CASSAVA

CASSAVA Production, Processing and utilization

Production, Processing and Utilization in
Nigeria An

Extension Bulletin No. 224

Sponsored

By

WAAPP - Nigeria
Agricultural Transformation Agenda
Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

Produced and Distributed by

National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services
(NAERLS),
Ahmadu Bello University Zaria

EXTENSION BULLETIN No 224

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TABLE OF CONTENT

The authors are grateful to the Executive Director and his management Content Page

team as well as the Chairman and members of the Task Force of Acknowledgement-------------------------------------------------ii
Table of contents-----------------------------------------------iii-iv
NAERLS Extension Publications for their assistance towards this
publication. Introduction---------------------------------------------------------1
Site Selection ------------------------------------------------------- 2
Production inputs--------------------------------------------------- 2
Special thanks also goes to the Minister of Agriculture and the Federal Processing inputs----------------------------------------------------2
Transportation inputs-----------------------------------------------2
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development for their kind Marketing inputs-----------------------------------------------------3
assistance towards the publication of this extension bulletin. Land preparation --------------------------------------------------- 3
Recommended cassava varieties--------------------------------- 4
Climate and soil requirement -------------------------------------6
Chinaka, C. C., Omeke J. O., Onu R. O. and Okoro, B. O. Planting materials ---------------------------------------------------7
Planting date ---------------------------------------------------------7
Method of planting ------------------------------------------------ 8
Spacing ---------------------------------------------------------------9
Seed rate and plant population -----------------------------------9
Cropping pattern ----------------------------------------------------9
Weed management -------------------------------------------------9
Cultural method ----------------------------------------------------10
Biological method --------------------------------------------------10
Genetic method ---------------------------------------------------- 10
Chemical method ---------------------------------------------------11
Integrated weed management ----------------------------------- 12
Fertilizer and Fertilizer Application -----------------------------12
Pest and Diseases-------------------------------------------------- 13
Disease ------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Maturity --------------------------------------------------------------16
Harvesting---------------------------------------------------------- 16
Processing and utilization --------------------------------------- 18
Hygiene and quality product ------------------------------------ 18
Processing of Cassava ------------------------------------------- 19
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Constraints in Traditional Cassava Processing ---------------- 28
Packaging and Storage----------------------------------------------29
Channel of marketing of Cassava Produce-------------------- 29
References ----------------------------------------------------------- 31

TABLE
Table1a. Varieties of cassava and their characteristics -------5
Table1b. New Cassava varieties ----------------------------------6
Table 2. Compound fertilizer for cassava (bags/ha) ---------13

PLATE
Plate A. cassava grating machine------------------------------------20
Plate B. hydraulic press for drying ----------------------------------21
Plate C. Frying cassava into gari ------------------------------------21
Plate D. Bagging of gari for storing---------------------------------22

FIGURE
Figure 1. Land Preparation in ridges----------------------------------4
Figure 2. Planting Methods---------------------------------------------8
Figure 3. Matured Plant ready for harvest---------------------------16
Figure 4. Harvesting of cassava tubers-------------------------------17
Figure 5. Flow chart for high quality cassava
flour production (HQCF)-----------------------------------------------23
Figure 6. Flow chart for starch production ------------------------ 24
Figure 7. Flow chart of cassava chips production ------------------25
Figure 8. Flow chart for processing gari----------------------------- 26
Figure 9. Flow chart for processing Akpu (Fufu)-------------------27
Figure 10. Cassava value chain----------------------------------------30

