Computers and their

UNIT 1 COMPUTERS AND THEIR Components

COMPONENTS
Structure

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concepts (Preliminary definitions)
1.3 The Input-Output Process
1.3.1 Schematic Representation
1.3.2 Input Devices
1.3.3 Output Devices
1.3.4 Central Process Unit
1.4 Software
1.4.1 System Software
1.4.2 Application Software
1.5 Classification of Computers
1.6 Summary
1.7 Answers to Self Check Exercises
1.8 Keywords
1.9 References and Further Reading

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this unit, you will be able to:

l learn the basic functional organisation of input and output devices within
a computer system;
l understand the symbiotic relationship between input and output, especially
in complex systems like Virtual Reality;
l classify input devices as either interactive or source data automation in
order to more easily remember their similarities and differences;
l classify output devices as either hardcopy, softcopy, or action in order to
more easily remember their similarities and differences; and
l categorise software into System Software and Application Software and
identify the features of each of these categories.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Computers have become omnipresent in every walk of life. Libraries are no
exception. Before learning about how the computers are used in various activities
of libraries, you should understand certain basic components of computers. A
clear understanding of the concepts and technical terms is required so that you
can appreciate the remaining units of this programme. In this unit you will be
introduced to some of the basic concepts like hardware, software, etc. The unit
starts by examining the basic configuration of a computer system, and then goes
on to examine its components in detail. The basic configuration as described later
is equally applicable to all types of computer system, whether we are considering
mainframe, minicomputer or microcomputer systems. You will also learn a few
facts relating to the history of computers.

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Basics of Computers
and Communication 1.2 CONCEPTS (PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS)
(Hardware)
Historically speaking the word computer has been derived from the Latin word
“computere’, which means to calculate. Therefore, the term computer can
logically be applied to any calculating device. However, in technical parlance,
the term has come to refer specifically an electronic computer. The following
are the generally understood features of an electronic computer:

l It is an electronic device: Virtually all computers are “digital” because they

are composed of digital (electronic) circuits built with microscopic transistors.
Therefore, they can only process digital data (discrete electronic signals).
Most “real world” data is “analog” (continuous electronic signals, e.g. light,
sound, movement, etc.;) therefore, it must be converted to digital (A/D
conversion) when encoded and vice versa (D/A conversion) when being
decoded.

l Processing of data is performed electronically: A computer’s circuitry is built

from electronic “chips”. The chips consist of integrated circuits (ICs) which
are, in turn, made up of millions of “transistors”. Transistors are, from a
simplified viewpoint, electronically controlled on/off switches; therefore they
can only store binary data (two states); humans call this basic data storage
a bit (either a one or a zero). Data can have various forms including numeric
, text, and multimedia (audio, visual, etc.), but all are “binary”, i.e collections
of bits. For example, “alphanumerics” (keyboard characters and numbers)
each require at least one byte (a collection of eight bits) of storage.

l It has an internal storage: Computers have a mechanism to store data as well

as programs. The stored program concept introduced by Von Neumann during
the l940’s states that programs and data are both stored in memory, i.e., that
the program instructions and the data on which they operate “coexist” in the
computer’s primary memory

Based on the above features, we can define a computer as essentially an electronic

device that can receive and store data and a set of instructions called programs.
The computers act upon these programs in a pre-determined and predictable
fashion to process the data in a desired manner.

The following words are so basic to computers that it is virtually impossible to

talk about computers without using them. Therefore, we will give some preliminary
definitions now and expand on them later when we cover these concepts in more
detail.

l “Computer”: an electronic machine that (a) processes computer data (digital)

into human information (numeric, text, or physical) or (b) controls electrical
devices.

l “Microcomputer”: computer based on a microprocessor

l· “Computer System”: hardware, software, data, people, and procedures for

using the system.

l “Hardware”: physical equipment of a computer system.

l “Software”: program that are “run” on the computer.

l “Firmware”: software that is permanently stored in a computer’s read only

memory. “Program”: set of step-by-step instructions, in a computer language,
6 that causes a computer to execute a specific task in finite time.
 Computers and their
1.3 THE INPUT-OUTPUT PROCESS Components

A computer systems accepts data as input, processes that data and provides data
as output. During the processing the data must be stored. The processing is
controlled by a sequence of instructions - the program - which is stored in the
computer. The basic components of a computer system are therefore input
devices, processor, backing storage devices and output devices. This fit together
is as depicted in the following section as a schematic representation of a computer.

1.3.1 Schematic Representation

Fig. 1: Schematic representation of a computer system

Each of the components shown in the above diagram have unique contribution
to make. These can be summerized as follows:

l Input Devices: Input devices accept data, convert data into machine-
readable form and transmit data to the processor unit.

l Central Processing Unit (CPU): The Central Processing Unit, often

called processor or just CPU, comprises a Control Unit, the Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU), and the Primary Memory. The arrows within the CPU
simply dramatise the complex interaction of the two conceptual components
of the CPU (Control Unit (CU), and Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)) and
Primary memory; this schematic represent really reflects the organisation
of a microcomputer, but is less true of large, multi-user computers like
minicomputers and mainframes The functions of these sub-units are
summarized below.

The Control Unit: The CU is a conceptual representation of the

microchip circuits that governs the operation of the CPU. It decodes and
executes program instructions, and controls and coordinates data
movements within the processor, and between the processor and other
components of the computer systems.

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit: The ALU is a conceptual representation 7

Basics of Computers of the microchip circuits that (1) perform all the arithmetic calculations
and Communication (such as +, -, % etc) and (2) makes the computer equivalent of logic
(Hardware)
decisions. (>,< <=etc.)
The Primary Memory: This unit stores programs during their execution,
stores data that are being used by the current program, and stores the
operating system which controls the operation of the computer system.
Primary memory consists of Random Access Memory, RAM, where the
users programs (and their data) must be stored in order to be run, and
Read Only Memory, ROM, where permanent programs and data are
built in by the manufacturer.
l Secondary or backing Memory: It maintains a permanent record of data
and programs, maintains a store for the program and data being processed
if the main memory cannot accommodate the data and program, and acts as
an input/output device.
l Output Devices: Accept data from the processor, and convert data into the
required output format.
You will learn more about each one of these components subsequently in this
Unit.

