FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND

IMAGE ANALYSIS 211

2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

PROPERTIES
IMAGE PRODUCTION AND IMAGE EVALUATION A.​ Transparent and clear
B.​ Flexible and sturdy
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM (Image Receptor) C.​ Slight blue tint (lessen eye fatigue and increase IQ by
-​ The medium that converts x-ray beam into a visible decreasing parallax effect. increase contrast and
image. sharpness. can be blue pale, blue gray
-​ Image receptor (any type of film that saves image D.​ Polyester (flexible and transparent, updated.)
from radiation)
-​ (Photostimulable Phosphor/ Flat Panel Detector
FILM BASE
process/convert to digital)
FILM CONSTRUCTION:
➢​ Supercoating - Inferior and superior part of film. Purpose:

protects ●​ Provide rigid structure onto which the emulsion can

➢​ most sensitive part which is emulsion be coated

➢​ Emulsion - most active layer of film, heart of film, has ●​ Should be flexible but unbreakable to allow easy

silver handling

➢​ halide crystals ●​ Should be sturdy/strong to maintain size and shape

➢​ Adhesive Layer - substratum (other term) during use and processing (Dimensional Stability)

➢​ Base - thickest part of film. 150-250 um, 175-300 um ●​ Should be non-flammable and water proof.

➢​ Double Emulsion Film - ●​ Should be nearly transparent to light so there will be

no-unwanted pattern or shading on the film caused
by the base (Uniform Lucency)

Increase IQ = Decrease Parallax Effect = Increase Sharpness

= Increase Details

Parallax effect happens in DEF

-​ Decrease thickness of base (but not controlled) to
decrease
DOUBLE EMULSION FILM:
parallax effect.
(para siyang pag lagay ng pencil sa baso na may tubig, hindi
pantay pag marami pero pag kumonti pumapantay na siya.)

HISTORY

➢​ In ,1812 silhouettes were recorded on glass plates In

➢​ 1819, the solvent action of sodium thiosulfate on silver
chloride was discovered
➢​ In 1839, the phenomenon of development was
discovered by Louis Daguerre
PARTS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
➢​ One year later, it was discovered that treating
exposed silver chloride paper with sodium chloride
BASE - The foundation for radiographic film ; supports the
would make the image permanent
emulsion..

1​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

➢​ By the time x-rays were discovered, photography

already an art Difference of Single and Double Emulsion Film Speed:
➢​ Photographic film with a nitrocellulose base was - SEF - slower, increase mAs, use in mammo, no IS
already being marketed by George Eastman - DEF - faster, decrease mAs, Has IS
➢​ The first x-rays were recorded on glass plates - adjust mAs. SEF better IQ but increase PX dose
➢​ These were coated with emulsion on one side only
➢​ The exposure dose was quite high Parallax Effect - distortion in the image of an object that
➢​ Glass plates were used up until WWI occurs when the object is not centered in relation to the x-ray
beam.

HISTORICAL BITS

●​ Thomas Edison - Discovered the Fluoroscopy and

Tungstate
●​ Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen - X-RAY
●​ Michael Pupin - Discovered the Intensifying Screen
(IS), then continued the fluoroscopy.
➢​ 1895 - photographic plates (use glass plate)
➢​ 1914 - single coated cellulose nitrate films
Cellulose nitrate film is extremely dangerous. It
catches fire very easily and once alight is difficult to
put out. Fires involving cellulose nitrate burn
extremely quickly with a hot, intense flame and the
smoke is particularly toxic, containing large quantities
of poisonous gases.
➢​ 1933 - tinted film base
➢​ 1924 - cellulose acetate film base (triacetate)
➢​ 1960's - polyester film base and film for rapid o
processing

FILM BASE

➢​ 1895 - photographic plates

➢​ 1914 - single coated cellulose nitrate films
➢​ 1924 - cellulose acetate film base,
➢​ 1960's - polyester film base and film for rapid
processing
➢​ 1918 - duplitized films ➢​ 1940 - film suitable for both direct and indirect
exposure
➢​ 1958 - fast light-sensitive film
SINGLE EMULSION FILM DOUBLE EMULSION FILM

↓ SPEED ↑ SPEED *What is the color of the radiographic film base to minimize
the effect of ambient light passing through large unexposed
↓ CONTRAST ↑ CONTRAST areas of the radiograph?*
A. Tinted blue
↑ PHOTOGRAPHIC SHARPNESS ↓ PHOTOGRAPHIC SHARPNESS
B. Tinted green