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Introduction SITE SELECTION
Cassava (Manihot spp) is a dicotyledonous plant belonging to the Cassava tolerates poor soils usually unsuitable for most other crop like
family Euphobiaceae. Cassava is a root crop unlike yam (Diosiorca maize. It produces some yield even when abandoned without adequate
spp) that is a tuber crop. It is native to Central America. Cassava was management. For high yield of tubers, cassava requires well-drained
introduced to West Africa by Portuguese explorers in the 16th and 17th and deep soil that is not stony or gravelly. It can also thrive in poor
centuries. In Nigeria, it was introduced at Warri, Yenagoa, Calabar and soils (marginal soils).
Owerri about the same time.
It is an important food staple and industrial crop in Nigeria. Cassava is PRODUCTION
also important as a major source of income for rural households. Production Inputs
Nigeria is currently the largest producer of cassava in the world with The essential materials needed for optimum production of cassava
an annual production of over 54tons from an estimated land area of 1.4 include;
million hectares.  Land
The crop’s production generally requires less labour per unit of output  Planting material (cassava stem cuttings) of appropriate
than other major staple crops in Nigeria. It can grow and give varieties
reasonable yields in relatively poor soil and low rainfall areas. Owing  Capital
to these attributes it has become a critical food security crop in  Labour
Nigeria.  Agro-chemicals e.g herbicides, inorganic and organic fertilizers
Cassava has underground roots that are consumed by man after  Farm tools e.g hoe, cutlass, knife, or saw, plough, harrow,
processing. A few varieties exist that can be eaten raw. The root is also ridger, tractor, and wheelbarrow.
rich in carbohydrates and readily fed to livestock’s. In recent times,
 Technical know-how (Technology)
government has encouraged the processing of the crop into a wide
range of industrial products such as ethanol, glue, poultry feed,
Processing Inputs
glucose syrup and bread. The demands for these products are on the These are tools used for processing cassava tubers into various forms
increase and Government’s interest in cassava research is also for utilization. These include;
increasing with strong emphasis on increased productivity and
 Material e.g knives and machines (where available)
diversification of uses.
 Washing equipments (bowls and machines where available)
Average yield of 5-9t/ha in farmers’ field indicates that the crop is
poorly managed as both demonstrated potential and experimental  Graters (manual or machines)
yields are 400% and 250% respectively above farmers’ yields. These  Dewatering facilities – sticks or machines (manual or
could be attributed to inadequate information that accrues from use of mechanical (where available)
low yielding planting materials, pest and diseases and poor farming  Toasters-manual or mechanical (where available)
practices by farmers. The purpose of this bulletin is to highlight
recommendations from research for high cassava yield, efficient Transportation Inputs
processing and utilization in Nigeria.  Lorries, trucks, rail, marine transportation, donkeys etc
 Motorcycles, bicycle etc

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 Wheel barrows  Harrow to fine tilt
Marketing Inputs  Make 1 meter ridges
These are materials used for distributing and marketing cassava  Make tied mounds in a straight line.
products, namely;  Flat with loosening of the spots with hoe, cutlass or
 Stores spade
 Bags Ridging or mounding is essential in soils which are hard, shallow or
 Basins poorly drained. Ridging facilitates root penetration, root development
 Markets (buyers and sellers) and farm operations like fertilizer application and weeding as well as
 Consumers harvesting (Fig. 1).
Land Preparation Making ridges or mounds across the slope and in valleys bottom help
Good production requires good land preparations which depend on: to control water logging and erosion since ridges and mounds are
 Climate usually higher than both the permanent and temporary water fables.
 Soil type
 Vegetation
 Topography
 Good management practices
Traditionally after clearing the forest in rainforest ecological zone of
Nigeria, no land preparation is required other than the removal of
shrubs vines, and cutting off branches of large trees to admit sunlight.
As soon as the rain is established, farmers loosen the soil with a hoe,
planting stick, or sharp instrument before placing the cassava cuttings
and cover back with soil.
Good seed bed preparation is necessary in cassava production. Fig. 1. Land prepared in ridges
In the west, south and eastern agro-ecological zones land preparation
is carried out between March to early May while in the Northern part it Recommended Cassava Varieties
is done in early June to July. Use of poor yielding varieties has been a major factor contributing to
Before planting the land is cleared, raked and do controlled burning of the low yields in farmers’ fields. Varieties have been bred and selected
the trashes if the trash is too much to be handled or spray with based on outstanding attributes like root yield, pests and diseases
herbicide if it is mainly grass vegetation. Alternatively, after bush resistance/tolerance, high dry matter and food quality. The following
clearing and burning, farmers usually practice stumping in the forest cassava varieties and their characteristics are presented in Tables 1a
vegetation. and 1b
After creating a good soil environment, the land is prepared into;
 Ridges and mounds up to 30 - 60 cm high
 Deep plough to soil depth (25 – 30cm).