1.3.2 Input Devices

People work with letters, numbers and words. Data is stored in a computer as
binary digits (Bits), in other words data are represented inside the computer as
a complex combinations of 0’s and 1’s (Zeroes and Ones). Input devices
perform two basic functions. Firstly, they act as a means to enter the data and
programs into a computer. Secondly, they are generally responsible for converting
data into machine-compatible format.

Human Input Devices (Direct input devices)

Keyboard QWERTY keyboard
Concept Keyboard
Pointing Devices Touch Screen
Light Pen
Mouse
Tracker ball
Joystick
Video Input Devices Digital cameras
Digital Video cameras
Analog image converters
Sound Input Devices Voice Recognizer

Automated Input Devices (Indirect Input Devices)

Graphic Capture Image Scanners
Code Numbers Bar Code Reader
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
Magnetic Stripe Codes
Smart Cards
Optical Input Methods Optical Character Readers
Optical Mark Readers
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Input and Output devices are collectively called I/O devices. Input devices (and Computers and their
also output devices) are the hardware interfaces between the human user and Components
computer system, but (as always) hardware is “driven” by software, so when we
talk about an I/O device, remember there is an associated “device driver”.
Obviously the easier it is to get data into and out of a computer, the more useful
the computer is. Both input and output devices can be sub-classified as either
direct (to/from I/O devices) or indirect (to/from secondary storage, generally).
For example, when recording loans transactions in a library circulation, the
membership and the borrowed document information can be entered by the
circulation assistant through a keyboard, then we are referring to a direct input
device. On the other hand, same data can be entered through a barcode, then
we call that device as an indirect input device. You may notice here that the
appropriate selection of input method can have a significant impact on the accuracy,
speed and effectiveness of data entry. The table below gives some of the
popular Input Devices.

Let us learn more about these devices in the following sections. Let us concentrate
more on those devices which are generally used by the libraries.

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common data entry device. Almost all general-purpose
computers are supplied with a keyboard. A keyboard has over 100 keys on it.
When you press a key a number (code) is sent to the computer to tell it which
key you have pressed. Keyboards are often used in conjunction with a screen
on which the data entered are displayed.

The keys on a keyboard are usually arranged in the same order as those on a
typewriter. This layout of keys is called QWERTY because Q-W-E-R-T-Y is
the order in which the letters occur on the top row of the keyboard. Some newer
designs have the letters arranged in a different order. Most people find the
QWERTY arrangement best as they have had some practise using it, but some
users trained on the new keyboards claim that they can type faster than the
fastest typists can on QWERTY keyboards. The keys on the keyboard can be
grouped into six groups. They are :

a) Function Keys: There will be 12 function keys labelled from F1 to F12.

These are programmable keys used as shortcut keys to perform certain
functions. Every software that you run responds differently to the function
keys.

b) QWERTY Keys: These are the alphanumeric keys, which are arranged, in
the same order that you find in a typewriter. These keys can be used to enter
lower case as well as upper case alphabets. The Caps Lock and/or Shift key
in combination with the alphabet key to enter the upper case alphabet. Space
bar is used to leave space between words. You may remember here that a
space is also equivalent to a character and treated like any other character.
Thus, you should avoid unnecessary blanks in your data files.

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Basics of Computers c) Special Purpose Keys: TAB (Tabulation), CTRL (Control), ALT (Alter),
and Communication ESC (Escape), Enter/Carriage Return , Backspace, Scroll Lock, Break, etc.
(Hardware)
are called special keys used for special purposes.

d) Numeric Pad Keys: These keys are used to enter numbers into the
computers. They form a separate section in a keyboard called numeric pad.
Experienced data entry operators use these keys quite fast to enter the
numerical data.

e) Cursor Control Keys: These keys are used to navigate the cursor on the
screen.

There are no standard keyboard layout; however typical keyboards have

typewriter layouts (called “QWERTY”). The Dvorak keyboard was designed
specifically to improve typing efficiency, but has yet to overcome the human’s
tendency to avoid “unnecessary” change! The layout of the Dvorak keyboard
is given below. A Concept keyboard is a flat board which contains a grid of
switches. Each switch can be programmed to do whatever you want. An overlay
image is placed on top of the grid so that the user can tell what pressing on
different areas of the keyboard (switches) will do. Concept keyboards are
particularly useful for users such as children who would find using a QWERTY
keyboard difficult and in locations where an ordinary keyboard might be damaged,
e.g. by spillage or dust.

Keyboards are widely used because they provide flexible method of data entry
and can be used in most applications. They do have limitations, however. Entry
using keyboard is a slow form of data entry process and is prone to error. It
may be costly.

Self Check Exercise

1) Draw a QWERTY keyboard lay out of your computer and identify different
sections of it.

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Check your answer with the answars given at the end of this Unit.
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Pointing Devices

These are also called Cursor Control Devices. Cursor Control Devices are
used to place the cursor (a highlighted screen location indicating where the next
action will occur), select menu items, and control the computer by “clicking
buttons” on the screen. If these are built into the computer they are called
integrated pointing devices”. There are a few such devices available. They are:

l mouse: a standard device of GUI (Graphical User Interface). New versions

are optical and have no moving parts. An LED (Light Emitted Diode)
records a reflected light which senses motion over a flat surface.

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l trackballs: like an “upside-down mouse”; it has the advantage of being Computers and their
stationary. Components

l joysticks: a hand-held stick that pivots about one end indicating 360 degree
directions.

l trackpoint or pointing stick: a miniature joystick that responds to the

touch of a single finger.

l trackpads: a touch sensitive surface that translates finger motion into cursor
motion.

