SCIENCE

 Science comes from the Latin word Scientia, which means ‘knowledge’.
 It refers to a systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge
about how the universe behaves through observation, experimentation or both.
 According to the famous American science historian, John Heilbron (2003), “Modern
science is a discovery as well as an invention.”
 He considered it as a discovery of regularity in nature, enough for natural phenomena
to be described by principles and laws.

TECHNOLOGY

 Technology, for its part, is the application of scientific knowledge, laws, and principles
to produce services, materials, tools, and machines aimed at solving real-world
problems.
 It comes from a Greek root word techne meaning ‘art, skill, or cunning of hand.’
 In an interview to Mark Zuckerberg last December 2014, where he was asked what is
his definition of a technological tool is?
 He then responded, “ What defines a technological tool –one historical definition- is
something that takes a human’s sense or ability and augments it and makes it more
powerful. So, for examples, I wear contact lenses or glasses; that is a technology that
enhances my human ability of vision and makes it better.”

The Medawar Lecture 1998: Is science dangerous?

 He made a comparison between science and technology that is helpful in the study of
their interaction with society.
 “Reliable knowledge has no moral and ethical value”
 He also made clear that Science is not the same as technology.
 Scientist are not responsible for the application of knowledge in technology.

What are the possible drawbacks on the advancement of Science and Technology?

 In the future, human workforce will be replaced by machines.

 Invention of drugs that cured the previously incurable diseases introduced new strains
of bacteria and viruses that are resistant to the very same drugs that once fought them
(e.g. an antibiotic-resistant gonorrhea, COVID-19)
 The rise of social media put people’s privacy at risk.
 It also changed the way human interact, communicate, and share information.

How STS work?

 STS is a young field that combines previously independent and older-disciplines, such
as history of science, philosophy of science, and sociology of science.
 As an academic field, STS, according to Harvard University’s Kennedy School (2018),
traces its roots this period from the interwar period and start of the cold war. It was this
period when historians and scientist found interest in the interconnections of scientific
knowledge, technological systems, society.
 STS as academic field resulted from the recognition that many schools today do not
really prepare students to respond critically, reflectively, and proactively to the
challenges posed by science and technology in the contemporary world.
Introduction

As a strand of STS, the history of science and technology focuses on how science and technology
have changed across time, Also, it explores the impacts of scientific and technological innovation
s on the prevailing social, cultural, political, and economic contexts throughout history. Conversel
y, it also pays attention to the conditions that shaped science and technology. Quite often, intere
sts lie in historical antecedents of scientific and technological innovations.

An antecedent is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or existence of something. Thus, historic

al antecedents in science und technology are factors that paved the way for the presence of adv
anced and sophisticated scientific and technological innovations today. Knowledge of the history
of science and technology is useful in appraising these innovations today. By understanding how
previous generations influenced and were influenced by developments in science and technology
, today's generation can come up with informed decisions on the proper application of science an
d technology to daily life.

Ancient Period

The rise of ancient civilizations paved the way for advances In science and technology. These adv
ances during the ancient period allowed civilizations to flourish by finding better ways of commu
nication, transportation, self-organization, and of living in general.

Ancient Wheel
People from ancient civilizations used animals for transportation long before the invention of the
wheel. No one knows exactly who invented the wheel and when. There is, however, a general agr
eement that the ancient wheel grew out of a mechanical device called the potter's wheel-a heav
y flat disk made of hardened clay which was spun horizontally on an axis. It is believed that the S
umerians invented the potter's wheel shortly after 3500 BC.

Paper

Roughly around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians began writing on papyrus, a material similar to t
hick paper. Papyrus is made from the pith of the papyrus plant cyperus papyrus. It is lightweight,
strong, durable, and most importantly portable.
Through its use, information dissemination became exponentially faster. Records were kept and s
tood the test of time.

Shadoof

The shadoof was an early tool invented and used by ancient Egyptians to irrigate land. Among Eg
yptians who lived near the Nile River, irrigation was necessary to water their crops. It is a hand
operated device used for lifting water. Its invention introduced the idea of lifting things using cou
nterweights.