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 Table 1a. VARIETIES OF CASSAVA AND THEIR Table 1b. New Cassava Varieties
CHARACTERISTICS
CASSAVA PEDIGREE DAYS POTENT PLANT HEIGHT
VARIETY OF IAL BRANCHES
Cassav Branchi Canopy Ecologic Pests & Fres Dry Gar Starc Hcn in
MATU POST
a ng habit developm al disease h Matt ri h Product
variety ent adaptati resistan Roo er Yiel Yield s RITY YIELD
on ce t Yield d (%) (mg/100 TME 419 Gbase koute 12 35.2 t/ha Tall (3-4m) Not appreciable
Yiel 80(c (%) g) op
d m) TMS TMS 30 572 12 31.8 t/ha Moderate in Low (about 0.5m)
TMS Profuse Moderate Wide High 43 25 23 23 15.5 97/2205 x TME 6 height (about
90257 2m)
TMS Moderat Sparse Wide High 35 28 18 27 6.3 TMS 9+DTP REP 12 45.5 t/ha Moderate in Low (about 0.5m)
84537 e
98/0505 2 bulk height (about
TMS Profuse Moderate Wide High 35 28 21 26 6.4
82/000 2m)
56 TMS 97 DTP REP 12 37.5 t/ha Moderate in Moderately high
TMS Profuse Moderate Wide High 39 30 22 26 4.1 98/0510 2 bulk height (about (about 1.2m)
82/006 2.5m)
61 TMS MPR POP 1 12 47.3 t/ha Tall (about 0.5-1.0m
NR Profuse Moderate Wide High 27 37 25 21 High 98/0581 bulk 3m)
8212 TMS (TMS 30555 12 30.7T/Ha Tall (2-3m) Low (1.0-1.3m)
NR Profuse Profuse Wide High 32 32 22 19 High
92/0057 X TME 1)
8082
HS
TMS Moderat Moderate Wide Moderat 36 29 24 12 High
50395 e e TMS (PMS 91934 10-12 39.5 t/ha Tall (2-3m) Low (0.7-2.6m)
TMS Moderat Moderate Wide Moderat 16 28 23 22 Low 92/0326 X TME
3001 e e 1)HS
NR Profuse Moderate Wide Moderat 26 32 25 23 High TMS TMS 12 43.2 t/ha Tall (about High (about
8208 e 96/1632 94/0325 X 3m) 1.5m)
NR Profuse Moderate Wide High 31 43 36 25 High TME 7
8083 TMS 97 DTP REP 10-12 48.4 t/ha Moderate in Low (about 0.5m)
TMS Profuse Moderate Wide High 28 31 24 25 4.5
98/002 1 height (2m)
81/001
10 NR 87184 83 DTP REP 10-12 34.6 t/ha Tall about Low (0.1-1.1m)
TMS Moderat Sparse Wide Moderat 32 34 26 21 High 1 (3m)
91934 e e Pro-Vit A Umucass’ 8-12 35.4 t/ha Moderate in
TMS Profuse Profuse Wide Moderat 27 34 25 24 750 eries height (about
30572 e 2.5m)
TMS Moderat Profuse Savanna Moderat 26 36 25 22 31
4(2)14 e e
Source NRCRI (2000)
25
TMS Moderat Profuse Wide Moderat 17 32 24 20 High
30555 e e
Climate and Soil Requirement
NR Profuse Moderate Wide High 22 31 22 19 High Cassava requires a temperature of 21oC-35oC, rainfall of 150-200 cm,
83107 a well-drained, rich, friable, loamy soil. It can also grow in poor soil.
NR Moderat Profuse Forest Moderat 37 34 25 23 High
41044 e e

Source: FMANR (1997)

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Planting Materials in all zones. It is however known that in the tropical rainforest zone,
Cassava can flower and also produce seeds but the seeds are not cassava can be grown all year round. The determining factor is the
currently being used for planting. It is the stem-called cuttings that are availability of water. Even in the drier savanna, cassava can be grown
planted. The use of cutting is sometimes regarded as vegetative all year round using irrigation. Although cassava is drought
propagation of cassava. The seeds of cassava are mainly being used to resistant/tolerant and can withstand 6 months of drought after
breed new varieties. Ensure that you select the variety suitable to your establishment.
location which also has the desired attributes. The quality and yield of Method of Planting
cassava depends on the quality of the sticks or cuttings and variety Planting of cassava cuttings could be vertical, slanting (at an angle) or
planted, the management practice adopted and the locality where it has horizontal (Fig. 2). Vertically planting of cassava cuttings is not
been planted. It is advised that cuttings should be obtained from recommended as this method encourage drying of cuttings and usually
reliable source. has poor root development and establishment. The best recommended
Cassava stem or cutting quality depends on:- method is slanting or horizontal. By this method 2/3 of cuttings are buried
 Age of stem:- The best cuttings for planting are obtained from and planted at inclined angle of about 450 and ensure that the buds point
plants 6 – 12 months old. upwards from where the stem sprouts. While in horizontal method all the
 Thickness:- Recommended pith diameter is equal to or less cuttings are buried and covered with soil which always give rise to more
than 50% of the stem. than two sprouting. Where it becomes necessary to plant later than the
 Health of Stems:- Ensure that stems are healthy and good recommended time and to eliminate dipping stakes in insecticides against
sprouting and establishment. cassava mealy bug (CMB) and cassava green spider mite (CGM), bury
 Number of Nodes:-Cut stem such that each cutting has about 5 the cuttings completely in the soil (horizontally) at a depth of about 5 cm.
– 7 nodes. Deep planting makes harvesting difficult and increases production costs.
In dry sandy soils plant cassava cuttings deep; in moist and heavy soils,
 Stem Portion:- Middle portions establish better than the tips
plant shallow.
and basal portions.
 Stem Storage:- Store cassava stems under shade for 4- 10
days before cutting and planting. This processes makes stem
sprout faster than if planted immediately when freshly cut from
the field.