Pen input devices

These are based on screens that sense the location of a special pen that is
connected to the terminal. Following are some of the devices:

l Light pens either detect the monitor’s light or emit light that can be
picked up by a specially designed monitor.

l Styluses are pens with electronic points heads which activate pixels on the
monitor, usually a LCD display. Handwriting recognition software translates
alphanumeric to digitised equivalents; normally these needs to be “trained” to
recognise an individual’s carefully printed letters, numbers, and symbols.
These have been rather primitive, but significant advances have been made
recently. They are the primary input device of hand-held PDAs (Personal
Digital Assistants) and PIMs (Personal Information Managers) State -of-
the-art readers reportedly are very accurate.

l Digitizing tablets are similar to light pens or styluses except one draw on
a tablet rather than the screen.

Touchscreen This allows selection of menu items displayed on a monitor by

touching them.

Video Input Devices

l Digital cameras: Digital cameras have optics like regular photographic

cameras; however, they record the single images electronically (rather than
on photographic film) in digital form. These images are stored in the camera’s
RAM (Random Access Memory), which like that in a computer is volatile).
The images can be displayed immediately or stored on a secondary storage
medium, e.g. a diskette, and processed, later, by image processing software.

l Digital Video cameras: These are digital cameras which can store sequences
of digital images on magnetic tape and play them back as “movies”. They
are similar to camcorders, but camcorders store their images as analogue
data. Digital Video cameras are essential features of videoconferencing
where remote computers can actually control a remote camera and remote
users can share applications and collaborate on “whiteboards”.

l Analogue image converters: Photographs taken with regular cameras and

videos recorded with camcorders store their images as analogue data. There
are special kinds of hardware that can take these images (scanning photographs
or converting camcorder tapes) and convert them to digital images which,
like any other digital image, can be processed by computers.

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Basics of Computers Audio Input Devices
and Communication
(Hardware)
A) Digitized Audio Signals:

a) Audio (analogue) signals can be converted to digital signals by analogue

to digital converters, processed by a computer and converted back
with digital to analog converters. This allows computer manipulation of
music (See MIDI, below), speech or any recordable sounds.

b) Synthetic audio signals can be created by the computer.

c) Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) devices allow the input and
output to any musical instrument capable of electrical I/O. The music,
once digitized in the computer’s memory can be processed by musical
software giving an incredible opportunities for creativity and innovation.

B) Voice Input and Speech recognition:

a) Microphones convert spoken words (analog signals) to digital signals that

can be processed by a computer. (Words are “digitized”.)

b) Digitized words are compared to “voice templates” stored in memory.

i) Customizable devices can be “trained” to recognize an individual’s

speech.

ii) Current systems are still rather primitive and have limited vocabularies;
however, rapid improvements are being reported.

c) If a word is recognized it is processed; if not then the user has to ask

for recognizable input.

Graphic Capture

Image Scanners are popular examples of graphic capture devices. This i s one
of the extensively used input devices in libraries where digital library projects
exists. When a page of text already exists, like the page that you are reading
now, it can be directly input into a computer using a scanner. Scanner can be
used to input not only the texts, but the photographs, drawings, etc. Image
Scanners (Gray-scale or colour) digitize the pictures (which are analog data).
The resulting bitmapped images (Each pixel has a collection of bits that define
its colour) can be easily modified by graphics programs. The resolution of
bitmapped images is measured in dpi (dots per inch).

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Code Numbers Computers and their
Components
l Barcode readers: Barcodes are widely used in retail outlets and libraries.
Each barcode represents a number. You can see the barcodes of ISBN on
books. The bar code is a pattern of thick and thin bars divided by thick and
thin spaces. Only the relative separations and thickness of the bars are
important. Barcodes can be printed in different sizes and colours. The
barcode is read either by passing a light-pen over it or by passing the bar
code over a flatbed scanner. Barcodes are suitable for data input when all
that is necessary is to identify an item, and the data input simply comprises
a code. The reading of the barcode records a transaction, and information
is fed back to a computer database. Barcode systems are easy to operate
and have very low error rates. Occasionally, a scanner can read a barcode
number incorrectly. A check digit is included in the barcode number to
reduce the likelihood of this happening.

Barcodes are helpful in libraries for acquisitions, circulation, serials control and
stock-verification works.

l Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): This input device is

widely used by banks to process the tremendous volume of checks being
received by them. You can observe at the bottom of a cheque leaf some
code numbers which are written using a special ink that contains magnetisable
particles of iron oxide.

l A magnetic stripe code: It is a short length of magnetic tape which may

be stuck on the surface of a tag, card or document. On plastic cards such
as credit cards, the stripe is usually sealed in. Stripes store data in the form
of magnetic spots which represent the 1’s and 0’s of the ASCII code.

l Smart Cards: These have a memory store in the form of a very thin
integrated circuit sealed into them. These can be used to store data about a
customer which can be updated as transactions are made using the card.

Optical Input Methods

l Optical Character Readers (OCR): This device is similar in concept to

MICR. Characters in a special font are printed on a document, and the
reader scans the document for reflected light patterns, then translates those
patterns into a pattern of electrical signals which are passed to the computer
store. OCR-A (American Standard) and OCR-B (European standard) are
examples of standard fonts. Characters that cannot be recognised are rejected.

l Optical Mark Readers (OMR): These are similar to OCR except that the
reader recognizes marks in appropriately positioned boxes rather than
characters. These found applications in areas where responses are one out
of a small number of alternatives and the volume of data to be processed is
large. One can notice the usage of this in Bank examinations.
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Basics of Computers Self Check Exercise
and Communication
(Hardware)
2) Explain why a bar code reader is a good data input device in stock-verification
work of a library.

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Compare your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
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1.3.3 Output Devices

Output devices are the means by which computer systems communicate with
people. The convenience of use of these devices and the quality of their results
has a significant impact on the effectiveness of computer systems. Output
devices accept data from the processor and convert them into the required
output format. In other words, output devices translate the data in the processor
into a format that is suitable for people to use.

