Chapter 11.

Partial Differentiation

Le Cong Nhan

Faculty of Applied Sciences

HCMC University of Technology and Education

August 23, 2024

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 Contents

1 Functions of Several Variables

2 Limits and Continuity

3 Partial Derivatives

4 Tangent planes, Approximations, and Differentiability

5 Chain Rules

6 Directional Derivatives and the Gradient

7 Extrema of Functions of Two Variables

8 Lagrange Multipliers

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 The heat index (also called the temperature-humidity index) is used to
describe the combined effects of temperature and humidity.

Figure: Heat index I as a function of temperature T and humidity H

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 The Cobb-Douglas Production Function

In 1928 Charles Cobb and Paul Douglas published a study in which they
modeled the growth of the American economy during the period 1899-1922.

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 The function they used to model production was of the form

P(L, K ) = bLa K 1−a , (1)

where b > 0 and a ∈ (0, 1)

P is the total production (the monetary value of all goods produced
in a year),
L is the amount of labor (the total number of person-hours worked in
a year),
K is the amount of capital invested (the monetary worth of all
machinery, equipment, and buildings).
By using the method of least squares to fit the data of Table 4 to the
function

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 11.1. Functions of Several Variables

Definition 1 (Function of two variables)

A function f of two variables is a rule that assigns to each ordered pair of
real numbers (x, y ) in a set D a unique real number f (x, y ). The set D is
called the domain of f and its range is the set of values that takes on, i.e.,

R = {f (x, y )|(x, y ) ∈ D} .

Notation. Function f of two variables

z = f (x, y )

The variables x and y are independent vari-

ables and z is the dependent variable.

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 If a function f (x, y ) is given by a formula and no domain is specified, then
the domain of f

D = (x, y ) ∈ R2 : f (x, y ) is well-defined .



Example 2
For each of the following functions, evaluate f (3, 2) and find the domain
√
x +y +1
(b) f (x, y ) = x ln y 2 − x


(a) f (x, y ) =
x −1

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 Graphs

Definition 3 (Graph of Functions of Two Variables)

If f is a function of two variables with domain D, then the graph of f

Gf = (x, y , z) ∈ R3 : z = f (x, y ) and (x, y ) ∈ D .



The graph of a function f of two variables is

a surface S with equation z = f (x, y ).

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 Definition 4 (Level Curves)
The set of points (x, y ) in the xy -plane that satisfy f (x, y ) = k is called
the level curve of f at k, where k is a constant (in the range of f ).

Figure: Level curves Figure: Topographic map of

mountainous regions
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 Figure: (a) A topographical map of Devil’s Tower, Wyoming. Lines that are close
together indicate very steep terrain. (b) A perspective photo of Devil’s Tower
shows just how steep its sides are. Notice the top of the tower has the same
shape as the center of the topographical map.

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 Figure: Global mean sea-level temperatures in January in degrees Celsius

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 Example 5
A contour map for a function f is shown in figure below. Use it to
estimate the values of f (1, 3) and f (4, 5).

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 Functions of Three or More Variables

Definition 6
A function of three variables f is a rule that

(x, y , z) ∈ D ⊂ R3 7→ f (x, y , z) ∈ R.

The temperature T at a point on the surface of the earth given by

T = f (x, y , t) ,

where x is the longitude, y is the lattitude and t is the time.

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 Definition 7 (Level Surfaces)
If f is a function of three variables x, y and z, then he set of equation
f (x, y , z) = k is called the level surface of f at k, where k is a constant (in
the range of f ).

Figure: Level surfaces of function f (x, y , z) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2

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 11.2 Limits and Continuity
Let us consider the behavior of the functions
sin(x 2 + y 2 )
f (x, y ) = as (x, y ) → (0, 0).
x2 + y2

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 Let us consider the behavior of the functions
x2 − y2
g (x, y ) = as (x, y ) → (0, 0).
x2 + y2

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 Definition 8 (Limit of a function of two variables)
We write lim f (x, y ) = L to indicate that:
(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
the value of f (x, y ) approaches the number L as the point (x, y )
approaches the point (x0 , y0 ) along any path that stays within the
domain of f .