Planting Date
The best time to plant cassava has been established for the various
ecological zone at the on-set of the first rains of the year and it
depends on the cropping systems. However, cassava is planted
between March and October in all the agro-ecological zones. Except
Northern zones of Nigeria, planting is done between May and July to
ensure that cuttings are well established before the on-set of dry Fig. 2. Planting methods
season. These covers the period usually described as the rainy season Source: IITA

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Spacing  Integrated method
Cassava cuttings are planted at 1m x 1m spacing either on flats, ridges
or mounds. Due to erect (none branching) property of some variety Cultural Method
like. TME 419 spacing can be as close as 100cm x 75cm apart to give This involves using of Hoe or any local tools as well as hand pulling to
a higher plant population/ha. control weed and is very effective in a small farms. It is done at 4, 8
and 12 weeks after planting. After this period, the canopies of the
Seed Rate and Plant Population cassava have fully developed and covered the ground to smother the
It is recommended to plant cassava stems one meter apart with 50 weeds. Slashing may be done if necessary before harvesting.
stems of 1 m each of 50 bundles of stem cuttings per ha. This gives a
plant population of 10,000 stands per hectare. This spacing is Biological Method
convenient and practicable both for mechanization and inter-cropping. This method makes use of “in situ” live mulch in the form of cover
crop. By this way, cover crops such as egusi, cowpea, sweet potato,
Cropping Pattern mucuna, groundnut and soybean grown during the season prior to
Cassava can be grown as a sole crop. It can also be grown cassava cultivation help to suppress weeds. Cassava cuttings can be
(intercropped) with principal staples, such as yam, cocoyam, sweet planted directly into the mulch cover with little or no land clearing.
potato, maize, melon, cowpea, soybean and plantain. Cassava can also Appropriate inter crops can significantly reduce weeding frequencies
be grown with permanent crops like oil palm, rubber, cashew and and weed intensity. Intercropping with leguminous species (cowpea,
cocoa within the first few years of the establishment before their groundnut and soybean) has the additional benefits of soil
canopies cover and the permanent crops fully take over. improvement and fixing of nitrogen in the soil.

Genetic Method
Weed Management Use of Early-Branching Varieties:-
Cassava yield is usually reduced by delay of weed control. Slow initial Early-branching varieties develop canopies which reduce weed growth
growth and development make the cassava very susceptible to weed when:
interference during the first 3-4 months after planting. Uncontrolled  Sprouts are vigorous,
weed growth in cassava reduces the yield by 80 % /ha loss which  Crops are weed free in the first 3-4 months due to short growth
could result to a monetary loss of up to N30,000.00. Weeds must be with good canopy from the branches
controlled during the first 8 – 12 weeks from planting. This period is  Plant density is higher than 10,000 plants/ha
referred to as “the critical period of weed interference”.  Plants are free from disease and pests due to high genetic make
Any of or combination of the following methods can be used to control up.
weeds in cassava.  Environment and soil fertility are favourable.
 Cultural method Weed competition reduces branches, canopy and root development as
 Biological method well as overall crop yield. Yield reduction varies from 40% in early-
 Genetic method branching cultivars to 70% in late or non-branching cultivars. When
 Chemical method canopies do not provide sufficient cover, weed problems become