Antikythera Mechanism

Even before the invention of the antecedents of the modern computer, the Greeks had already in
vented the ancient world's analog computer orrery. Discovered in 1902 and retrieved from the w
aters of Antikythera, Greece, the Antikythera mechanism is similar to a mantel clock. Antikythera
mechanism was used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses for calendar and astrological
purposes. It is also believed that the Antikythera mechanism, which is one of the oldest known a
ntecedents of modern clockwork, was invented by Greek scientists between 150 -100 BC.
Aeolipile

Also known as the Hero's engine, the aeolipile is widely believed to be the ancient precursor of th
e steam engine. Hero of Alexandria is credited for the demonstration of the use of the aeolipile d
uring the 1st century AD. The aeolipile is a steam
powered turbine which spun when the water container at its center was heated, thus making it pr
actically the first rudimentary steam engine.

Middle Ages

Between the collapse of the Roman Empire in 5th century AD and the colonial expansion of West
ern Europe in late 15th century AD, major advances in scientific and technological development t
ook place. These include steady increase of new inventions, introduction of innovations in traditio
nal production, and emergence of scientific thinking and method. The Middle Ages was not as sta
gnant as alternate terms such as the 'Medieval Period' or 'Dark Ages' suggest. In fact, many medi
eval universities at the time stirred scientific thinking and built infrastructures for scientific comm
unities to flourish. As such, some of humanity's most important present-day technologies could b
e traced back to their historical antecedents in the Middle Ages.

Heavy Plough

Clay soil, despite being more fertile than lighter types of soil, was not cultivated because of its he
avy weight. However, through the invention of the heavy plough, it became possible to harness c
lay soil. Professor Thomas Bernebeck Andersen of the University of Southern Denmark succinctly
describes the impact of the invention of the heavy plough: "The heavy plough turned European a
griculture and economy on its head. Suddenly, the fields with the heavy, fatty, and moist clay soi
ls became those that gave the greatest yields."

Gun Powder

Around 850 AD, Chinese alchemists accidentally invented black powder or gunpowder. Multiple a
ccounts suggest that the gunpowder might have been an unintended byproduct of attempts mad
e by the Chinese to invent the elixir of life, which is why the Chinese called it huoyao, roughly tra
nslated as "fire potion." Prior to the invention of the gunpowder, swords and spears were used in
battles and wars. Towards the end of the 13th century, the explosive invention crept into most pa
rts of Europe and Asia. Since its invention, the gunpowder has allowed for more advanced warfar
e.

Paper Money

Although it was not until the 17th century that bank notes began to be used in Europe, the first k
nown versions of paper money could be traced back to the Chinese in 17th century AD as an offs
hoot of the invention of block printing, which is similar to stamping.

Mechanical Clock

Although devices for timekeeping and recording sprung from the ancient times, such as the A
ntikythera mechanism, it was not until the Middle Ages that clockwork technology was develo
ped.

Spinning Wheel

Another important invention of the Middle Ages is the spinning wheel, a machine used for tran
sforming fiber into thread or yarn and eventually woven into cloth on a loom. Although no con
 sensus could be made regarding the origin of the spinning wheel, it is theorized that the India
ns invented the spinning wheel between 6th and 11th century AD

Modern Ages
Modern Ages population growth necessitated increased efficiency in transportation, communicati
on, and production, while industrialization increased risks in health, food safety, and environment
due to rapid scientific and technological advancements.

Compound Microscope

Zacharias Janssen, a Dutch spectacle maker, invented the first compound microscope in 1590. H
e and his father Hans experimented with lenses, resulting in a microscope capable of magnifying
objects three times their size when fully closed and up to ten times when extended. Today, it's cr
ucial in various scientific fields such as in the areas of medicine, forensic studies, tissue analysis,
atomic studies, and genetics.

Telescope

Galileo Galilei's practical telescope revolutionized astronomy during the Modern Ages, enabling 2
0x magnification of objects. It led to significant discoveries, including craters and moon mountain
s, and revealed the universe's larger size and Earth's smaller size.

Jacquard Loom

The Jacquard Loom, invented by French weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard, revolutionized textile man
ufacturing by simplifying manual labor. Previously, drawlooms required two individuals to operate
, requiring more effort to produce complex designs. Jacquard's invention in 1801 used punched c
ards to automatically create complex textile designs, making mass production easier and a precu
rsor to modern computer technology.

Engine Powered Aircraft

Orville and Wilbur Wright are credited with designing and operating the first engine-powered airc
raft, demonstrating that aircraft could fly without airfoil-shaped wings. Their pioneering success
marked an age of powered flights, paving the way for modern aircraft technology.

Television
John Logie Baird, a Scottish engineer, is credited with inventing modern television. He successfull
y televised objects in outline, human faces, moving objects, and projected colored images. Altho
ugh initially criticized for fuzzy images, it quickly gained popularity.

