Doubinary:

Doubinary signaling: “Dou” means “doubling the transmission capacity of a

straight binary system.”

A zero is represented by no transition and one by alternate transitions according to

this rule:
Positive if the 1 is preceded by and even number of 0s.
Negative: if the 1 is preceded by an odd number of 0s

NRZ-I (Non Return to Zero Inverted)

NRZI maps binary signals to physical signals during transmission. If a data bit is 1,
NRZI transitions at the clock boundary. If a data bit is 0, there is no transition.
NRZI may have long series of 0s or 1s, resulting in clock recovery difficulties.

1.2.5 M-Ary Coding (Signaling)

• In binary coding:
– Data bit ‘1’ has waveform 1
– Data bit ‘0’ has waveform 2
– Data rate = bit rate = symbol rate
• In M-ary coding, take M bits at a time (M = 2k) and create a waveform (or
symbol).
– ‘00’  waveform (symbol) 1
– ‘01’  waveform (symbol) 2
– ‘10’  waveform (symbol) 3
– ‘11’  waveform (symbol) 4
– Symbol rate = bit rate/k
• For M-ary PAM transmission, there are M possible symbols with symbol
duration T.
1/T is referred to as the signaling rate or symbol rate or symbols per second or
baud
  Some equivalences
 Each symbol can be equivalently identified with log2M bits.
 So the baud rate 1/T can be equivalently transformed to bps as:
T  Tb log 2 (M )
 Gray code: Any dibit differs from an adjacent dibit in a single bit
position.

Advantages:
o M-ary signals reduce required bandwidth
o Required transmission rate is low (bit rate/M) Instead of transmitting
one pulse for each bit (binary PCM), we transmit one multilevel pulse a
group of k-bits (M=2k)
o Bit rate = Rb bits/s  min BW = Rb/2
o Symbol rate = R/k sym/s  min BW = Rb/2k
o Needed bandwidth goes down by k

Disadvantages:
– Low signal to noise ratio (due to multiple amplitude pulses)

• Trade-off is relatively high bit error rate (BER)

1.3 The Intersymbol Interference (ISI) Problem
Intersymbol interference (ISI) occurs when a pulse spreads out in such a way that
it interferes with adjacent pulses at the sample instant. If the rectangular
multilevel pulses are filtered improperly as they pass through a communications
system, they will spread in time, and the pulse for each symbol may be smeared
into adjacent time slots and cause Intersymbol Interference.

 ISI arises when the channel is dispersive

 Frequency limited  time unlimited  ISI
 Time limited  bandwidth unlimited  bandpass channel  time unlimited
 ISI
 We wish to design transmit and receive filters to minimize the ISI.
 When the signal-to-noise ratio is high, as is the case in a telephone system,
the operation of the system is largely limited by ISI rather than noise.
How can we restrict BW and at the same time not introduce ISI?

Three strategies for eliminating ISI:

1) Use a line code that is absolutely bandlimited.
• Would require Sinc pulse shape.
• Can’t actually do this (but can approximate).
2) Use a line code that is zero during adjacent sample instants.
• It’s okay for pulses to overlap somewhat, as long as there is no
overlap at the sample instants.
• Can come up with pulse shapes that don’t overlap during
adjacent sample instants.
 Raised-Cosine Rolloff pulse shaping
3) Use a filter at the receiver to “undo” the distortion introduced by the
channel (Equalizer.

1.3.1 Nyquist’s First Method for Zero ISI: Time domain

Suppose 1/T is the sample rate

The necessary and sufficient condition for p(t) to satisfy
1,  n  0   E , for i  0
p  nT    pi  p (iTb )  
0,  n  0  0, for all i  0
1 1
 Tb  
2 B0 Rb

 i 
p (t )   p R  sin c( Rbt  i )
i   b
E sin( Rbt )
Popt (t )  E sin c( Rbt ) 
 Rbt
Is that its Fourier transform P(f) satisfy


 P f  m T  T
m 

 E R R
 , for  b  f  b
popt ( f )   Rb 2 2
0, otherwise


  Rb 
sin  t T t  T ,  f  
p t    sinc   P  f     2 ,
t T  0,  otherwise 

 FIG. 7 (a) Sinc function p(t) as the optimum pulse shape. (b) Optimum pulse spectrum.