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severe. Weeds also can habour disease organisms and pests that Integrated Weed Management
predispose the crop to subsequent infections. Weeds like This is the control of weeds through a long-term management
Imperatacylindrica (spear grass) not only compete for resources, but approach, using a combination of weed management techniques such
also pierce cassava roots and create entry points for rot-causing as physical control, chemical control, biochemical control or cultural
pathogen. control. This method reduces the chances of weed species being
The early branching varieties effectively suppress early weed growth adapted to a particular control technique, which is likely to occur if
at the time when the cassava plant is vulnerable to weed competition only one technique is used. For an example, if a herbicide is used over
during the first 3-4 months of crop growth due to good canopy a long period of time, a weed species can build up a resistance to the
produced from the branches. chemical. Examples of integrated weed management include;
 Combining one hand weeding with the use of an improved
Chemical Method variety, planted at optimum density.
Several pre-emergency herbicides have been identified for weed  Combining a pre-emergence herbicide with late weeding.
control in sole cassava farms.
 Fluometuron at 2.0 kg ai/ha Fertilizer and Fertilizer Application
 Diuron at 3.0 kg ai/ha Cassava has an extensive root system and uses plant nutrients which
 Chloramben at 1.5-3kg ai/ha (as the case may be). are not easily accessible to other crops. In traditional farming, farmers
 Formulated mixture of flumeturon + metolachlor (2 + 2 kg/ha) can obtain yields of up to 5.6t/ha without fertilizer on soil that would
 Metobromuron and metolachlor (2 + 2 kg/ha) not support other crops.
 Fluometuron and Pendimethalin ( 2 + 2 kg/ha) Any compound fertilizer – NPK 15:15:15, 20:10:10; 25:10:10,
 Primextra (Pre-mix of Atrazine + Metolachlor (2 – 3 kg/ha) 27:13:13 or any other planting. Applying ring form around the cassava
The following pre-emergence herbicides can equally be used in mixed stands. One match box full of fertilizer is enough for one stand of
cassava plots cassava. One level of standard (normal) peak milk container is enough
 Diorun + Paraquat at 4-5 l/ha for five stands of cassava and these are equivalent to 400kg/ha of NPK
(15:15:15 or 10:10:20 (8 bags) which is ideal or recommended for a
 Pumetra at 4-5 l/ha
normal/standard soil. However, for good yield of roots from a fairly
Herbicides are most effective when applied before weed emergence in
rich soil, Table 1 shows the number of bags/ha of various compound
the field. When planting or weed control is delayed such that weeds
fertilizers per hectare.
become visible, mix post-mergence herbicide with a systemic
herbicide such as Glyphosate. By this way, the contact herbicide will
take care of the already emerged weeds.
Herbicides are cost effective when available in appropriate quantities,
and when cassava fields are too large to be weeded by hand (manual).

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Table 2. Compound Fertilizer for Cassava (bags/ha)  White Ants and Termites:-
FERTILIZERS (NPK) Dip cassava stem cuttings in a solution of chloropyrifos insecticides
15:15:15 20:10:10 25:10:10 27:13:13 for 5 minutes at the rate of 2 mls to 1ltre of water and allow to dry
Bags/ha 12 9 7 6 ½=6½ before planting.
 This “seed” treatment will also control cassava mealy bug,
Two or three tons per hectare of poultry, cattle manure can also be green spider mite and millipedes.
applied for good yield of cassava roots in the absence or combination Destroy ant hills. Spray the destroyed ant hills with Agrothion
of chemical fertilizer. (Fenitrothion) 20 at the rate of 40 ml/4.5 litres of water and 9 litres/ant
For good growth and yields, cassava requires friable, light textured and hill.
well drained soils containing sufficient moisture and a balanced  Green Spider Mite (GSM)
amount of plant nutrients. However, farmers can produce up to 1.4 – These cause damages to the leaves thereby reducing the photosynthctic
7.4 t/ha across all the agro-ecological zones in Nigeria and research ability of the plant resulting in eventual yield reduction. They (spider
has shown that yields of 40-60 t/ha are possible. mites) can also act as vectors for transferring diseases from on plant to
another. Isolated cases can be treated by spraying with 0.1% (1 table
Pests and Diseases spoonful/4.5 litres of water) solution of Perfekthion 40 or Rogir 40.
Pest of Cassava:- Cassava is affected by a number of pests. These Where the cassava is young (less than four (4) months old and at the
include:- on set of dry season, treat with foliar spicy of 0.1% (1
 Variegated grasshopper:- tablespoonful/4.5 litre of water) solution of the following chemicals:-
This causes complete defoliation of the cassava plant by eating up the  Supracide for Ultracide; Rogor or Perfekthion (Diamethoate);
leaves and young stems at adult and nymph stages of the insect life. Diazinon or Dasudin; Azodrin or Nuvacron (monocrotophos).
Regular weeding and hand picking are among the control measures. Start spraying as soon as the symptons are noticed. Repeat 4 times at 2
(Plate 1). Spraying the crop and the surrounding bush with 30ml (6 tea weekly intervals.
spoonful) (2 gallons) of water as soon as the first nymphs are observed
towards the end of September provided effective control. For very Diseases
effective and total control, get surrounding farmers to do same. Cassava is known to be attacked by more than 30 diseases, but the
following are the important cassava diseases in Nigeria:-
 Vertebrate Pests:- a) African Cassava Mosaic Disease (ACMD):-
Rats, grasscutters (can rat) and bush fowls dig up and eat cassava This disease is caused by virus which is transmitted by a piercing and
roots. sucking insect known as white flies.
Control:- Symptoms:- The symptoms include vein cleaning, distortion of the
 Keep the farm and surroundings weed free leaves and stunted growth of the plants.
 Trapping
 Shooting with gun Control:-
 Wire fencing round the farm (where practicable). - Grow resistant varieties
- Uproot and burn infected plants