Inventions by Filipino Scientist

The Philippines boast of

its own history and tradition of scientific and technological innovations. Most of these inventions
appealed to the unique social and cultural context of the archipelagic nation. Filipinos are respon
sible for developing many scientific and technological innovations focused on navigation, traditio
nal shipbuilding, textiles, food processing, indigenous arts and techniques, and even cultural inve
ntions. The following are some of the most important inventions by Filipino scientist.
Electronic Jeepney (E-Jeepney)

The jeepney is perhaps one of the most recognizable national symbols of the Philippines and the
most popular mode of public transportation in the country. It is also perhaps designed and impro
vised from scratch out of military jeeps that the Americans left in the country after World War II.
AS demand for more responsive transportation technology arose, the e-jeepney is the inventive r
esponse to criticism to the traditional jeepney that belched smoke, directly causing air pollution
which made it unsustainable and uneconomical. E-jeepneys are designed to be environment-
friendly, eliminating noise and air pollution as they run on electricity. They are also more economi
cal for electricity is far cheaper than ordinary diesel, allowing jeepney drivers to earn more profit.

Erythromycin

Perhaps one of the most important medical inventions is the Erythromycin. The Illonggo scientist
Abelardo Aguilar invented this antibiotic out of a strain of bacterium called Streptomyces erythre
us, from which this drug derived its name. However, Aguilar was not credited for this discovery b
y Eli Lilli Co., Aguilar’s US employer, to whom he sent the strain for separation. The Us company
eventually owned the merits for this discovery.

Medical Incubator
Worldrenowned Filipino pediatrician and national scientist, Fe Del Mundo, is credited for the inven
tion of the incubator and jaundicerelieving device. Del Mundo was the first woman pediatrician to
be admitted to the prestigious Harvard University’s School of Medicine. She is also the founder of
the first pediatric hospital in the country. Her original improvised incubator consisted of two nativ
e laundry baskets of different sizes that are placed one inside the other. Warmth is generated by
bottles with hot water placed around the baskets. A makeshift hood over the baskets allows oxyg
en to circulate inside the incubator. Del Mundo’s incubator was particularly outstanding as it addr
essed the state of Philippine rural communities that had no electricity to aid the regulation of bod
y temperatures of new born babies. For this purpose, del Mundo’s invention was truly ingenious.

Mole Remover

In 2000, a local invention that had the ability to easily remove moles and warts on the skin witho
ut the need for any surgical procedure shot to fame. Rolando dela Cruz, is credited for the inventi
on of a local mole remover that made use of extracts of cashew nuts (Annacardium occidentale),
which are very common in the Philippines. The indigenous formula easily caught on for its access
ibility, affordability, and the painless and scarless procedure. Dela Cruz won a gold medal for this
invention in the International Invention, Innovation, Industrial Design, and Technology Exhibition i
n Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 2000.

Banana Ketchup

Filipino food technologist, Maria Orosa, is credited for the invention of banana ketchup, a variety
of ketchup different from the commonly known tomato ketchup. Her invention appeals particularl
y to Filipinos who love using condiments to go along with their food. Historical accounts posit that
Orosa invented the banana ketchup at the backdrop of World War II when there was a huge short
age of tomatoes. AS a result, Orosa developed a variety of ketchup that made use of mashed ban
ana, sugar, vinegar, and spices, which were all readily available.Orosa’s banana ketchup is brown
ish-yellow in natural color, but is dyed red to resemble the color of the most loved tomato ketchu
p.
Intellectual Revolutions & Society

Copernican Revolution

The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16th-century paradigm shift named after the Polish
mathematician and astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus.

Copernicus formulated the heliocentric model of the universe. At the time, the belief was
that “the
Earth was the center of the Solar System” based on the geocentric model of Ptolemy (i.e.,
Ptolemaic model).

The Heliocentric Model

 Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model in a 40-page outline

titled Commentariolus.

 He formalized this model in 1543 in his treatise, De Revolutionibus Orbium

Coelestium (The Revolution of Celestial Spheres).

Emphasizes that,

1. The Earth is not at the center of the Solar System.

2. The Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun.

Resistance to the model

 The heliocentric model was met with resistance, primarily from the Church, which
accused Copernicus of heresy.

 The notion challenged the belief that man and the Earth were at the center of all
creation.

Impact & Contribution

 The Copernican Revolution catalyzed a shift in scientific thinking, marking

the beginning of modern astronomy.

 It led to a more enlightened understanding ofthe universe.

 A century later, Isaac Newton's work helped confirm and strengthen the idea of
heliocentrism.
  This revolution marked a turning point in cosmology and astronomy, making it a truly
important intellectual revolution.