Most “real world” data is analogue, i.e. it consists of continuous signals like
sounds, pictures, voltage, etc. However, computers can only process digital data
(discrete signals); therefore, input usually involves analogue to digital conversion
(A/D hardware) and output reverses the process using D/A converters.

Output can be sub-classified as either direct (to/from I/O devices) or indirect

(to/from secondary storage). Output can also be divided into another two kinds:
hard copy output (paper, microfilm, etc.) provides a permanent record while soft
copy output (visual, audio, tactile, or action) is transient. Action output facilitates
control of electromechanical devices, e.g. robotics. For the sake of convenience,
let us follow the latter classification to discuss the output devices in this Unit.

Visual Output Devices (Soft copy)

l Cathode Ray Tube Displays (CRTs): These are the most commonly seen
output device. The computer screen that you see in a computer is made of
CRTs. They are also called monitors or visual display terminals (VDTs).
Monitors look identical to a television screen. They produce fast and virtually
costless output of information.

CRTs use faster scan technology to portray images as bitmapped graphics on a

phosphorescent screen. Electrons are fired at the screen and light up tiny dots
of phosphor, which then glow for a short period of time. (See the CRT figure
given below). Each point is called a picture element or pixel. Since the phosphors
glow momentarily, the electronic gun keeps on firing the electron beam at regular
intervals. This refreshing mechanism is measured in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per
second. A low refresh rate leads to screen flicker.

Monochrome monitors use one colour images (usually black) on a one colour
background (usually white), e.g. old mainframe monitors. These are now virtually
obsolete in PCs. On the other hand colour monitors use a triad of red, green, and
blue phosphor dots which are stimulated in varying degrees to produce a wide
range of colours. Composite video monitors (like TVs) have one electron gun.
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However, composite video has lower resolutions than RGB monitors. RGB monitors Computers and their
use three electron beams which give a higher resolution display. Virtually all Components
modern monitors are RGB.

The quality of the screen display, or its resolution depends on the number of
pixels on the screen. Resolution indicates the ability to show detail; the more
pixels per inch the higher the resolution. There are several standards for IBM/
Clone monitors including:

i) CGA (Colour Graphics Adapter) 320×200 pixels 4 colours

ii) VGA (Video Graphics Array) 640×480 pixels (or 256 colours at 320×200)

iii) Super VGA 800×600 pixels (min.) 256 colours

iv) XGA (Extended Graphics Array) 1024×768 pixels (max.) 256 - 64K colours

v) High-end monitors: 1280×1024pixels, 1600×1200pixels, and 1800×1440 pixels.

Bitmapped CRTs allow individual pixels to be addressed thereby producing

greater screen control; this is the origin of WYSIWYG (What You See Is What
You Get) applications that can incorporate high resolution graphics (e.g. all modern
PC monitors). On the other hand old fashioned character-addressable CRTs
only address or manipulate groups of pixels (that form alphanumeric) and are
inherently non-WYSIWYG and have crude graphics (e.g. mainframe and
minicomputer monitors). Vector Graphics screens create images by the electron
gun tracing between specified points on the screen rather than scanning every
row; they are limited to special types of graphics monitors.

You should be familiar with some of the terminology used in describing features
of CRTs. Let us just list them here. Try to collect more information on them.
Paging is the movement of the screen image one screen at a time. Scrolling
is the movement of the screen image one line at a time. Windowing allows
different outputs to be displayed on different parts of the screen. Aspect Ratio
corresponds to the ratio to describe the resolution mode. Refresh Rate is the
frequency at which an electron beam sweeps horizontally across the screen
sequentially stimulating phosphorescent pixels (screen picture elements) and it is
measured in Hz (Hertz) or Cycles Per Second.

l Flat Panel Display: First introduced in watches and clocks in 1970s, this
technology is now applied to display terminals. They eliminate flicker and
radiation and minimise size problems of CRTs. Further, they are popular for
their low energy consumption. However, the quality of the images is relatively 15
Basics of Computers poor. Hence, they are commonly used in portable devices because of
and Communication compactness and low energy requirements.
(Hardware)
The most popular type is the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) which has a
thin layer of liquid crystal molecules, divided into small squares forming
pixels, that are held by two glass sheets. When power is applied to a square
it turns opaque. LCDs used to be limited in size, brightness and clarity, but
current technology has significantly improved. Gas-plasma display give the
best image (but low contrast) but can not be battery operated.

l Project Displays: The small sized screen of the displays discussed above is
not suitable for a group presentation. Project displays provides an enlarged
image and could be projected on a large screen. These systems can be
connected directly to the processor and the output will be displayed on the
large screens.

Audio Output Devices (Soft copy)

The audio output device convert the digital signals and give the output in an
audible format. Speech synthesizers transform digital computer signals into voice
output. The voice maybe choppy and unnatural, but it is easily understood.
Audio output units have a varied application. One of the applications that all of
you might have experienced is the recorded voice response in a telephone system
or railway/airline reservation systems.

Speech synthesisers use different methods of output. In the word analysis

method entire digitised words from the computer’s vocabulary are combined,
under computer control, into digitised sentences and then converted to analogue
output. This requires a huge amount of memory. In the constructive synthesis
method the basic elements of speech, called “phonemes” (only 40 in the English
language) to construct speech output governed by timing, pitch and inflection
controls. This has minimal memory requirements.

Hardcopy (print and film) Devices

Printers and Plotters

l Printers: They are used to print the output data on paper. Such output is
referred to as printout or hard copy. Printers can be classified based on
various characteristics. They are:

A) Image formation (measured in dpi (dots per inch):

a) Full character alphanumeric (no graphics) each have a separate

symbol on a ball, daisy wheels, thimble, band, belt or chain mechanism.

b) Dot-matrix alphanumeric and graphics are formed by patterns of

dots from a single print head.

c) Raster scan images (alphanumeric/graphics), e.g. laser printers,

are like copiers.