Other Notations:

lim f (x, y ) = L
x→x0
and f (x, y ) → L as (x, y ) → (x0 , y0 ).
y →y0

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 Method to prove the limits of function does not exist
If f (x, y ) → L1 as (x, y ) → (x0 , y0 ) along a path C1 and f (x, y ) → L2 as
(x, y ) → (x0 , y0 ) along a path C2 , where L1 ̸= L2 , then

lim f (x, y ) does not exist.

(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )

Limit Laws
The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits and it is similar with difference,
product and quotient.

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 Example 9
Evaluate
x 2 + x − xy − y
x 2 + xy + y 2


a. lim b. lim
(x,y )→(0,0) (x,y )→(0,0) x −y

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 Example 10
Show that the following limits do not exist

x2 − y2 xy
a. lim b. lim
(x,y )→(0,0) x 2 + y 2 (x,y )→(0,0) x2 + y2

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 Example 11
Find lim f (x, y ) if it exists, where
(x,y )→(0,0)

xy 2 3x 2 y
a. lim b. lim
(x,y )→(0,0) x 2 + y 4 (x,y )→(0,0) x 2 + y 2

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 Continuity

Definition 12
A function f of two variables is called continuous at (x0 , y0 ) if

lim f (x, y ) = f (x0 , y0 ). (2)

(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )

The function f is continuous on D if f is continuous at each point in D.

Example 13
Test the continuity of the functions
x −y 1
a. f (x, y ) = b. f (x, y ) =
x2 + y2 y − x2

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 Example 14
Show that f is continuous at (0, 0) where

1

 y sin
 ̸ 0
if x =
f (x, y ) = x


0 if x = 0

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 Example 15
Show that f is continuous at (0, 0) where

3x 2 y

if (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0)


 2 2
f (x, y ) = x + y


0 if (x, y ) = (0, 0)


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 Example 16
Test the continuity of g at (0, 0)
 2
x − y2
if (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0)


 2 2
g (x, y ) = x + y


0 if (x, y ) = (0, 0)


Functions of Three or More Variables

Every that we have done with functions of two variables can be extended
to functions of three or more variables. For instance, a function f (x, y , z)
is said to be continuous at (x0 , y0 , z0 ) if

lim f (x, y , z) = f (x0 , y0 , z0 ). (3)

(x,y ,z)→(x0 ,y0 ,z0 )

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 11.3 Partial Derivatives

Definition 17 (Partial derivatives)

If z = f (x, y ) be a function of two variables, its partial derivatives are the
functions fx and fy defined by

f (x + h, y ) − f (x, y )
fx (x, y ) = lim , (4)
h→0 h
f (x, y + h) − f (x, y )
fy (x, y ) = lim . (5)
h→0 h

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 Rule for finding partial derivatives of z = f (x, y )
▶ To find fx , regard y as a constant and differentiate f (x, y ) with
respect to x.
▶ To find fy , regard x as a constant and differentiate f (x, y ) with
respect to y .

Notation for Partial derivatives

∂f
zx = fx (x, y ) = (x, y ) = Dx f , and
∂x
∂f
zy = fy (x, y ) = (x, y ) = Dy f .
∂y
Partial derivatives at (x0 , y0 )

∂f ∂f
(x0 , y0 ) = fx (x0 , y0 ) and (x0 , y0 ) = fy (x0 , y0 ) .
∂x ∂y

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 Example 18
1 If f (x, y ) = x 3 + x 2 y 2 − 2y 2 , find fx and fy .
∂z
Let z = x 2 sin 3x + y 3 . Evaluate


2 and zy at (1, 1).
∂x ( π ,0)
3

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 Example 19
Let f (x, y , z) = x 2 + 2xy 2 + yz 3 . Determine fx , fy and fz .

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 Example 20
Show that the function z = ln x 2 + xy + y 2 satisfies the equation

xzx + yzy = 2.

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 Example 21
Let z be defined implicitly as a function of x and y by the equation

x 2 z + yz 3 = x.

Determine ∂z/∂x and ∂z/∂y .

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 Partial Derivative as a slope

Figure: Slope interpretation of partial derivative

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 Example 22
Find the slope of the line that is parallel to the xz-plane and tangent to
√
the surface z = x x + y at the point P(1, 3, 2)

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 Partial Derivative as a Rate

Given the function z = f (x, y ). Then we have that:

fx (x0 , y0 ): the rate of change of f as P(x0 , y0 ) moves in the direction
of the positive x-axis
fy (x0 , y0 ): the rate of change of f as P(x0 , y0 ) moves in the direction
of the positive y -axis.