Darwinian Revolution

 The English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, Charles Darwin, is credited for stirring
another important intellectual revolution in the mid-19th century.
 His treatise on the science of evolution, On The Origin of Species, was published in
1859 and began a revolution that brought humanity to a new era of intellectual
discovery.

Natural Selection

 Darwin gathered evidence pointing to what is now known as natural selection, an

evolutionary process by which organisms, including humans, inherit, develop, and adapt
traits that favored survival and reproduction.
 These traits are manifested in offspring that are more fit and well-suited to the challenges
of survival and reproduction.

Resistance to the Model

 Considered “controversial”

 Accused the theory of being either failure to fully explain the complicated process of
evolution or rejected the belief that the design of organisms was a manifestation of an
omniscient God.

Impact & Contribution

The Darwinian Revolution, like the Copernican Revolution, showed how natural laws
explain survival and reproduction. It helped modern science understand how organisms develop
and how life evolves through an orderly process guided by nature's laws.

Freudian Revolution

Sigmund Freud - Austrian neurologist, credited for stirring a 20th-century intellectual revolution
named after him, the Freudian Revolution.

Psychoanalysis - Scientific method of understanding inner and unconscious conflicts embedded

within one's personality, springing from free associations, dreams, and fantasies - is at the center
of this revolution.

Resistance to the Model

  Psychoanalysis emphasized the existence of the unconscious, containing feelings,
thoughts, urges, emotions, and memories outside of one's conscious mind.

 Psychoanalytic concepts of psychosexual development, libido, and ego were met with both
support and resistance like the Oedipus and Electra complexes.

 Critics argued psychoanalysis lacked empirical support, especially concepts like the
Oedipus and Electra complexes.

Impact & Contribution

 Freud's psychoanalysis dominated psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th century.

 Psychodynamic therapies treating psychological disorders remain largely informed by
Freud's work on psychoanalysis
 Freud’s revolution introduced psychoanalysis, introduced new ideas about the unconscious
mind and changed how people understand and treat mental health.

Intellectual revolution that defined Society

Information Revolution

The Information Revolution started from the Sumerian pictographs, which is the earliest
writing system. Then comes the invention of Gutenberg's printing press 1455. There emerged
the use of typewriter and telegraph. Today, technologies are used widely which became easier
with the help of internet to communicate and disseminate and store information.

 The Invention of Agriculture

 Invention of Printing Press

 Industrial Revolution

 Discovery of Electricity

Cradles of early Science

Meso-American

- Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the border
of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and
knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.

MESOAMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS

• Geography and People

•The Olmec Empire (1400-500 BC)

•Mayan Empire (AD 300-900)

• Aztec Empire (1200)

•Incan Empire (1400)

- The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific ideas
considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools
that they developed to help them in everyday life:

1. roads paved with stones;

 2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;

3. Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of
land;

4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting

3. The first suspension bridge:

6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and

7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

- Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and
technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:

1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are
mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age.

2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan
culture they use it as a currency.

3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could

prevent muscle spasms and relax muscle, which could help during surgery.

4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canal.

5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.

6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia

- India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in
its northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in
their everyday lives. They are known for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their
iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire.

 India is also famous in Medicine.

 Notable in the field of astronomy.

 Ancient India is also known for their Mathematics.

- China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like
medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others. Chinese
civilizations have greatly influenced many of its neighbor countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines,
Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.

 The Chinese are known for Traditional Medicine.

 Technology. Chinese are known to develop many tools.

 Field of Astronomy

 China made substantial contributions in various fields

Middle East

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the
7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam
lasted until the 13th century. The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the
Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to India were contributory to the intellectualization of the
Muslims and provided their scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But
contrary to the Greeks, Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather
than plain-thought experiments. This led to the development of the scientific method in the

Muslim world and made significant improvements by using experiments to distinguish between
competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. A Muslim scientist
named In al Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of
the intromission theory of light.

 The Arab applied the romans principles and improve the watermill known as noria.

 The middle East is known for their machine designed for the improvement of irrigation,
industrial work and for war.

 The windmill and watermill are used for crushing sugarcanes, grinding grain, and pumping
water.

 The book of Badic al-Zaman ibn al-Razaz al-Jazari described candle and water clocks,
water vessels, fountains, automata, and water raising devices.

 The book written by Tagi al-Din ibn Maruf al-Rashid al-Dimashqi explained steam power
and a blueprint of a six-piston pump.