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- Use diseases free planting materials - Yam/maize/cassava/okra
b). Bacterial Blight:- It is caused by bacteria which are transmitted - Cassava/maize/egusi
when infected cuttings are used - Maize/cassava/cowpea
Symptoms:- These include; angular and water soaked area of - Yam/maize/cassava/plantain
discoloured leaf tissue, blighting, wilting and general reduction in In these intercropping combination systems, cassava is usually planted
yield. as last crop due to its longer maturity period than other crops.
Control:- Maturity
- Use resistant varieties Cassava is ready for harvest at 9 – 12 months after planting depending
- Use clean and disease from stem cutting. on the variety and location (Fig.3). Harvest when the soil is moist so as
c) Leaf Spot:- It is caused by a fungus to minimize damage to the tubers. Cut the stem 30cm above the soil
Symptoms:- This includes spots which produce pale, brownish colour surface and lift roots by pulling the stump gently. Cassava can be
on affected leaves. harvested both in the raining and dry season, but it is better to harvest
Control:- when the soil is wet, to avoid damage to the roots, and also to use the
- Spray with fungicide e.g Bordeaux mixture, Benlate (Benomyl), stem cutting for new planting. Cassava harvested soon after the
Dithane m45 and myloxls drought season loses much starch. Best yields under rain fed are
d) Cassava Root Rot Diseases:- These are caused by various kinds obtained from mature crops after 3 months from the end of dry season.
of fungi living on or in the soil. The fungi occur mainly in
poorly drained soils.
Symptoms:- The leaves on cassava plants affected by root rot diseases
turn brown, wilt, and the plant appears scotched. The disease kills both
feeder and storage roots of cassava. The affected storage roots have an
unusual and develop colouration mainly common in over mature
cassava field.

Controls:-
- Use resistant varieties
- Use clean and disease free stem cuttings
- Avoid flooded field
- Avoid late harvesting Fig. 3. Matured plant ready for harvest
Cropping System
Cassava is commonly planted sole, but also intercropped with many Harvesting
other crops. These are various combinations of cassavas base Cassava is due for harvesting when tuberous roots have accumulated
enterprises sufficient amount of starch (Fig. 4). When harvesting is unduely
The combinations includes:- delayed the tubers became woody or fibrous. Time of harvesting
- Yam/maize/cassava depends on;

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- Time of planting are black steaks formed inside the roots. This changes the colour of the
- Variety planted products.
- Climatic and soil factors
- Marketing demand PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION
- Farmers needs Cassava is a very versatile commodity with numerous uses and by
Generally, cassava tubers are harvested manually by hand pulling and products. The roots are generally processed into different food forms
digging using hoe, cutlass or spade after cutting of the stems (Fig. 4). for human consumption and industrial uses as well as livestock feed.
For several reasons, it is difficult to harvest all the cassava in a plot The stem serves as yam staking and source of fire wood. The leaves
because of several factors like spoilage, hence only the quantity are consumed as vegetables in many tropical countries.
required immediately for use should be harvested. Cassava tubers Uses and Utilization
rapidly spoil after harvesting because it does not store well once Uses and utilization of cassava produce are listed as;
uprooted.  Gari
Mechanical harvesters are available to uproot tuberous roots, which  Foofoo
are then picked by hand. Harvesting is easier when the soil is moist  Flour
and if planting on ridges or in roles in a loose or sandy soils, rather  Tapioca
than on flat ground and in clay or heavy soils.  Cassava chips
 Glucose syrup
 Glue
 Ethanol
 Bread
 Livestock feed
 Starch
Hygiene and Quality Products
Fresh cassava tuber is a high water (moist), low-acid food that is
highly susceptible to bacterial and fungal growth. Hygienic practices,
especially in the early stages of processing, should therefore ensure
minimal contamination. All waste materials from the process should
be removed from the site as they are produced to avoid the risk of
Fig. 4. Harvesting of cassava tubers cross-contamination. Washing should be carried out thoroughly to
avoid contamination of the final product with pect, sand and so on.
Storage of Roots Formulation must be properly controlled, as too short a period will
After harvesting where it cannot be processed immediately cover result in incomplete detoxification and a bland product, while too long
cassava roots with jute bags and sprinkle water on it to keep moist and a period will give the product a strong sour taste. Both ‘over’ – and
store for 2 – 4 days before processing. Cassava roots stored longer ‘under’ – formulation badly affect the texture of the final garri.
than this period does not produced good quality products because there

