagnosis
 -​ In cultures where men are discouraged to share their feelings, it may be difficult for professionals
to make an accurate diagnosis since their full set of symptoms have not been revealed to them

Horne et al.
-​ To investigate the cultural differences in attitudes towards using medication
-​ Gathered data from 500 undergraduate students in the UK who identified as being either from an
Asian cultural background or from a European cultural background
-​ Asian students were more likely to have negative attitudes towards the use of medication
(perceived them as harmful and addictive substances)
-​ They would be less likely to follow a prescribed course of drug therapy if they have negative
attitudes towards medication
-​ Clinicians must consider a patient’s cultural background when prescribing a particular course of
treatment
-​ Will the patient follow through with the treatment?
 Human Relationships

Bystanderism

Bystanderism, a phenomenon observed in social psychology, raises intriguing questions about human
behaviour and the complexities of social interactions. It refers to the tendency of individuals to remain
passive or unresponsive in the face of a situation where help is needed or a harmful act is taking place,
despite having the capacity to intervene. Bystanderism has captured the attention of psychologists as it
challenges traditional assumptions about human altruism and raises ethical concerns regarding individual
and collective responsibility. By exploring the fascinating concept of bystanderism, insightful
information is found on the psychological factors and social dynamics that contribute to this phenomenon.
By understanding bystanderism, psychologists can gain valuable insights into the complexities of human
behaviour and develop strategies to promote prosocial action and responsibility within society.

Darley and Latane

-​ Diffusion of Responsibility Study
-​ Individual subjects who were meant to be discussing social problems with other participants in
separate cubicles over an intercom system (done to prevent embarrassment) heard one of the
group members explain that he was prone to seizures when under stress and later proceeded to
have one.
-​ The person was a confederate working for the researchers
-​ Experimenters measured the % who helped within 4 minutes
-​ 2 in a group:85% intervened
-​ 3 in a group: 62% intervened
-​ 5 in a group: 31% intervened
-​ Larger the group = less help given; caused by the perception of diffused responsibility
-​ Assumed to be a cognitive processing issue

Darley and Latane Intervention Model

-​ 3 Psychological Processes
-​ 1. Diffusion of responsibility
-​ When personal responsibility diminishes when bystander amount increases
-​ 2. Evaluation apprehension
-​ Fear of being judged
-​ 3. Pluralistic ignorance
-​ Social phenomenon where individuals reject a norm but believe others accept it therefore publicly
conform
-​ 5 step decision model
-​ 1. Notice the event
-​ 2. Interpret it as an emergency
-​ 3. Decide if they have a responsibility to act
 -​ 4. Choose what form of assistance to give (cost reward)
-​ 5. How to act and implement the specific choice (weigh cost and benefit)

Prosocial Behaviour

Prosocial behaviour, a fundamental concept in the field of psychology, encompasses a wide range of
voluntary actions aimed at benefiting others or society as a whole. It encompasses acts of kindness,
cooperation, empathy, and altruism. Understanding the factors that promote and influence prosocial
behaviour is of great importance, as it contributes to the well-being of individuals and communities alike.
Looking at possible biological, cognitive, and sociocultural influences on prosocial behaviour aids further
exploration into the multifaceted nature of prosocial behaviour, highlighting its significance in fostering
positive social relationships, promoting cooperation, and addressing societal challenges. By delving into
the psychological mechanisms, situational influences, and individual differences that shape prosocial
behaviour, psychologists aim to uncover strategies that can enhance empathy, compassion, and the
willingness to help others. Ultimately, the study of prosocial behaviour not only provides insights into the
nature of human kindness but also offers practical applications for fostering a more supportive and
compassionate society.