B) Image transfer:

a) Impact printers transfer images by the print head striking a ribbon

like a typewriter.

b) Non-impact printers transfer images by heat (electro-thermal and

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 thermal-transfer printers), electrostatic charge (laser printers), or Computers and their
by “drawing” with ink jets. Components

C) Number of characters printed at one time, measured in ppm (pages

per minute):

a) Serial (bi-directional) printers print one alphanumeric or graphics

pixel at a time.

b) Chain printers transfer one line of alphanumeric or pixels at a

time.

c) Page printers (laser printers) utilise a combination of raster

scan and xerographic technologies to produce one whole page at
a time.

l Plotters: Though a few printers listed above are capable of producing graphics,
there are a few special plotters exclusively to print a good quality drawing
and graphs. There are two types of plotters. Flatbed plotters have a drawing
instrument (pen, ink-jet, electrostatic head, or heater element) that moves
both horizontally and vertically, under the control of input voltages, over a flat
piece of stationary paper. Drum plotters have a drawing pen that move
vertically while the paper, on a drum, rotates under it.

Computer Output Microfilms (COM)

Special computers can produce their output directly onto microfilm. In this way,
vast amounts of data in human readable form can be stored in a very small space
without the need of large quantities of paper. This form of output has applications
in libraries, book shops and in situations where large amounts of text and pictures
need to be sent through the post. The microfilm is read by using a special device
which magnifies the text and pictures so that they can be seen by eye. This
expensive medium will probably be replaced by laser disks.

Action output: computer control of electrical devices

Tedious, error prone, and dangerous jobs are ideal for computer automation.
Computer cause some mechanical movements required to do specific tasks.
Automated data acquisition can free laboratory workers from tedious tasks.
Robotics is a field of computer science which deals with action output. Robots
are mechanical devices, controlled by computers, that can move and/or do work.
(NOTE: They rarely resemble humans except in the movies and on TV!). The
simplest robots only do work under program control. The most complex robots
have sensors that allow them to see, hear, and feel and to respond to the
feedback from these sensors. Computer vision is an active field of research that
is still far from the capability of the human eye. Rigorous research is on to
improve the action output.

1.3.4 Central Processing Unit

The processor of a computer is a very complex VLSI (Very Large Scale
Integration) circuit. However, from an over simplistic illustrative viewpoint it can
be thought of as a collection of processing and storage units within a Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU) that are linked internally and externally
by busses which carry binary signals between. (Refer figure given under the
section 1.3.1 of this unit). Higher the bandwidth or processing speed of CPU the
faster the machine is. Today’s processors speed comes in the range of GHz
(Giga Hertz).
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Basics of Computers Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
and Communication
(Hardware)
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), as the name indicates, performs all the
arithmetic and logic operation. ALU (greatly oversimplified for illustrative purposes)
consists of:

a) accumulator, the main data register where all the intermediate results of a
calculation are kept (“accumulated”) until the final result is determined (which
is then stored in memory);

b) data registers are supplemental storage registers that support the operations
of the accumulator;

c) computational circuits (e.g. a binary adder) that performs mathematical

operations; and

d) operational circuits that perform logic operations

All math operations are performed in binary numbers and all logic operations
are performed using binary operations. Math operations include addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operations allow programs to contain
repetition and selection, the two essential control structures of programming.
Logical operations performed by ALU include comparing two quantities; keeping
a counter and deciding the further route.

Control Unit (CU)

This unit controls the internal functioning of the computer and input/output units.
The role of control unit in CPU is that of a “manager” or “a traffic cop”. In
other words, it controls and co-ordinates all hardware operations. The components
of CU (greatly oversimplified for illustrative purposes) are:

a) decoders which interpret program instructions (object code written in machine

language),

b) a timer (or clock) which sequences all CPU activities,

c) logical gates and circuits which distribute signals which activate various
components of the CPU,

d) program counter/register which keeps track of the next instruction to

execute, and

e) registers (e.g. instruction, address, etc).

Primary CU Functions (in addition to those discussed above) are listed below.
It

a) reads and interprets machine language instructions;

b) controls the transmission of data between ALU, registers, cashes, primary

memory, and auxiliary memory;

c) controls the sequence of execution of program instruction (i.e. governs

branching, jumping around within a program) which allows repetition
and selection.; and

d) directs ALU as to what math or logic operations to perform.

18
Primary Memory Computers and their
Components
Primary memory, also called main memory or internal memory, provides temporary
storage of programs in execution and the data being processed. It is known as
immediate access storage (IAS) as this is the portion of CPU which can be
accessible directly. From a hardware point of view the primary memory is
formed by a large number of basic units referred to as “memory cells” Each
memory cell is a device or an electronic circuit that has two or more stable
states, which represents the binary numbers 0 (Zero) or 1 (One). The computer
can retrieve any item of data or any instruction stored in primary memory at
lightning speed. The modern computer does this in a few nano seconds.

Primary memory can be further grouped into Random Access Memory (RAM)
and Read Only Memory (ROM). Cache memory (small, fast RAM) is designed
to hold frequently used data. Let us summarise the features of each of these
below.

l Random Access Memory (RAM) : This memory allows writing as well

as reading of data unlike ROM which does not allow writing of data on to
it. It is a volatile storage because the contents of RAM are lost when the
power (computer) is turned off. If you want to store the data for later use,
you have to transfer all the contents to a secondary storage device. There
are several types of RAM, the most popular of which include:

i) DRAM, dynamic RAM, although its name sounds sophisticated, is the

oldest and simplest (and therefore the slowest) type of RAM used today.
The word “dynamic” comes from the fact that it must be electronically
“refreshed” constantly in order to maintain the data it stores.

ii) SRAM, static RAM, unlike DRAM, does not need to be refreshed; its
storage is fixed (as long as power is supplied to the computer). This
newer, more dependable type of RAM is faster, but more expensive than
DRAM. SRAM is often used for cache memory;

iii) EDO RAM, enhanced data output DRAM, is a type of RAM that
improves the memory access time on faster microprocessors such as the
Intel Pentium. EDO RAM was initially optimized for the 66 MHz Pentium.