2​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

C. Tinted blue-green ➢​ The emulsion consists of a homogenous mixture of

D. Tinted yellow - orange gelatin and silver halide crystals.
➢​ Gelatin- mixture where the silver halide crystals are
TYPES OF FILM BASE suspended. The main function of the gelatin is to
●​ Glass Plate provide mechanical support for the silver halide
●​ Cellulose Nitrate crystals by holding them uniformly dispersed in place.
●​ Cellulose Triacetate Properties:
●​ Polyester (1960) ●​ Clear, so that it transmits light
●​ Porous - to penetrate the silver halide crystals during
processing
HISTORICAL BITS
●​ Silver Halide Crystals - the active ingredient of the
radiographic emulsion.
➢​ 1895 - photographic plates ●​ These are flat triangular and approximately 1um on a
➢​ 1914 - single coated cellulose nitrate films side. The arrangements of atoms are in cubes.
➢​ 1918 - duplitized films ●​ The shape and lattice structure of the silver halide
➢​ 1924 - cellulose acetate film base, crystals are not perfect, and the imperfections result
➢​ 1933 - tinted film base, this is the part that is nearest in the imaging property of the crystals.
to the IS - supercoat ●​ The type of imperfection thought to be responsible is
➢​ 1936 - direct film exposure a chemical contaminant, usually Silver Sulfide, and
➢​ 1940 - film suitable for both direct and indirect this contaminant is named sensitivity specks.
exposure, No IS but has cardboard and indirect ●​ The crystals are made by dissolving the metallic silver
exposure (has IS. use in mammo and dental) (Ag) in nitric acid (HNO3) to form Silver Nitrate
➢​ 1958 - fast light-sensitive film, DEF, Has no Blue tinted (AgNO3).
eye. Color of radiographic film base to minimize effect ●​ The light-sensitive Silver Bromide (AgBr) crystals are
of light passing - tinted blue formed by mixing silver nitrate with Potassium
➢​ panchromatic film - no color or safelight filter be use Bromide (KBr).
➢​ 1960's - polyester film base and film for rapid
processing ➔​ Silver Bromide - (95%) can be 90-99%
➔​ Silver Iodide - (5%) can be 1-10%
Advantages of Polyester ​ AgNO3 + KBr → AgBr ↓ + KN03
●​ More resistant to warping with age and stronger than
cellulose triacetate, permitting easier transport
FILM GRAIN
through processor
●​ Thinner compared to all other bases (175 um)
compared to cellulose triacetate CT (200um) but just Film Grain - clumping of the silver halide crystals. In actuality,
as strong these silver halide crystals during manufacturing are
dispersed through-out the gelatin. During manufacture, film
speed is determined and controlled by adding the right
EMULSION
amount of dyes to the film emulsion.
Emulsion
➢​ the heart of x-ray film. affects film speed (ability of material to absorb rad/light)
➢​ It is the material in which x-rays or light photons from - Size of silver halide crystals. increase size = increase speed
the screen interact and transfer information. and vice versa. but smaller size is better IQ
- Number/Quantity = increase speed

3​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

- type
WHY WE USE GELATIN AS BINDER?
- Shape - Tabular (much faster, decrease mAs and px
dose,triangular), Cube, Globular)
Silver iodide is m u c h faster ●​ It is a medium in which SILVER NITRATE and SODIUM

Increase speed BROMIDE can react and the resulting AgBr get finely

Latent image form first sensitivity speck and evenly dispersed and remain suspended.
●​ In a warm state it can be easily spread on the film
CUBIC ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN THE CRYSTAL
base.
●​ On cooling, it sets firmly on the base as gel.
●​ It is flexible and does not crack easily on bending.
●​ It is optically transparent.
●​ Gelatin does not react chemically with the silver
halide.
●​ It is porous, so the processing chemicals can
penetrate to the Silver Halide crystal.
●​ Some of the constituents in gelatin enhance the
activity of Silver Bromide and some act as anti
fogging.

FILM CONSTRUCTION

SUPER COAT - is a durable protective layer that is intended to

➢​ where the latent image form
prevent damage to the sensitive emulsion layer underneath it.

LAYERS OF FILM

●​ TOP COAT
●​ EMULSION
●​ ADHESIVE LAYER
●​ BASE

EMULSION LAYERS

➢​ Has 2 principle components ;

I.​ Silver Halide grains

➢​ thickness 175-300 micrometer II.​ Vehicle matrix

➢​ top coat - 2 ➢​ It consists of a homogenous mixture of gelatin and

➢​ emulsion - depende if single or double silver halide crystals.