Example 23
In an electric circuit with electromotive force (EMF) of E volts and resistance
R ohms, the current is I = E /R amperes. Find the partial derivatives ∂I /∂E
and ∂I /∂R at the instant when E = 120 and R = 15 and interpret these
derivatives as rates.

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 High Derivatives

Given a function of two variables z = f (x, y )

Second order partial derivatives

∂2f
 
∂ ∂f
= = (fx )x = fxx
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x
∂2f
 
∂ ∂f
= = (fy )y = fyy
∂y 2 ∂y ∂y

Mixed second order partial derivatives

∂2f
 
∂ ∂f
= = (fx )y = fxy
∂x∂y ∂y ∂x
∂2f
 
∂ ∂f
= = (fy )x = fyx
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y

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 Example 24
Find the second partial derivatives of f (x, y ) = x 3 + x 2 y 2 − 2y 2 .

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 Theorem 25 (Clairaut’s Theorem)
Suppose f is defined on an open disk D that contains the point (x0 , y0 ). If
the functions fxy and fyx are both continuous on D, then

fxy (x0 , y0 ) = fyx (x0 , y0 )

Example 26
By direct calculation, show that fxyz = fyzx = fzyx for the function

f (x, y , z) = xyz + x 2 y 3 z 4 .

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 11.4 Tangent planes, Approximations, and Differentiability
Equation of the tangent plane
Suppose S is a surface with the equation z = f (x, y ) and let P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )
be a point on S at which a tangent plane exists. Then an equation for the
tangent plane to S at P0 is

z − z0 = fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 ).

Figure: The tangent plane contains the tangent lines T1 and T2

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 Example 27
Find the tangent plane to the elliptic paraboloid z = 2x 2 + y 2 at the point
(1, 1, 3).

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 Total Differential
Definition 28 (Differential)
The differential of y at a

dy |x=a = f ′ (a)dx

For x near a, the linear approximation of f

at a

f (x) ≈ f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

Let ∆x be the increment in x then the

increment approximation of y at a

∆y = f (a + ∆x) − f (a) ≈ f ′ (a)∆x

Figure: ∆y ≈ dy for ∆x = dx
small
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 Definition 29 (Total differential)
The differential of z = f (x, y ), also called total differential, is defined by

df = fx dx + fy dy (6)

and the differential of f at (a, b)

df |(a,b) = fx (a, b)dx + fy (a, b)dy (7)

The second order differential of f is

d 2 f = fxx dx 2 + 2fxy dxdy + fyy dy 2 (8)

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 Approximation
For (x, y ) near (a, b), the linear approximation of f at (a, b) is
f (x, y ) ≈ f (a, b) + fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b). (9)

Figure: ∆z ≈ dz for ∆x, ∆y small

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 Application

1 Let ∆x, ∆y be the increments in x, y then the increment

approximation of f at (a, b)

∆f =f (a + ∆x, b + ∆y ) − f (a, b) ≈ fx (a, b)∆x + fy (a, b)∆y

2 If ∆x = dx and ∆y = dy are small, then the differential

approximation of f at (a, b)

∆f ≈ df |(a,b) = fx (a, b)dx + fy (a, b)dy (10)

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 Example 30
Find the total differential of the given functions

a. z = e x (cos y + x sin y ) b. f (x, y , z) = 2x 3 + 5y 4 − 6z

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 Example 31
The base radius and height of a right circular cone are measured as 10 cm
and 25 cm, respectively, with a possible error in measurement of as much
as 0.1 cm in each. Use differentials to estimate the maximum error in the
calculated volume of the cone.

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 Example 32
The radius and height of a right circular cone are measured with errors of at
most 3% and 2% respectively. Use incremental approximations to estimate
the maximum percentage error in computing the volume of the cone using
these measurements and the formula V = 13 πR 2 H.

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 Example 33
An open box has length 3 ft, width 1 ft, and height 2 ft, and is constructed
from material that costs $2/ft2 for sides and $3/ft2 for the bottom. Com-
pute the cost of constructing the box, then use increments to estimate the
change in cost if the length and width are each increased by 3 in. and the
height is decreased by 4 in.