iv) SDRAM, synchronous DRAM, is a new form of RAM that can be

synchronized to the clock speed of the computer, a powerful feature that
optimizes data access by the system buses.

v) RDRAM, Rambus DRAM, is Intel’s designated successor to SDRAM

has an effective speed of 800 MHz and a peak data transfer rate of 1.6
GBps. However, it has yet to prove itself, and there are several rivals,
e.g. DDR SDRAM, that are slower but have 64b bus widths thus
providing comperable transfer rates.

l Read Only Memory (ROM): Another type of microcomputer memory is

read only memory. Data is ‘burnt’ into the ROM chip at the manufacturing
time. Unlike RAM, the data on the ROM is non-volatile, ie., data is not lost
when the computer is switched off. Following are the popular ROMs.

i) PROM (Programmable ROM) can be programmed to record information

using a facility known as a PROM-programmer. Once the chip has been
programmed the recorded information cannot be changed.

ii) EPROM (erasable PROM) is erased by shining ultraviolet light on the

19
Basics of Computers exposed chip. To write to or erase from EPROM, one must use a
and Communication PROM burner.
(Hardware)
iii) EEPROM (electronically erasable PROM) is more convenient than
EPROM because it can be erased electronically and can be written to
in bytes.

iv) Flash memory, a special type of EEPROM, can be erased and rewritten
in multi-byte blocks rather than the single bytes characteristic of
EEPROM. Flash memory is most often used to hold control code such
as the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) in a personal computer; these
are often called “flash BIOS”.

l Cache memory (small, fast RAM): It is designed to hold frequently used

data. In general, Cache (high speed RAM that is configured to hold the most
frequently used data) is used to improve system performance. Memory
cache or CPU cache is a dedicated bank of high-speed RAM chips used
to cache data from primary memory. When data is read from primary memory,
a larger block than is immediately necessary is stored in the cache under the
assumption that the next data needed by a program will be located near the
data being read; when that data is needed, it will then be waiting in the high-
speed cache. Memory Cache may be either built into the CPU (level 1 , or
L1, cache, e.g. Pentiums and PowerPCs) or contained in separate chips
(level 2, or L2, cache,).

Self Check Exercise

3) Describe the basic components of a modern computer system and explain

their role in its working.

4) Distinguish RAM and ROM.

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Compare your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................

1.4 SOFTWARE
Computers are general-purpose machines that could potentially perform a whole
range of tasks, from recording issues of books, manipulating management statistics,
keeping a record of expenditure, to maintaining personnel record. For computer
to perform the specific tasks required of it at specific times, it is necessary to
provide instructions to the computer. These instructions, which indicate which
tasks are to be performed, are known as programs. Software is a general term
that refers to computer programs which are collectively stored on secondary
storage media. System Software refers to a program which drives the computer.
It manages and renews resources of the system except for memory, I/O, CPU
& file system. This presentation ends with a concise summary of Application
Software which is prerequisite to our study of Word Processing and Desktop
Publishing, Graphics, Electronic Spreadsheets, Database Management, and
20 Telecommunications, and Integrated Applications which will be the focus of the
laboratory sessions where the exercises associated with these concepts are to be Computers and their
performed. You will learn more about the software in subsequent Units. Here, Components
we shall just list major categories of software along with their features.

1.4.1 System Software

It is designed to act as an interface between users or their application
programs and the computer system itself. System software has three basic
categories: system management (which includes the operating system (O.S.), the
foundation of system software), system support, and system development.

System Management:

A) The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) is the most fundamental software
of a computer system. It is the firmware that “boots” your computer, i.e.
that gets your computer started when you turn it on. (This feature is the
basis of the BIOS being called a “bootstrap” program, particularly in older
computer terminology.) It checks your system hardware, loads the operating
system and file system from secondary storage into RAM, executes the
operating system and then turns control of the system over to the operating
system. For example on a PC, the BIOS is responsible for the scrolling data
displayed about your computer system, before Windows screen appears. (On
a Mac the BIOS is simply called the “firmware”.)

a) The BIOS also assists the operating system by governing the flow of
data to and from peripheral devices, thus acting as an interface between
input/output devices and the operating system.

b) The BIOS typically is provided on EEPROM (electrically erasable

programmable read only memory. This makes it possible to upgrade your
system BIOS by “flashing your BIOS”, i.e. writing a new program to
the firmware.

B) The Operating System facilitates the (1) user’s and/or (2) program’s access
to the computing system. Within the O.S., the Supervisor program governs
computer operations, coordinates activities within the computer system, and
controls system resources. In general the O.S. has three primary management
functions:

a) Job management (allocation and scheduling of the CPU): A single

CPU can process only one program at a time; however, a CPU can be
shared by giving sections of CPU time to different programs in a specified
sequence.

i) Processing may be interrupted by an event (e.g. the access of an

I/O device) or by reaching the end of a time slice (a specified
length of CPU time). The interrupt signals the execution of another
application, which normally will be the continuation of one that was
previously interrupted. Because the processor is executing millions of
instructions per second it appears to users to actually be running the
applications simultaneously.

ii) Scheduling schemes govern the sequencing of programs. The

simplest is the first-come-first-served scheme; a priority scheme
gives CPU time according to the importance of the user or program.

b) Resource management (allocation and scheduling of peripheral devices):

21
Basics of Computers i) The method of allocation varies according to the type of device.
and Communication Transfer of data to/from a device is controlled by its device driver,
(Hardware)
a program that controls a particular type of hardware device. A
device driver could be viewed as a “software interface” between
the computer and the device (as opposed to the physical connection
which would be its “hardware interface”). Device drivers now come
bundled with operating systems, particularly for PCs which boast of
“plug and play” peripheral additions.(However, if you purchase a
new device, for which the operating system has no embedded driver,
you will have to install the new device driver.) A device driver
essentially converts the general input/output instructions, from the
BIOS of the operating system to instructions that the specific device
can execute.