➢​ In typical emulsion – 90 to 99% is AgBr and about 1 to
10% AgI

4​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

➔​ The presence of AgI produces an emulsion of much ❖​ AUTOMATIC SERIAL CHANGER FILM:
higher sensitivity than a pure AgBr emulsion. -​ For serial radiography such as angiography
➔​ It also contains traces of sulfur (ALLYLTHIOUREA) -​ Has special protective coating
-​ Elema Schonander and Franklin Film
**Which of the following color regions do calcium tungstates Changer
emit light?** ❖​ DOSIMETER FILM (personnel monitoring film):
A.​ Pink to white -​ Measures radiation absorbed dose.
B.​ Violet to blue
C.​ Red to green
D.​ Green to white

❖​ POLAROID RADIOGRAPHIC FILM - PAPER - BASED

SINGLE EMULSION FILM

➢​ Screen type
a.​ Mammography
➢​ Non-screen type
a.​ Photofluorography type - cine films
b.​ Cathode ray tube (CRT) type -
2. EMULSIONS - IS THE RADIATION SENSITIVE AND LIGHT ➢​ USG, CT, MRI, DSA, Nuclear Medicine
SENSITIVE LAYER OF THE FILM. a.​ Duplication films - copy radiograph
➢​ It consists of: b.​ Subtraction films
A.​ SIlver Halide Crystals - recording medium c.​ Polaroid films - Old USG films
Silver bromide (AgBr) 90% to 99% d.​ Laser imaging films
Silver iodide (AgI) 1% to 10%
B.​ Gelatin - suspension medium ❖​ SPOT FILM
-​ Fluorospot camera
-​ Sizes 70, 90, 105 mm (roll film)
❖​ INDUSTRIAL FILM:
-​ For high energy radiography
-​ MeV

❖​ DICOM VIEWER

5​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

-​ DVD is a very cheap in comparison with cine c.​ 1 and 3

film. d.​ 1, 2 and 3
❖​ COPY OR DUPLICATING FILM (SEF):
-​ Exposed to ultraviolet light through existing
radiographs to produce a copy using an General Types of Film
ultraviolet lamp or BLB bulb.
❖​ PHOTOFLUOROGRAPHIC FILM (SINGLE COATED FILM): CHARACTERISTIC DIRECT EXPOSURE INDIRECT
-​ For the photography of the image on the S FILM EXPOSURE FILM
fluorescent screen by a camera in an area
chest x-ray examination. Exposed with Only by x-rays Mainly by visible
light
❖​ VIDEO FILM (SEF):
-​ Exposed in a device called multiformat
Used Without Screen With screen
camera or a laser camera.
❖​ DENTAL X-RAY FILM: Emulsion layer Thick Thin
-​ Extraoral film (Panoramic Film)
Image formation In deep superficially
-​ Intraoral film:
a.​ Periapical film
Processing time more
b.​ Bitewing or inter proximal film less
c.​ Occlusal film
❖​ THERAPY LOCALIZATION FILM: Resolution time more less
-​ Given acceptable radiographic detail under
a wide range of exposure to x-rays and
Characteristic No apparent Shoulder region
gamma rays.
curve shoulder region within useful
❖​ MAMMOGRAPHIC FILM: in useful density density range
-​ For radiography of the breast range
-​ Fine grain; single emulsion; greater detail
❖​ CINE FILM: Screen artifact no May Possible

-​ Single Emulsion FIlm with sprocket holes.

Exposure dose more less
❖​ LASER FILM:
-​ Laser printer uses digital electronic signals Used in Orbit and General
from an imaging device. extremities Radiography
-​ HIgh contrast single emulsion film with radiography.
extreme fine grain (IR Film). Also in Industrial
Radiography
-​ Silver Halide film sensitized red light or laser
light.