Kin Selection Theory (BIO)

-​ Hamilton’s biological/evolutionary theory suggests or predicts that the degree of social helping
given is more likely to occur when two individuals are genetically related
-​ The degree of altruism depends on the number of genes shared by individuals.
-​ By helping others in your family group, particularly close descendants, an organism will increase
the chances of the genes that cause the helping behaviour being passed on.
-​ Claims that some behaviours have evolved to increase the “fitness” of an organism’s close
relatives
-​ Assumption: We are more likely to help close relatives than distant relatives because we
have the same copies of the same allele (same genetic material)
-​ Explains that related individuals are more likely to behave selflessly with each other and this
helping is undertaken to maximise the inclusive fitness of the individual to increase one's chance
of reproduction and passing down genetic material.
-​ Forms the basis of Dawkins "Selfish Gene" theory - the idea that being selfish can help
the survival of the species.
-​ Favours behaviour by individuals that will increase the chances of their relatives
surviving and reproducing successfully.
-​ Individuals share 50% of their genes with a parent or sibling, so if they risk their own
ability to reproduce or survive but help their parents or more than two siblings to
reproduce or survive, they will benefit indirectly by gaining inclusive fitness

Darley and Latane (COG)

-​ Diffusion of Responsibility Study
-​ Individual subjects who were meant to be discussing social problems with other participants in
separate cubicles over an intercom system (done to prevent embarrassment) heard one of the
 group members explain that he was prone to seizures when under stress and later proceeded to
have one.
-​ The person was a confederate working for the researchers
-​ Experimenters measured the % who helped within 4 minutes
-​ 2 in a group:85% intervened
-​ 3 in a group: 62% intervened
-​ 5 in a group: 31% intervened
-​ Larger the group = less help given; caused by the perception of diffused responsibility
-​ Assumed to be a cognitive processing issue

Pilavin (SOC)
-​ In subway cars, help is given frequently even when subways are crowded. The reasoning is that it
is more difficult to refuse help in an immediate face-to-face, non-remote situation.
-​ A study several variables social helping in natural situation 60 seconds if no help given
-​ Field experiment in NY subway - opportunity sample
-​ 3 victims: 3 white, 1 black - dressed and acted identically
-​ Instructed to wait 70 seconds then collapse and wait for help
-​ IV’s - race, drunk or ill, presence of helping models, size of witnessing group
-​ DV’s - frequency of help, speed of others, race of helper, comment
-​ 93% helped ill person before the model, 81% helped drunk victim
-​ No diffusion of responsibility found - the situation (small subway car) helped people feel
responsible
-​ People of the same race helped more frequently, especially for drunk victim (in-group favouritism
and out-group discrimination)
-​ No escape - more help

Promoting Prosocial Behaviour

Bystanderism refers to the phenomenon where individuals witnessing an emergency or distressing

situation fail to intervene or offer assistance. This can occur due to a number of factors, such as diffusion
of responsibility, social influence, or fear of harm. The issue of bystanderism gained attention within the
field of psychology due to the Kitty Genovese murder of 1964, where a woman was murdered while 38
people did not intervene. This caused a national outcry, attracting psychologists to study why
bystanderism happens and how to prevent it. Prosocial behaviour is often studied from a social cognitive
perspective, which emphasises the role of cognitive processes, such as empathy, moral reasoning, and
social norms, through legislation, education, or reward in motivating and guiding helpful behaviour.
Through authority and social influence, prosocial behaviour can be promoted to encourage individuals to
take action in emergency situations and provide help with the necessary skills and knowledge to do so.

Bickman et al. (1974)

-​ Investigation of the impact of different authorial types on an individual’s compliance with
requests
-​ Series of experiments tested whether or not people were more obedient to certain types of
uniform
 -​ Field experiment, covert study
-​ 153 New York City pedestrians
-​ Confederates
-​ Guard
-​ Milkman outfit
-​ Civilian
-​ Asked to do something
-​ Pick up a piece of garbage (a paper bag)
-​ Give 10 cents to a stranger
-​ Move away from a bus stop
-​ Subjects were more likely to comply with the directions given by someone wearing a guard’s
uniform, as opposed to a civilian or a milkman.

Cialdini et al. (2008)

-​ Experiment in a hotel in Arizona, USA
-​ Observed over 80 days
-​ Randomly put one of two cards with different use of language in hotel rooms asking guests to
reuse their towels
-​ Card #1: “Help save the environment” and explained to guests how reusing towels would
have a positive impact on the environment
-​ Card #2: “Join your fellow guests in helping to save the environment. Almost 75% of
guests who are asked to participate in our new resource savings program do help by using
their towels more than once. You can join your fellow guests in this program to help save
the environment by reusing your towels during your stay.”
-​ With card #1, 38% of guests reuse their towels
-​ With card #2, the rate of reusing towels significantly increased to 48%