1
 When Tb  , rectangular function satisfy Nyquist condition
Rb

 Since pulses are not possible to create due to:

 Infinite time duration.
 Sharp transition band in the frequency domain.
 The time function p(t) decreases as 1/|t| for large |t|, resulting in a
slow rate of decay, Therefore, it is very sensitive to sampler phase
 The Sinc pulse shape can cause significant ISI in the presence of timing
errors.
  If the received signal is not sampled at exactly the bit instant
(Synchronization Errors), then ISI will occur.
 We seek a pulse shape that:
 Has a more gradual transition in the frequency domain.
 Is more robust to timing errors.
 Yet still satisfies Nyquist’s first method for zero ISI.

Raised Cosine-Rolloff Nyquist Filtering

To ensure physical realizability of the overall pulse spectrum P(f), the modified P(f)
decreases toward zero gradually rather than abruptly
1. Flat portion, which occupies the frequency band 0≤|f| ≤f1 for some
parameter f1 to be defined
2. Roll-off portion, which occupies the frequency band f1 ≤|f| ≤2B0-f1
3. One full cycle of the cosine function defined in the frequency domain,
which is raised up by an amount equal to its amplitude
4. The raised-cosine pulse spectrum

 E
 , 0  f  f1
 Rb

 E    ( f  f1 )  
p( f )   1  cos   , f 1  f  R b  f 1
 2 Rb   2(0.5 Rb  f 1)  
0, Rb  f1  f


2 f1
 The roll-off factor   1
Rb
 cos( Rbt ) 
p (t )  E sin c( Rbt )  2 2 2 
 1  4 Rb t 
The amount of intersymbol interference resulting from a timing error ∆t decreases
as the roll-off factor is increased form zero to unity

For special case of   1

 sin c(2 Rbt ) 
p (t )  E  2 2 
 1  4 Rb t 
 FIG. 8 (a) Raised-cosine pulse spectrum for varying roll-off rates. (b) Pulse response p(t) (i.e.,
inverse Fourier transform of P(f ) for varying roll-off rates).

Transmission-Bandwidth Requirement
 The transmission bandwidth required by using the raised-cosine pulse spectrum
R
is BT  b (1   )
2

 Excess channel
 The transmission bandwidth requirement of the raised-cosine spectrum
exceeds that of the optimum Nyquist channel
R
fv   b
2
 When the roll-off factor is zero, the excess bandwidth is reduced to zero
R
 When the roll-off factor is unity, the excess bandwidth is increased to b .
2

Raised  Cosine:  Example  

A  computer  puts  out  binary  data  at  the  rate  of  56  kb/s.  The computer  output  is  transmi\ed  using  a  baseband  
binary  PAM  systemthat  is  designed  to  have  a  raised-­‐cosine  spectrum.  Determine  the transmission  
bandwidth  required  for  each  of  the  following  rolloff factors:  α  =  0.25,  1.0.

Rb Rb=56kb/s
is BT  (1  )
2
 1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

1.5 Eye Diagram

0

-0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Eye diagram is a means of evaluating the quality of a received “digital waveform”

The eye diagram is created by taking the time domain signal and overlapping the
traces for a certain number of symbols. Eye diagrams reveal the impact of ISI and
noise.
From an experimental perspective, the eye pattern offers two compelling virtues
 The simplicity of generation
 The provision of a great deal of insightful information about the
characteristics of the data transmission system, hence its wide use as a
visual indicator of how well or poorly a data transmission system performs
the task of transporting a data sequence across a physical channel.

Fig. 13 The eye diagram

Fig. 14 4-Ary PAM signaling: (a) four RZ symbols; (b) baseband transmission;
(c) the 4-ary RZ eye diagram.