TYPES OF FILM:
**Panchromatic emulsions are sensitive to which of the
❖​ Screen FIlm
following wavelengths:**
-​ Photographic film used in conjunction with
1.​ Whole visible spectrum
IS.
2.​ Shorter wavelength
-​ This is also known as indirect exposure film.
3.​ Wavelength less than 620 nm
-​ This type of film reacts to light.
a.​ 1 only
b.​ 1 and 2

6​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

-​ The use of screen film together with -​ Refers to the image that exists on film after
Intensifying Screen greatly reduces Px dose exposure and processing. The manifest
up to 95%. image typically is called a radiographic
●​ Blue Sensitive image.
●​ Green Sensitive

FILM CONSTRUCTION
❖​ Non-Screen Film
-​ FIlm used without intensifying screen. ➢​ Super Coat / Top Coat

-​ This is also known as direct exposure film. -​ Durable protective layer that is intended to

-​ This type of film reacts to X-rays. prevent damage to the sensitive emulsion

-​ This film provides better sharpness of the image but layer underneath it.

with higher Px dose compared to screen film. ➢​ Emulsion

-​ The emulsion is thicker and contains higher -​ The heart of the X-Ray film.

concentration of Silver Halide crystals to enhance ➢​ Adhesive Layer

direct x-ray interaction. -​ Binds the emulsion to the base of the film.

-​ The direct exposure film is usually used together with -​ Between the emulsion layer and the base it

individually packaged paper wrappings. simply adheres one layer of the film to
another. Made of pure gelatin glue.

❖​ Sensitivity Specks
-​ serves as the focal point for the development of
latent image centers.
-​ After exposure, these specks trap the free electrons
and then attract and neutralize the positive silver ions.
-​ After enough silver is neutralized, the specks become
a latent image center and are converted to black
metallic silver after chemical processing.

DUPLICATING FILM

➢​ SIngle Emulsion Film

➢​ Emulsion side - shiny, other side - dull
TYPES OF FILM ACCORDING TO USE
➢​ Used only in Dark room.
➢​ Emulsion side must contact the radiograph during the
MAMMOGRAPHIC DUPLICATING
process.
➢​ A small photographic printer with UV light is used.
Therapy Localization DOsimeter

Dental Automatic Serial Change

LATENT IMAGE FORMATION

➢​ Latent Image Video Industrial

-​ Refers to the image that exists on film after
Photofluorographic Polaroid
that film has been exposed but before it has
been processed.
Cine Lase
➢​ Manifest Image

7​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

❖​ Gurney-Mott Theory of Latent Image Formation: **Information that is very important to note in order to have
-​ Before exposure, Silver Halide (AgBr and AgI) film quality is:**
is suspended in gelatin in the emulsion layer. A.​ Expiration date
-​ Sensitivity specks exist as physical B.​ Film speed
imperfections in film lattice. C.​ Types of film
-​ Exposure to X-Rays and light ionizes the D.​ Name of the manufacturer
silver halide.
-​ Negatively charged electrons and positively
STORAGE ENVIRONMENT POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCE
charged silver ions float freely in the
PROBLEM
emulsion gelatin.
-​ Sensitivity specks trap electrons. Temperature too high Increased fog level

Temperature too low Increased static discharge

FILM STORAGE AND HANDLING
Humidity too high Increased fog level
A.​ Storing Unexposed Film
-​ Unexposed film should be stored in its Humidity too low Increased static discharge
original packaging. (You can’t put the film
in other box.)
**The artifacts that are caused by low humidity and improper
-​ Different Sizes of Films:
handling of film is called:**
8 x 10
A.​ Static electricity
11 x 14
B.​ Fogging
14 x 14
C.​ Scratches
14 x 17
D.​ Sensitized marks
-​ Film Boxes should be stored vertically or not
horizontally. (Patayo dapat hindi pahiga)
❖​ Static Artifact also called Characteristic Artifact.
-​ In storing the film, always remember the
❖​ Representation of Static Artifacts are:
VEST: Vertically, Edge, Straight (nakatayo)
-​ Crown
-​ Don’t store the film horizontally, it will pile up
-​ Smudge
-​ Film should be stored at temperatures
-​ Tree
ranging from 50° to 70°F (10° to 21°C) and
❖​ How does it produce?
relative humidity at 40% to 60%..
-Low humidity and improper handling

**Which of the following IS phosphor intensifies green color?**

1.​ Gadolinium oxysulfide
2.​ Lanthanum oxyblomide
3.​ Calcium Tungstate
A.​ 2 & 3 only
B.​ 2 only
C.​ 1 only
D.​ 1, 2 & 3