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If too much liquid is pressed from the grated cassava, the d. Grating: This unit operation is used for size reduction. It helps
gelatinization of starch during subsequent toasting is affected and the to free the moisture, break the cell walls of the crops and
product is whiter. If sufficient liquid is not removed, the formation of initiates enzymes reactions
granules during toasting is affected and the dough is more likely to e. Chipping: This unit operation is for size reduction. It makes
form into lumps. The ideal moisture content is 47 – 50% and this is use of a manual or motorized slicer or chipper. In manual
assessed visually by experienced garri producers. chipping the roots should be thinly sliced to facilitate the
Sieving is important to obtain a high – quality product, free of fibrous drying process.
contaminants and with similar-sized granules. The granules must be f. Drying: This unit operation is used to reduce the moisture
toasted to about 800C/1750F to achieve partial gelatinization of the content of the processed crop. The operation is done using
starch. If lower temperatures are used, the product simply dries and solar heat or mechanical dryers such as flash dryer or cabinet
produces a dry white powder. Too high temperatures will cause drier (Plate B)
charring of the product and make it stick to the toasting pan. g. Frying: This provide means of frying the filtered product to
Processing Of Cassava gari using oven (Plate C).
Cassava roots contain 70% (or more) water and therefore cannot store h. Packaging: In packaging, adequate packaging material is
for more than 3-4 days after harvesting. Both the roots and leaves necessary to avoid moisture and extraneous materials uptake
contain cyanide (HCN) and are therefore not eaten without processing from the storage environment (Plate D).
except the sweet cassava variety. i. Storage: Storage rooms should be well ventilated, of low
Cassava is a reliable food security crop. It is a crop that is extensively humidity and free from insects and rodents.
used in trade. Cassava processing essentially involves the conversion
of the fresh root into other forms acceptable to consumers. There are Plate A. Cassava grating machine
numerous ways of processing and consuming cassava depending on
locality. The successes achieved by increasing yields in cassava
production requires to be adequately matched with increasing
processing of cassava roots into various food forms since cassava roots
are liable to high deterioration.
Cassava processing is a step by step task employed during the
conversion of cassava roots into various products. They include:
a. Sorting/selection of raw material: Matured and wholesome
roots should be selected for processing as this has a direct
impact on the product yield and quality.
b. Peeling: This eliminates the peel (the inedible portion) which
is usually high in fiber and may contain certain anti-nutritional
factors.
c. Washing: This is aimed at eliminating dirt and other
extraneous matter.

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Plate B. hydraulic press for drying Plate D. Bagging of gari for storing

Plate C. Frying cassava into gari

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 FRESH CASSAVA ROOTS
Peeling
Washing
Grating
Dewatering
Pulverizing
Drying (sun-drying or flash-drying)

HIGH QUALITY CASSAVA FLOUR (HQCF)

Fig. 5. Flow chart for High Quality Cassava Flour

Production (HQCF)

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 CASSAVA STARCH
Fresh Cassava Root Tubers
Peeling
Washing

Grating/Rasping Chipping

Grinding

Cassava Mash
Mix with water
Sieving
Sedimenting
Starch washing
Drying (Drying (sun-drying or flash-drying)
Dried cassava starch
Milling

FINE STARCH FLOUR

Fig. 6. Flow chart for Starch Production (HQCF)

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 FRESH CASSAVA ROOTS

Peeling

Washing

Chipping

Fresh Cassava Chips

Drying (Drying (sun-drying or flash-drying)