ii) Peripheral devices are allocated by the O.S. in response to the requests
or requirements of the programming being run. Sequential access
devices (e.g. tape drives) may be assigned for the program duration,
but direct access (e.g. disk drives) devices can be assigned and
released as needed.

iii) Spooling, which allows I/O to be stored on disk until needed, frees
the computer for other tasks and allows more efficient usage of I/O
devices. For example, output can be spooled to a “printer server”
and the user can continue to use his or her computer while the
printing waits until a printer is available.

c) Data management (allocation/scheduling of memory, both RAM and

Secondary Storage):

i) There are numerous O.S. strategies for sharing of RAM or

secondary storage (which is essential to the efficiency of multitasking
or multi-user systems).

ii) Basic Input/Output System (BIOS): converts keyboard characters

to computer code and reverses this process to output to a secondary
storage device or output device.

iii) Virtual memory O.S. allows a computer with limited RAM to be

“fooled into thinking that its memory is larger” by replacing the part
of a program that is in RAM (when it is finished executing) with the
subsequent part which is on disk storage; this process can be repeated
until all parts of the program are “rotated” through RAM. The entire
program only resides on disk; its parts are sequentially switched into
RAM, executed, and then replaced.

System Support (for the user):

A) Service Programs facilitate the use of the computer system in an efficient

and user-friendly way.

a) Graphical User Interface (GUI)are designed to provide an intuitive

access to O.S. commands, via windows and dialog boxes, thus avoiding
the need to memorise the commands or their syntax (grammar) .

b) Utilities are programs that perform repetitive, routine tasks on their

own. For example, the Bootstrap program, which is permanently stored
in the computer loads the disk O.S. when the computer is switched.
22
 c) Device drivers are programs written by the manufacturer of peripheral Computers and their
devices; these programs allow their device to be connected to a specific Components
make of computer.

B) System Monitors keep a running record of:

a) system usage (job accounting, priority enforcement, etc.)

b) the performance of programs and system hardware. Performance can

be effected by selecting CPU scheduling schemes, changing priorities,
adding more or faster resources, and alleviating bottlenecks.

c) the security of the system and the individual user’s files.

C) System Maintenance:

a) Fault-tolerance capabilities allow computers to auto-matically overcome

system problems that arise; this requires multiprocessing capability.

b) The O.S. can prompt the user when it needs input in order to continue
executing. It sends error or warning messages to the user in case of
program termination or malfunction of some component of the computer
system. Sometimes the user can intervene in the O.S. to overcome the
problem.

c) If a program crashes, or use too much time (e.g. infinite loop) or

memory, etc. the O.S. terminates its execution.

System Development (for developing software or writing programs):

A) Language Translators are software that translate programs written in

computer language (source code) into machine language (object code)

a) assemblers translate a complete assembly language program into

object code; Each microprocessor has its own assembly language code.

b) compilers translate a complete high level language program into

object code; For example C-compiler, C++ compiler

c) interpreters translate individual instructions of a high level language

and executes them immediately; this allows greater interaction with
the computer while programming but programs run slower than those
from assemblers and compilers

B) Application Development Systems and System Development Programs

assist the programmer in developing and coding software, for example:

a) an editor allows the programmer to create, edit, or modify programs or

data;

b) a debugger facilitates the isolation and elimination of program errors;

c) CASE (Computer Assisted Software Engineering) packages, a hot topic

in software development circles, actually generate programs from general
user specifications.

1.4.2 Application Software

Application programs are written individually to operate specific tailor-made 23
Basics of Computers procedures and systems, such as sales ledger systems, wages systems, library
and Communication circulation control systems, word-processing systems etc. Some applications
(Hardware)
programs are available in the commercial marketplace as packages or software
packages. Application software includes programs that turn the computer (a
general purpose tool) into a special purpose tool. These include:

a) general productivity software like word processors, electronic spreadsheets,

database management systems, graphics packages, etc.

b) education/entertainment software like tutorials, training programs, games,

etc., and

c) professional software for use in business, science, medicine, libraries etc.,

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

People classify computers differently based on various characteristics. Let us
study them briefly.

l Classification based on working principle: This classification yields three

different types of computers, viz., analogue, digital and hybrid. Analogue
computer does not compute directly with numbers; rather it measures,
continuous physical magnitudes (e.g., pressure, temperature, voltage, speed,
etc.) which represent or are analogous to the numbers under consideration.
Slide rule, thermometers are often cited as examples of analogue computers.
Digital computer, on the other hand, operates by counting numbers. They
represent data in discrete form. They convert all inputs into numbers before
processing them. These types of computers are more accurate than the
analogue computers since there is no analogous representation. All modern
electronic computers are examples of digital computers. The third category,
hybrid computers, combines analogue and digital capabilities. Hybrid
computers are used for some special application.

l Classification based on memory size and processing power: This classification

yields four groups of computers. They are Microcomputers, mini computers,
mainframe computers, and super computers. Due to the tremendous
developments in the technology, the distinctions between these categories are
increasingly becoming blurred. Microcomputers are the most popular and
widely used computers.

l As the CPU is a single microprocessor, this category of computers is called

microcomputers. The two dominant microprocessor families are the x86
processors manufactured by Intel, AMD, and Cyrix and the PowerPC
processors manufactured by Motorola. (See the table above.) The different
family members differ in architecture (word size, data bus size, address bus
size, etc.). However, each different architecture, e.g. the Motorola G4, AMD
Athlon, or the Intel Pentium III, can have several “versions” differing in
clock speed; generally, if the clock speed of a processor is doubled its speed
is doubled. Minicomputer, a term originated in 1960s but fast becoming
obsolete in computer parlance, have lesser power and costs less than a mainframe
computers. They are often dedicated to a particular purpose such as database
access and support several users at a time. Mainframe computers are large
and powerful machines. They usually support many users with varied applications.
They can process large quantum’s of data at greater speeds. The mainframes
are multi-user and multi-tasking and therefore support large network of terminals
and remote job entry stations. Generally, they play the role of a central machine
of very large organizations. Super computers are the upper end of the state-
24 of-the-art of computer technology. They are super in more than one ways.
 Computers and their
Components