8​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

**Refers to the film with emulsion on two sides is:** ➔​ Thicker Emulsion - Speed adjustment, Adjust
A.​ Radiographic the Emulsion increases patient dose
B.​ Duplitized
C.​ Emulsified -​ Most extremity examinations now employ fine-grain,
D.​ Duplex high detail screens and single emulsion film as image
receptors. In general, large grain emulsions are more
B. Packaging of Film sensitive than small-grain emulsions.
-​ Polyethylene bag -​ Current emulsions contain less silver yet produce the
-​ Metal foil same optical density per unit exposure.
-​ Photo-inert leaves of paper -​ This more efficient use of silver is termed as the
covering power of the emulsion.
C. Storage precautions -​ Films are commonly double emulsions to maximize
-​ Films must be protected from: speed, which provides twice speed than of a
●​ Heat single-coated film.
●​ Radiation
●​ Chemical fumes ➔​ In terms of size:
●​ Pressure -​ If there is larger size of silver halide crystal =
low detail = high speed
D. Expiration date -​ If there is small size of silver halide crystal =
-​ Adhere to “First In, FIrst Out” FIFO system. high detail = low speed
-​ Last In, Last Out (LILO)
-​ FEFO ➢​ Factors Affecting Film Sensitivity
-​ Number of Silver Halide crystal
**The film stock rotation is practice in order:** -​ The size of silver halide crystal
A.​ To avoid rough handling and pressure that can ➢​ Film Contrast
cause bruising -​ The ability of the radiographic film to provide
B.​ To comply with the conditions sell-out above expiry a certain level of image contrast
date and shelf-life -​ Most manufacturers provide screen films
C.​ To indicate which film is to be used with two or more contrast levels.
D.​ To keep the film under specified conditions -​ High contrast film produces a very black and
white image, whereas a low contrast film
image is more gray.
➔​ High Contrast = Black to White
FILM CHARACTERISTICS
➔​ Low Contrast = Black to Gray to
➢​ Film Speed White
-​ The degree to which the emulsion is sensitive to -​ The screen film also have exposure latitude, the
X-Rays or light. difference is the volume distribution and size of the
-​ The greater the film speed of a film the more sensitive Silver Halide crystal.
it is. This increase in sensitivity results in less exposure -​ It is the inherent ability to record minute differences in
necessary to produce a specific density. density across the film
-​ Screen film is also available at film speed. In general, ➢​ Light Sensitivity/Spectral Response
the thicker the emulsion the more sensitive the film
and therefore higher the speed.

9​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

-​ Use green sensitive film with a green emitter ➢​ Dirt on Hands or Intensifying Screens will result in a
intensifying screen and Blue sensitive film specular-type of artifacts
with a blue emitter intensifying screen ➢​ In dry environments, static electricity can cause
●​ Orthochromatic (Green Sensitive) characteristics artifacts like tree-like branching
●​ Panchromatic (Blue Sensitive) smudge and crown.
➔​ Mismatched of sensitivity emission
screen lag = decrease image quality lower speed
HEAT AND HUMIDITY

➢​ Crossover ➢​ Temperature should not exceed 20°C (68°F). 10°C

-​ A problem that is unique to double-emulsion (50°F) of temperature can make storage time longer

film used with intensifying screens. to about 1 year.

-​ Refers to light that has been produced by an ➢​ Relative humidity should be maintained at 40%

intensifying screen that exposes one

emulsion and then crosses over the base ❖​ Light

layer of the film to expose the other -​ Any photographic film should not be exposed to any

emulsion. (decreases recorded detail on the form of light.

radiograph) -​ All films should be handled in the Darkroom.

➔​ Color bucking material - there is a ❖​ Radiation

color added to the film -​ Films should be stored away from the source of

➔​ Double emulsion - Parallax Effect radiation.

➢​ Spectral Matching ❖​ Shelf Life

-​ Refers to the color of light to which particular film is -​ Take note of the expiration date.

most sensitive. In radiography, there are generally ❖​ FIFO

two categories of spectral sensitivity films: -​ Stocks that came first should be used first. (First In,

A.​ Blue Sensitive First Out)

B.​ Green Sensitive (orthochromatic) ❖​ Films should be stacked in vertical rather than

-​ When radiographic film is used with intensifying horizontal to avoid any pressure marks.

screens, It is important to match the spectral ❖​ Forty-five days is a reasonable maximum storage

sensitivity of the film with spectral emission of the time for radiographic film.

screens.
-​ Refers to correctly matching the color sensitivity of HANDLING
the film to the color emission of the intensifying
➢​ Hands should be clean and dry
screen.
➢​ Do not lay in cabinets
➢​ Spectral Emission
➢​ Do not slid across surfaces
-​ Refers to the color of light produced by a particular
➢​ Open only in darkroom
intensifying screen.

