4 carbons
Carbohydrates
The general formula for a carbohydrate
is Cx(H2O)y.
3 Organic Compounds Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Amino Acids (1) the size of the base carbon chain
Lipids (2) the location of the CO function group
Although all three are used as a source of (3) the number of sugar units, and
energy, carbohydrates are the primary
(4) the stereochemistry of the compound
source for brain, erythrocytes, and retinal
cells in humans. (4)
Carbohydrates can be grouped into
generic classifications based on the
number of carbons in the molecule.
Carbohydrates Trioses – 3 carbons
Tetroses – 4 carbons
o are the major food source and energy
supply for the body and are stored Pentoses – 5 carbons
primarily in the liver and muscle as
glycogen Hexoses – 6 carbons
Glyceraldehyde
Disease states involving carbohydrates are
split into two groups—hyperglycemia (which
The smallest carbohydrate, 3-carbon
can lead to diabetes mellitus) and
compound
hypoglycemia
Carbohydrates are hydrates of
aldehyde or ketone derivatives based
Early detection of diabetes mellitus is
on the location of the CO functional
the aim of the American Diabetes
group.
Association (ADA) guidelines.
The two forms of carbohydrates are
aldose and ketose.
General Description of Carbohydrates
4 carbons
compounds containing C, H, and O
Haworth projection
represents the compound in the cyclic
form that is more representative of the
actual structure
The aldose form has a terminal carbonyl group
hemiketal or hemiacetal ring
(O=CH–) called an aldehyde group, whereas the
this structure is formed when the
ketose form has a carbonyl group (O=C) in the
functional (carbonyl) group (ketone or
middle linked to two other carbon atoms
aldehyde) reacts with an alcohol group on
(called a ketone group).
the same sugar to form a ring called either
a hemiketal or a hemiacetal ring
Several models are used to represent
carbohydrates.
o Fisher projection
o Haworth projection
Stereoisomers
Fisher projection The central carbons of a carbohydrate are
asymmetric (chiral)—four different groups
has the aldehyde or ketone at the top of are attached to the carbon atoms.
the drawing. The carbons are numbered
starting at the aldehyde or ketone end various spatial arrangements around each
the compound can be represented as a asymmetric carbon (also called stereogenic
straight chain or might be linked to show
centers)
a representation of the cyclic, hemiacetal
stereoisomers have the same order and
form
types of bonds but different spatial
arrangements and different properties.
Classification of Carbohydrates these monosaccharides are then actively
absorbed
Another classification of carbohydrates is the most common disaccharides are
maltose (comprising two d-glucose
based on the number of sugar units in the molecules in a 1 → 4 linkage), lactose, and
sucrose.
chain:
monosaccharides (one)
disaccharides (two)
oligosaccharides (three to ten) and
Oligosaccharides
polysaccharides (ten or more)
chaining of 3 to 10 sugar units
example: raffinose – derived from 3
sugar units (galactose, glucose,
Monosaccharides fructose)
simple sugars that cannot be
hydrolyzed to a simpler form; there is Polysaccharides
one sugar molecule
these sugars can contain three, four, are formed by the linkage of many
five, or six or more carbon atoms monosaccharide units
(known as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, on hydrolysis, polysaccharides will
and hexoses, respectively) yield 10 or more monosaccharides
most common hexose amylase, an enzyme found in saliva
monosaccharides include glucose, and in the stomach, hydrolyzes starch
fructose, and galactose. to disaccharides in the duodenum
most common polysaccharides are
starch (plant based glucose molecules)
and glycogen (animal based glucose
molecules)
Disaccharides
formed when two monosaccharide
units are joined by a glycosidic linkage
on hydrolysis, disaccharides will be
split into two monosaccharides by
disaccharide enzymes (e.g., lactase)
located on the microvilli of the
intestine
Chemical Properties Glucose
is a primary source of energy for humans
Reducing Substances the nervous system, including the brain,
totally depends on glucose drawn from
the surrounding extracellular fluid (ECF)
Can reduce other compounds for energy
Must contain active ketone or nervous tissue cannot concentrate or store
aldehyde group carbohydrates; therefore, it is critical to
Examples: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, maintain a steady supply of glucose to the
tissue
Lactose, Galactose
is the only carbohydrate that can be
Can form glycosidic bonds with other directly used for energy or stored as
carb and non-carb glycogen
Nonreducing-if bond is formed with the
anomeric carbon on the other
carbohydrate
Nonreducing-if bond is formed with the
anomeric carbon on the other carbohydrate
Do not have active ketone or aldehyde
group
Will not reduce other compounds
Examples: Sucrose
All monosaccharides and some
disaccharides are reducing agents
Disaccharide remains a reducing agent when
the hemiacetal or ketal hydroxyl grop is not
linked to another molecule.
Carbohydrates
Classification of Carbohydrates
3 Organic Compounds
1) the size of the base carbon chain
Carbohydrates
2) the location of the CO function group
Amino Acids
3) the number of sugar units, and
Lipids
Although all three are used as a source of (4) the stereochemistry of the compound
energy, carbohydrates are the primary 4)
source for brain, erythrocytes, and retinal
cells in humans. Carbohydrates can be grouped into
generic classifications based on the
number of carbons in the molecule.
Carbohydrates
o are the major food source and energy
supply for the body and are stored
primarily in the liver and muscle as
glycogen
Disease states involving carbohydrates are
split into two groups—hyperglycemia (which
can lead to diabetes mellitus) and
hypoglycemia
Early detection of diabetes mellitus is
the aim of the American Diabetes
Association (ADA) guidelines.
General Description of Carbohydrates
compounds containing C, H, and O
The general formula for a carbohydrate
is Cx(H2O)y.