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 Example 34
At a certain factory, the daily output is Q = 60K 1/2 L1/3 units, where K
denotes the capital investment (in units of $1,000) and L the size of the
labor force (in worker-hours). The current capital investment is $900,000
and 1,000 worker-hours of labor are used each day. Estimate the change in
output that will result if capital investment is increased by $1,000 and
labor is decreased by 2 worker-hours.

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 Example 35
When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, the total
resistance R satisfies
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
If R1 is measured as 300 ohms with a maximum error of 2% and R2 is
measured as 500 ohms with a maximum error of 3%, use incremental
approximations to estimate the maximum percentage error in R.

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 Differentiability

Definition 36
If z = f (x, y ), then f is differentiable at (x0 , y0 ) if ∆f can be expressed
in the form

∆f = fx (x0 , y0 )∆x + fy (x0 , y0 )∆y + ε1 ∆x + ε2 ∆y (11)

where ε1 and ε2 → 0 as (∆x, ∆y ) → (0, 0).

Theorem 37
If f (x, y ) is differentiable at (x0 , y0 ), it is also continuous there.

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 Example 38
Let f be the function given by
 xy

 x2 + y2 if (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0)
f (x, y ) =


0 if (x, y ) = (0, 0)

Show that f has partial derivatives fx and fy at (0, 0) but it is not

differentiable there.

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 Theorem 39 (Sufficient condition for differentiability)
If f is a function of x and y , and f , fx , and fy are continuous in a disk D
centered at (x0 , y0 ), then f is differentiable at (x0 , y0 ).

Example 40
Show that f (x, y ) = x 2 y + xy 3 is differentiable for all (x, y ).

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 11.5 Chain Rules

Theorem 41 (The Chain Rule for One Parameter)

Suppose that z = f (x, y ) is a differentiable function of x and y , where
x = x(t) and y = y (t) are both differentiable functions of t. Then z is a
differentiable function of t and
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= + (12)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt

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 Example 42
Find the derivative of the following composite functions

(a) z = x 2 y + 3xy 4 , where x = cos t, y = sin 2t,

p
(b) z = x 1 + y 2 , where x = te 2t , y = e −t .

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 Example 43
A right circular cylinder is changing in such a way that its radius r is
increasing at the rate of 3 in./min and its height h is decreasing at the
rate of 5 in./min. At what rate is the volume of the cylinder changing
when the radius is 10 in. and the height is 8 in.?

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 Theorem 44 (The Chain Rule for Two Parameters)
Suppose that z = f (x, y ) is a differentiable function of x and y , where
x = x(u, v ) and y = y (u, v ) are both differentiable functions of u and v .
Then z is a differentiable function of u and v , and
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= + and = + (13)
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v

Example 45
Find the partial derivatives of the following composite function
u
z = ln x 2 + y 2 ,


where x = uv , y = .
v

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 Example 46
If f is differentiable and z = u + f u 2 v 2 , show that

∂z ∂z
u −v = u.
∂u ∂v

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 Example 47
∂w 2 r +s
Find if w = 4x + y 2 + z 3 , where x = e rs , y = ln and z = rst 2 .
∂s t

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 Application: The Implicit Function Theorem

Find dy /dx if y = y (x) is an implicit function defined by an equation of

the form

F (x, y ) = 0. (14)

1 Implicit Differentiation: Section 3.6

2 Applying the Chain rule: If F is differentiable, we can apply the case
1 of the Chain rule to obtain
∂F dx ∂F dy
+ = 0.
∂x dx ∂y dx
Since dx/dx = 1, so if ∂F /∂y ̸= 0, then one has
dy ∂F ∂F Fx
=− : =− . (15)
dx ∂x ∂y Fy

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 Example 48
dy
Find if y is a differentiable function of x such that
dx
sin (x + y ) + cos (x − y ) = y

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 Example 49
Find y ′ if y is implicitly given by the equation
x +y y
a. x 3 y − xy 3 = a2 b. arctan =
a a
where a is a constant.