HANDLING AND STORAGE

➢​ Radiographic film is pressure sensitive, so rough INTENSIFYING SCREENS

handling or the imprint of any sharp object will ➢​ Is a device found in radiographic cassettes that
produce artifacts. contains phosphors that convert x-ray energy to light,
➢​ Creasing the film before processing will produce which then exposes the radiographic film.
line-like or fingernail-appearing artifact

10 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

➢​ Intensify or amplify the energy to which they are ➢​ Part of the Intensifying Screen that is closest to the
exposes. film is the protective coating.
➢​ With screens, the total amount of energy to which the
film is exposed is divided between X-rays and light.
PHOSPHOR
Approximately 90% to 99% of the total energy to
which the film is exposed is light. ➢​ Active layer of IS that emits light during stimulation by

➢​ X-rays account for the remaining 1% to 10% of the X-ray.

energy. ➢​ Most Important layer

➢​ Active material of IS is Phosphor.

➢​ It is a device found in radiographic cassettes that A.​ Characteristics of a good phosphor:

contain phosphor that convert x-ray energy into -​ Quantum detection efficiency

light, which then exposes the radiographic film. -​ Conversion efficiency

➢​ Intensify or amplify the energy to which they where -​ Spectral matching

exposed. -​ MInimum afterglow

➢​ 90% to 99% of the total energy light, A 1% to 10% X-ray

energy.

❖​ Layers of Intensifying Screen

1.​ Protective Layer
2.​ Phosphor Layer
3.​ Reflective Layer
4.​ Base

​ Zinc = ↑ Sensitivity, ↑ QDE, ↑ Speed

➢​ Luminescence - Ability of the material to produce or
emit light.
➢​ Phosphorescent - Afterglow

B.​ Phosphor Materials

-​ Calcium Tungstate (CaWO4) → Also known as
Scheelite Natural Tungstate
-​ Barium lead sulfate → used for high kVp techniques,
for long scale of contrast
-​ Zinc sulfide → for low kVp, for short scale of contrast
PROTECTIVE COATING
-​ Rare earth crystals
➢​ Helps prevent static
➢​ Gives physical protection to the delicate phosphor
PHOSPHOR Screen Emissions
layer
➢​ Provides a surface which can be cleaned without Calcium Tungstate (CaW04)
damaging the phosphor
➢​ Anti-static solution used to clean the Intensifying Rare earth elements
Lanthanum oxybromide (LaBr) Blue
Screen.
Yttrium tantalate Ultraviolet blue

11 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.
FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

Gadolinium oxysulfide (Gd2025) Green LUMINESCENCE

➢​ Is the emission of light from the screen when

Others stimulated by radiation.

Barium Lead Sulfate Blue ●​ Fluorescence
Barium Strontium Sulfate Blue ●​ Phosphorescence

PHOSPHORESCENCE

REFLECTIVE LAYER ➢​ Occurs when screen phosphors continue to emit light

after the X-ray exposure has stopped.
➢​ Intercepts light photons headed in other directions
➢​ It is also called screen lag or afterglow.
and redirects them to the film.
➢​ One of the most important part of the IS
➢​ Material → Magnesium Oxide or Titanium Dioxide SCREEN SPEED
➢​ Doubling the amount of the light emitted - 50%
➢​ The capability of the screen to produce visible light.

BASE ❖​ Screen speed and Light Emission

-​ The faster an intensifying screen, the more light
➢​ Made of a high grade cardboard or polyester which
emitted for the same intensity of x-ray exposure.
provides support to the phosphor layer.
➢​ Must be rugged and moisture resistant
➢​ Must not suffer radiation damage nor discoloration FACTORS IN DETERMINING SPEED OF THE SCREEN
➢​ Must be chemically inert and not interact with
​ TTSR:
phosphor layer
❖​ Type of phosphor used
➢​ Must be flexible
❖​ Thickness of the active layer
➢​ Must not contain impurities that would be imaged by
❖​ Size of the phosphor
x-rays
❖​ Reflectance of the screen bucking

➔​ Minus density artifacts - Color White

**Which of the following do NOT affect the speed of an
➔​ If the impurities came from the IS in the cassette, the
intensifying screen?**
color of the artifacts is White.
A.​ Thickness of the active layer of phosphor
B.​ Reflectance of cardboard
C.​ Screen contact
D.​ Size of the phosphor crystal

INTENSIFICATION FACTOR

➢​ The intensifying action of the screen

➢​ The Intensification factor (IF) can be stated as follows:

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FILM-SCREEN IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS 211
2024 - 2025 | 2ND SEMESTER | PRELIMS| PROF. RHANDEL ROGELIO. RRT, MHA, CIA

13 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CHAI G.