DRIED CASSAVA CHIPS

Fig. 7. Flow chart of Cassava Chips Production

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Fresh Cassava Root Tubers

Peeling

Washing

Grinding
(Mix with oil or without oil)

Pressing

Sieving Starch

Toasting

GARRI
Fig. 8. Flow chart for processing Garri

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 FRESH CASSAVA ROOT TUBERS

Peeling Un-peeled Tubers

Washing

Soaking in Water (Fermentation)

Washing with clean water Removal of the back of

Un-peeled root washing
with clean water
Sieve with clean water

Allow to settle for about 10mins and remove the

topmost water (Decantation)

Bagging/Pressing

AKPU (FUFU)
Fig. 9. Flow chart for processing Akpu (Fufu)

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CONSTRAINTS IN (TRADITIONAL) CASSAVA - Non availability of ready labour due to immigration results in
PROCESSING:- high labour costs in the cassava value chain.
Packaging and Storage
A. Environmental Factors:- The product is hygroscopic (it absorbs moisture from the air) and
- During the raining season, the sunshine and temperature are should be packed in airtight moisture-proof bags, especially in areas of
low for processing and drying in the humid areas. high humidity, to prevent spoilage due to mould growth.
- In the savannah zone, acute shortage of water hinders cassava
processing which usually requires a lot of water. Channel of Marketing Cassava Produce
- The dry matter content is usually lower in the early rainy This refers to all the linkages or pathways through which cassava
season than in the dry season therefore resulting in seasonal produce have to pass through before they get to the final consumers.
yield differences.
- During the dry season when the dry matter is highest, the soil is The Cassava Value Chain
too hard for harvesting resulting in lot of breakages/damages Fig 10: Represents the cassava value chain. This refers to all the
and high labour cost. linkages or pathways through which cassava produce have to pass
through before they get to the final consumer
B. Varietal Factors:-
The root shapes and sizes resulting from differences in cassava
varieties result in differences in harvesting and peeling times.
Irregular shapes result in losses during peeling. Small roots consume
more labour during peeling. Differences in dry matter and starch
content resulting from different varieties affect quality of processed
material. Different cassava varieties have different cyanide contents.
Bitter cassava varieties have higher cyanide content than the sweet
varieties.
C. Agronomic Factors:-
- Time of planting, harvesting and age of cassava at harvesting
affect the starch, root yield and quality of product.
D. Socio Economic Factors:-
- Difficulties in harvesting especially during dry season affect
labour availability and cost.
- Transportation difficulties due to lack of good roads and none
availability of vehicles result in high transport costs from the
farm to the markets or collection centers.
- Lack of processing machines and none availability of spare
parts plus high fuel costs affect processing costs.

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 CASSAVA PRODUCERS

Producers - Sellers Market

Retailers

Street Food Vendors

CONSUMERS

Fig.10. Cassava Value Chain

30
REFERENCES
Akinola, U.B.M. Iyela and B.O. Ogunbaremu (2007). Socio-economic
analysis of Rural Woman’s Involvement in Agro-Processing
Sabon-Gari L.G.A. Kaduna State. In: Processing of the 41st
Conf. of the Agric. Society Nigeria (ASN) 2007. Pp. 616 –
623.
Akpabio, I.A. (2005). Women and Agricultural Development in:
Nwachukwu I. and Onyekwusi, G (eds), Agricultural Extension
and Rural sociology in Nigeria snaap press, Enugu.
Andrews D. J. and Kassam A.H. (1976). The importance of multiple
cropping in increasing world food supplies. Pages 1-10. In:
Multiple Cropping. Agronomy Society of America (ASA)
Special Publication No 27. Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
Felix Nweke and Eric Tollens, (2002). “Contribution of man and
women to food crop production labour in Africa: Information
from COSCA”, outlook on Agriculture Vol. 31, No. 4 2002.
Pp. 259 – 265.
National Agricultural Extension Liaison Services (NAERLS) and
National Food Reserve Agency (NFRA) (2009). Annual
Agricultural Performance Survey Report of Nigeria. Pp. 70.
National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) (2000). Annual
Report.
National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) (2006). Annual
Report, Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria. 14(11): 36 – 38.
Nwakor, F.N, K.C. and Okoro, B.O. (2007). Adoption of cassava
value added technologies among women farmers in Ohafia
Agricultural zone of Abia State Nigeria. Proceeding of the
Sixteenth Annual Congress of the Nigeira Rural sociological
Association, held at Bowen University Iwo, Osun State,
Nigeria – 13th – 17th August, 2007. Pp. 37 - 40

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