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 11.6 Directional Derivatives and the Gradient
Definition 50 (Directional derivative)
Let f be a function of two variables, and let u = u1 i + u2 j be a unit vector.
The directional derivative of f at P0 (x0 , y0 ) in the direction of u is

f (x0 + hu1 , y0 + hu2 ) − f (x0 , y0 )

Du f (x0 , y0 ) = lim (16)
h→0 h

Interpretation of Directional
derivative:
1 Directional derivative as a slope
2 Directional derivative as a rate

Figure: Directional derivative

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 Theorem 51 (Directional derivatives using partial derivatives)
Let f (x, y ) be a function that is differentiable at P0 (x0 , y0 ). Then f has a
directional derivative in the direction of the unit vector u = u1 i + u2 j given
by

Du f (x0 , y0 ) = fx (x0 , y0 ) u1 + fy (x0 , y0 ) u2 . (17)

Example 52
Find the directional derivative of f (x, y ) = 3 − 2x 2 + y 3 at the point
P(1, 2) in the direction of the unit vector
√
1 3
u= i− j.
2 2

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 The Gradient

The gradient of f , denoted by ∇f (pronounced ”del f”) or grad f (x, y )

(gradient of f ), is a vector given by

∇f (x, y ) = fx (x, y ) i + fy (x, y )j = ⟨fx (x, y ), fy (x, y )⟩ (18)

The value of the gradient at the point P0 (x0 , y0 )

∇f (x0 , y0 ) = fx (x0 , y0 ) i + fy (x0 , y0 )j (19)

Theorem 53 (The gradient formula for the directional derivative)

If f is a differentiable function of x and y , then the directional derivative
of f at the point P0 (x0 , y0 ) in the direction of the unit vector u is

Du f (x0 , y0 ) = ∇f (x0 , y0 ) · u (20)

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 Example 54
Find the directional derivative of f (x, y ) = ln x 2 + y 3 at P0 (1, −3) in

the direction of v = 2i − 3j.

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 Gradient as Multi-variable Derivative

Given a differentiable function y =

f (x), then

f (x) ≈ f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

for x near a.

Given a differentiable function z = f (x, y ), then for (x, y ) near (a, b)

f (x, y ) ≈ f (a, b) + fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(x − b).

⃗ = ⟨x, y ⟩ and A
Denote X ⃗ = ⟨a, b⟩ then

⃗ ) ≈ f (A)
f (X ⃗ + ∇f (A)(
⃗ X ⃗ − A).
⃗

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 Theorem 55 (Basic properties of the gradient)
Let f and g be differentiable functions. Then

Constant rule ∇c = 0 for any constant c

Linearity rule ∇ (af + bg ) = a∇f + b∇g for constants a and b

Product rule ∇ (fg ) = f ∇g + g ∇f

 
f g ∇f − f ∇g
Quotient rule ∇ = g ̸= 0
g g2

Power rule ∇ (f n ) = nf n−1 ∇f

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 Maximal Property of the Gradient
Suppose f is differentiable at the point P0 (x0 , y0 ) and ∇f (x0 , y0 ) ̸= 0.
Du f (x0 , y0 ) = ∇f (x0 , y0 ) · u

the largest value of the directional

derivative Du f at P0 is ∥∇f (x0 , y0 )∥
and occurs when the unit vector u
points in the direction of
∇f (x0 , y0 ) =: ∇f0 .

the smallest value of the directional

derivative Du f at P0 is − ∥∇f (x0 , y0 )∥
and occurs when the unit vector u
points in the direction of −∇f (x0 , y0 ).
Figure: Curve of steepest ascent
or descent
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 Normal Property of the Gradient

Given z = f (x, y ) and a point P(x0 , y0 ) in its domain. Let us consider the
level curve f (x, y ) = k that passes through P. Since the values of f remain
constant as we move along the curve, it follows that

DT f = ∇f · T = 0 (21)

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 Example 56
In what direction is the function defined by f (x, y ) = xe y increasing most
rapidly at the point P0 (2, 0), and what is the maximum rate of increase?
In what direction is f decreasing most rapidly?

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 Example 57
Sketch the level curve corresponding to k = 1 for the function√

f (x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 and find a normal vector at the point P 2, 3 .

Figure: The level curve x 2 − y 2 = 1

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 Example 58
The set of points (x, y ) with 0 ≤ x ≤ 5 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 5 is a square of first
quadrant of the xy -plane. Suppose this square is heated in such a way
that T (x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 is the temperature at the point P(x, y ). In what
direction will heat flow from the point P (3, 4)?