They are fastest, probably the largest, and most expensive computers. They
can process at very great speed like one trillion instructions per second.
There are a number of manufacturers who are in the market of manufacturing
supercomputers. Some of them include CORAY1 (CRAY IM, CRAY X-
MP, CRAY2, CRAY3), CDC (ETA-10, ETA 20), Fujitsu (VP-200, VP-400),
Hitachi (S-810/20), NEC (SX-2), etc. India’s Centre for Development of
Advanced Computing (C-DAC) has produced a supercomputer called
PARAM.

l Classification of computers based on their generation: This is the most popular

method of categorising the computers. The study of the generation gives a
good idea about the evolution of computers over the years. The following
table provides you a clear picture of the capabilities and technology involved
in various generations of computers.

l There are different types classification of parallel computers which contains

more than one CPU and these machines are also called parallel computers.
If memory is shared by all CPU’s, then it is called highly completed system.
If memory is distributed that is each processor contain its own memory and
not dependent up a common memory module, it is called loosely completed
or disrupted system. 25
Basics of Computers GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
and Communication
(Hardware) FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH
(early 50’s) (late 50’s) (60’s) (70’s +)
Circuit vacuum transistors Integrated microchips
technlogy: tubes circuits (LSI)

Relative speed: 1 100 100 1,000,000 +++

Relative cost: 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 —-

RAM capacity 1,000-8,000 4,000-64,000 32,000- >>32,000,000

(bytes): 4,000,000

External cards tape magnetic mass storage

storage: disks
Operating Single user; Single user; Multiple Multiple
System: jobs jobs users; users;
scheduled scheduled time- distibuted
manually automatically sharing systems

1
Note: The supercomputers manufactured by these companies are given in the brackets

1.6 SUMMARY
In this Unit you have learnt some basic concepts concerning computer systems.
The concepts that you have learnt are computers, microcomputers, computer
system, hardware, software, firmware, and program. The Input-Process-Output
schematic diagram is used throughout this course as the basic format on which
all software and hardware are organised. You have noticed that the basic
computer configuration comprises the central processing unit, input devices, output
devices and storage devices. The central processing unit comprises an arithmetic
and logic unit, a control unit and the primary memory. Input devices are used
to enter data into the computer. Output devices such as monitors and printers
allow information to be output from the system. Primary memory helps to store
data and programmes required by the computer. As it is volatile in nature, we
require a more permanent means of storing data. Secondary storage devices
help in this regard. Instructions to the computers are given through programs/
software. Software is generally classified into two categories: a) system software
allows the user to manage a computer system, provides support, and facilitates
software development; and b) application software consists of programs that turn
a general purpose computer into a special purpose tool, e.g. word processor, web
browser, game, etc.

1.7 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) The most widely used keyboard type is the QWERTY. The keyboard lay out
is given below:

26
2) Barcodes are very efficient in stock-verification work of a library because Computers and their
of the following reasons: Components

l Large amount of data can be input/gathered in short-period.

l Barcode readers have very low error tolerance. Hence the accuracy of
data gathered is very high.

l Collecting of stock-verification data could be carried out near the stock

itself.

l Even non-professionals could be assigned the job of collecting data through

barcode readers.

3) The basic components of a computer system are: i) input devices, ii) the
central processing unit (CPU), and iii) the output devices. An input device
is a peripheral, which accepts data and sends it to the CPU. Data presented
to an input device has to be in the right form for the device, e.g. a barcode
reader will only read barcodes. The input device converts the data into the
computer’s own internal code before sending it to the CPU. The CPU is
the physical devise that controls computer operations. It consists of three
components, viz., the control unit - which co-ordinates various works; the
ALU - which performs arithmetic and logical functions; and the primary
memory - which stores the data and programs required by the computer for
the task being carried out. Output devices usually receive data from the CPU
and change it into a form which can be understood by humans. However, in
some cases (for example when the computer is used to control another
device), the output may be in a form which is suitable for passing instructions
to another device controlled by the computer.

4) RAM (Random Access Memory) allows for Read and Write operations.
ROM (Read Only Memory, as the name indicates, allows only Read operation.
While RAM is a volatile memory (i.e., the contents get erased once the
computer is switched off), ROM is non-volatile.

1.8 KEYWORDS
Application Software : Application programs are written individually to
operate specific tailor-made procedures and
systems.

Central Processing : The Central Processing Unit, often called

Unit (CPU) processor or just CPU, comprises Control Unit,
the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), and the
Primary Memory.

Hardware : Physical equipment of a computer system.

Random Access : The memory that stores the data and/

Memory (RAM) or program of the currently executing tasks.

Read Only Memory : The memory that is usually used to

(ROM) store programs and/or data that must be available
to the computer when the power is turned on.

Software : Software is a general term that refers to computer

programs which are collectively stored on
secondary storage media. 27
Basics of Computers System Software : It is designed to act as an interface between
and Communication users or their application programs and the
(Hardware)
computer system itself.

1.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Anderson, R.G. (1900). Data Processing (Vol. 1: Principles and practice; Vol 2:
Information Systems and Technology), London: Pitman.

Bingham, J. (1989) Data Processing. Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Bissmer, R.H. (1993). Introduction to Computer Concepts. New York: John

Wiley.

IGNOU. CIC-02: The Technology. Block 1 (Hardware). New Delhi: IGNOU.

Jain, V.K. (2000). ‘O’ Level - Information Technology. New Delhi: BPB.

Rajaraman, V (1997). Fundamentals of Computers. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Prentice-

Hall of India.

Rowley (1997). Electronic Library. 4th ed. London: Library Association.

28