Page 26 of 37
 Fig. 15 (a) Binary data sequence and its waveform. (b) Corresponding eye pattern.

Timing Features
Three timing features pertaining to binary data transmission system,
 Optimum sampling time : The width of the eye opening defines the time
interval over the distorted binary waveform appearing at the output of the
receive-filter
 Zero-crossing jitter : in the receive-filter output, there will always be
irregularities in the zero-crossings, which, give rise to jitter and therefore non-
optimum sampling times
 Timing sensitivity: This sensitivity is determined by the rate at which the eye
pattern is closed as the sampling time is varied.

The Peak Distortion for Intersymbol Interference

 In the absence of channel noise, the eye opening assumes two extreme values
 An eye opening of unity, which corresponds to zero intersymbol
interference
 An eye opening of zero, which corresponds to a completely closed eye
pattern; this second extreme case occurs when the effect of intersymbol
interference is severe enough for some upper traces in the eye pattern to
cross with its lower traces.

Fig.16 Interpretation of the eye pattern for a baseband binary data transmission system.
  Noise margin
 In a noisy environment,
 The extent of eye opening at the optimum sampling time provides a
measure of the operating margin over additive channel noise
(Eye opening)  1  Dpeak
 Eye opening
 Plays an important role in assessing system performance
 Specifies the smallest possible noise margin
 Zero peak distortion , which occurs when the eye opening is unity
 Unity peak distortion, which occurs when the eye pattern is completely
closed.

Fig. 17 Illustrating the relationship between peak distortion and eye opening.

Note: The ideal signal level is scaled to lie inside the range 1 to 1.

 The open part of the signal represents the time that we can safely sample
the signal with fidelity
– By quality is meant the ability to correctly recover symbols and timing
– The received signal could be examined at the input to a digital receiver
or at some stage within the receiver before the decision stage
 Two major issues are 1) sample value variation, and 2) jitter and sensitivity
of sampling instant
 Eye diagram reveals issues of both
 Eye diagram can also give an estimate of achievable BER
Interpretation of Eye Diagram

Vertical and Horizontal Eye Openings

 The vertical eye opening or noise margin is related to the SNR, and thus the
BER
– A large eye opening corresponds to a low BER
 The horizontal eye opening relates the jitter and the sensitivity of the
sampling instant to jitter
– The red brace indicates the range of sample instants with good eye
opening
– At other sample instants, the eye opening is greatly reduced, as
governed by the indicated slope
As shown in the next Figure monitoring of an eye pattern can provide a
qualitative measure of performance regarding the
signal quality, including the following important observations:

1. The width of the eye opening represents the time interval during which the
received signal can be sampled without error from ISI.
2. The best time to sample the received signal is when the eye is open the
widest. When there is no ISI, we have an eye opening of unity, and when
there is a significant amount of ISI, we have an eye opening of zero (i.e.,
the eye is completely closed). With an eye opening of 50% or better (i.e.,
with a signal-to-noise ratio of 6 dB or more), reliable data transmission can
be achieved.
3. The maximum distortion is indicated by the height of the eye opening at
sampling time and it is twice the peak distortion.
4. The noise margin or immunity to noise is defined by the height of the eye
opening at the sampling time.
5. The sensitivity to timing errors is detected by the rate of closure of the eye
as sampling time is varied.
6. Zero (level) crossings can provide clock information, and the amount of
distortion of zero crossings indicates the amount of jitter.
7. The variation of level crossing can be seen from the width of the eye corners.
8. In a linear system with truly random data, all the eye openings would be
identical.
9. Asymmetries in the eye opening generally indicate nonlinearities in the
transmission channel.
10. When the effect of ISI is quite severe, traces from the upper portion of
the eye pattern cross traces from the lower portion, resulting in the eye
being completely closed.
11. In an M-ary system (as discussed later), the eye pattern contains (M –
1)eye openings stacked up vertically one on the other.