Let H(x, y ) be the heat flow at each point (x, y ) in the region. From
physics it is known that H(x, y ) will be perpendicular to the isothermal
curves T (x, y ) = k for k constant.
Therefore we can express the heat
flow as

H = −k∇T (22)

where k is a positive constant (called

the thermal conductivity).

Figure: Isotherms
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 Function of Three Variables

For a function of three variables f (x, y , z), the gradient of f is defined by

∇f = fx i + fy j + fz k = ⟨fx , fy , fz ⟩ (23)

and the directional derivative of f at P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in the direction of the

unit vector u given by

Du f = ∇f (x0 , y0 , z0 ) · u (24)

Example 59
Let f (x, y , z) = x sin yz. Find find the gradient of f and the directional
derivative of f at (1, 3, 0) in the direction of

v = i − 2j + k.

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 Example 60
Suppose that the temperature at a point (x, y , z) in space is given by

80
T (x, y , z) = ,
1+ x2 + 2y 2 + 3z 2
where T is measured in degrees Celsius and x, y , z in meters. In which
direction does the temperature increase fastest at the point (1, 1, −2)?
What is the maximum rate of increase?

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 Tangent Planes and Normal Lines
Suppose S is a level surface with equation F (x, y , z) = k and let P(x0 , y0 , z0 )
be a point on S. Let C be any curve that lies on the surface and passes
through the point P described by

R(t) = ⟨x(t), y (t), z(t)⟩

the tangent plane to S at P:

Fx (P) (x − x0 ) + Fy (P) (y − y0 )
+ Fz (P) (z − z0 ) = 0

the normal line to S at P:

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
Fx (P) Fy (P) Fz (P)
Figure: The normal property of
the gradient
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 Example 61
Find a vector that is normal to the level surface x 2 + 2xy − yz + 3z 2 = 7
at the point P (1, 1, −1).

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 Example 62
Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal line at the point
P (−2, 1, −3) to the ellipsoid

x2 z2
+ y2 + =3
4 9

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 Example 63
Find the equations for the tangent plane and the normal line to the cone

z2 = x2 + y2

at the point where x = 3, y = 4, and z > 0.

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 Example 64
Find the equations for the tangent plane and the normal line at the point
P(1, −1, 2) on the surface S given by x 2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x = 5.

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 11.7 Extrema of Functions of Two Variables

Absolute extrema (Global extrema)

Relative extrema (Local extrema)

Figure: Absolute extrema and Relative extrema

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 Theorem 65 (Partial derivative criteria for relative extrema)
If f has a relative maximum or minimum at (x0 , y0 ) and the first-order partial
derivatives of f exist there, then

fx (x0 , y0 ) = 0 and fy (x0 , y0 ) = 0.

Figure: Relative extrema

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 Definition 66 (Critical points)
A point (x0 , y0 ) is called a critical point or stationary point of f if either
fx (x0 , y0 ) = fy (x0 , y0 ) = 0 or one of these partial derivatives does not exist.

Notice:
▶ If f has a relative maximum or minium at (x0 , y0 ), then (x0 , y0 ) is a
critical point.
▶ At the critical point, a function could have a relative maximum or
relative minimum or neither.

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 Theorem 67 (Second Derivatives Test)
Suppose that (x0 , y0 ) is a critical point of f (x, y ) and f has continuous
second-order partial derivatives in a disk with center (x0 , y0 ). The discrimi-
nant of f is the expression

D = fxx fyy − fxy2 (25)

1 If D(x0 , y0 ) > 0 and fxx (x0 , y0 ) > 0, then f has a relative minimum
at (x0 , y0 );
2 If D(x0 , y0 ) > 0 and fxx (x0 , y0 ) < 0, then f has a relative maximum
at (x0 , y0 );
3 If D(x0 , y0 ) < 0, then f has a saddle point at (x0 , y0 );
4 If D(x0 , y0 ) = 0, then no conclusion about an extremum at (x0 , y0 )
can be drawn, and further analysis is required.

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 Example 68
Find all relative extrema and saddle points of the function

f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + 2xy + y 2 − 2x − 2y + 5.

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 Example 69
Find all relative extrema and saddle points of the function

f (x, y ) = y 2 − x 2 .

Figure: Saddle point

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 Example 70
Find all relative extrema and saddle points of the function

f (x, y ) = x 4 + y 4 − 4xy + 1.

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 Example 71
Find all relative extrema and saddle points of the function

f (x, y ) = x 2 y 4 .

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 Absolute Extrema of Continuous Functions

Theorem 72 (Extreme Value Theorem for Functions of Two Variables)

If f is continuous on a closed, bounded set D in R2 , then f attains an
absolute maximum value f (x1 , y1 ) and an absolute minimum value f (x2 , y2 )
at some points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in D.

▶ A closed set in R2 is one that contains all its boundary points. For
example, the disk

D = (x, y ) : x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1


is a closed set.
▶ A bounded set in R2 is one that contains within some disk.

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 Absolute extrema

To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous

function f on a closed, bounded set D:

(1) Find all critical points of f in D.

(2) Find all points on the boundary of D where absolute extrema can occur
(boundary points, critical points, endpoints, etc.).
(3) Compute the value of f (x0 , y0 ) for each of the points (x0 , y0 ) found in
steps 1 and 2.
(4) The largest of the values from step 3 is the absolute maximum value;
the smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.

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 Example 73
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function
2 2
f (x, y ) = e x −y over the disk

x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1.

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 Example 74
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function
f (x, y ) = x 2 − 2xy + 2y on the rectangle

D = {(x, y ) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, 0 ≤ y ≤ 2} .

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 Least Squares Approximation of Data

Linear regression:

y = mx + b (26)

At the point Pk (xk , yk ), the error caused by

using point on regression line can be
measured by the difference

yk − (mxk + b) (27)

We wish to minimize the function F

n
X
Figure: Linear regression F (m, b) = [yk − (mxk + b)]2 . (28)
k=1

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 11.8 Lagrange Multipliers

Method of Lagrange Multipliers

To find the maximum and minimum values of the function

z = f (x, y )

subjected to the constrain g (x, y ) = k.

(1) Find x, y and λ such that

∇f = λ∇g and g (x, y ) = k.

(2) Evaluate f (x, y ) at all the points that result from step (1) and all
points on the boundary of the constraint.
(3) (Interpretation) The largest of these values is the maximum value of
f ; the smallest is the minimum value of f .

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 Example 75
(1) Find the maximum and minimum values of the function z = xy with
constraint x + y = 1.
(2) Find the maximum and minimum values of the function z = x + y with
constraint x 2 + y 2 = 1.

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 Example 76
Given that the largest and smallest values of f (x, y ) = 1 − x 2 − y 2 subject
to the constraint x + y = 1 with x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 exist, use the method of
Lagrange multipliers to find these extrema.

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 Example 77
A container in R3 has a shape of the cube given by 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1,
0 ≤ z ≤ 1. A plate is placed in the container in such a way that it
occupies that portion of the plane x + y + z = 1 that lies in a cubical
container. If the container is heated so that the temperature at each point
(x, y , z) is given by

T (x, y , z) = 4 − 2x 2 − y 2 − z 2

in hundreds of degrees Celsius, what are the hottest and coldest points on
the plate? You may assume these extreme temperature exist.

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 Theorem 78 (Rate of change of extreme value)
Suppose E is an extreme value (maximum or minimum) of f subject to
the constraint g (x, y ) = k. Then the Lagrange multiplier λ is the rate of
change of E with respect to k, that is
dE
λ= .
dk

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 Example 79
If x thousand dollars is spent on labor, and y thousand dollars is spent on
equipment, it is estimated that the output of a certain factory will be

Q(x, y ) = 50x 2/5 y 3/5

units. If $150,000 is available, how should this capital be allocated between

labor and equipment to generate the largest possible output? How does the
maximum output change if the money available for labor and equipment is
increased by $1,000?

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 Lagrange Multiplier with Two Constraints

Suppose now that we want to find the maximum and minimum values of a
function f (x, y , z) subject to two constraints (side conditions) of the form

g (x, y , z) = k and h(x, y , z) = c.

Suppose f has such an extreme value at a point P(x0 , y0 , z0 ), then there

are numbers λ and µ such that:


g (P) = k

h(P) = c (29)

∇f (P) = λ∇g (P) + µ∇h(P).


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 Example 80
Find the maximum value of the function f (x, y , z) = x + 2y + 3z on the
curve of intersection of the plane x − y + z = 1 and the cylinder
x 2 + y 2 = 1.

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