PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 1

Topic X - Therapy
What is therapy?
Therapy, also called psychotherapy or counselling, is the process of meeting with a therapist to resolve problematic
behaviours, beliefs, feelings, relationship issues, and/or somatic responses (sensations in the body).
Therapy is a form of treatment aimed at relieving emotional distress and mental health problems. Therapy can be provided
by trained professionals—psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, or licensed counsellors. It involves examining and
gaining insight into life choices and difficulties faced by individuals, couples, or families.

Ancient Methods
Trepanning: boring, chipping, or bashing holes into a patient’s head. Unlikely the patient would survive
Phillippe Pinel - Mental illness is the result of excessive exposure to social and psychological stresses and, in some measure, of
heredity and physiological damage.

Psychotherapy
There are two main styles of therapy
Directive therapy
• therapist actively gives interpretations of client’s statements
• May suggest certain behaviours or actions.
Nondirective therapy
• The therapist remains relatively neutral and does not interpret or give advice.
• Supporting the client and encouraging them to develop their own inner authority

Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
Many psychological problems are fuelled by childhood’s residue of repressed impulses and conflicts. Uncovering the
unconscious through:

1. Dream analysis
Inviting the patient to report a dream, the analyst may offer a dream analysis, suggesting its meaning.

2. Analysing Resistance.
Resistance is a sure sign of a conflict. There must be a force present that is trying to express something and another that is
striving to prevent its expression.

3. Analysing Transference
Transferring feelings to a therapist that match those the patient had for important people in his/her past

4. Free association:
The patient is encouraged to talk about anything that comes to mind without fear of negative evaluations

Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychodynamic therapists try to understand a patient’s current symptoms by focusing on themes across important
relationships, including childhood experiences and the therapist’s relationship. They also help the person explore and gain
perspective on defending against thoughts and feelings.
 PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 2

Interpersonal psychotherapy, a brief (12- to 16-session) variation of psychodynamic therapy, has been effective in treating
depression (Weissman, 1999). Interpersonal psychotherapy aims to help people gain insight into the roots of their difficulties,
but its goal is symptom relief in the here and now, not overall personality change.

Humanistic Perspective
The humanistic perspective has emphasised people’s inherent potential for self-fulfilment. Humanistic therapists aim to boost
self-fulfilment by helping people grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance.

Client-Centred/Person Centred Therapy

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) developed client-centered therapy, which focuses on the person’s conscious self-perceptions. In this
non-directive therapy, the therapist listens without judging or interpreting and seeks to refrain from directing the client
toward certain insights. Believing that most people already possess the resources for growth.
Four Elements of Client-Centred/Person-Centred Therapy:
• Reflection: the therapist restates what the client says rather than interpreting statements
• Unconditional positive regard refers to the warmth, respect, and accepting atmosphere created by the therapist for
the client
• Empathy: the ability of the therapist to understand the feelings of the client
• Authenticity: the genuine, open, and honest response of the therapist to the client

Behaviourist Perspective
Behaviour therapy uses learning principles to eliminate maladaptive behaviours. Rather than delving deeply below the surface
and looking for inner causes, behaviour therapists view maladaptive symptoms—such as phobias or sexual disorders—as
learned behaviours that can be replaced by constructive behaviours.

Classical conditioning techniques / Counterconditioning is a behaviour therapy procedure that uses classical
conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviours. For example, for nocturnal bed-wetting, the
child sleeps with a liquid-sensitive pad connected to an alarm to wake the child.
• Aversive conditioning - associated unpleasant state with unwanted behaviour, aims to create an aversion to
something a person should avoid e.g. Antabuse/disulfiram to alcohol abuse.
• Exposure Therapies - Exposing people to what they normally avoid. With repeated exposure, they become less afraid
(habituation)
o Virtual Reality Exposure - Uses computer-generated, 3D “world”. Presents computerised fear stimuli to
patients in a controlled fashion
o Systematic Desensitization - a form of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with
gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli (used to treat phobias)

Operant conditioning techniques

Behaviour Modification & Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA). Reinforced desired behaviours and withhold reinforcement for
undesired behaviours.
• Antecedent – initial situation leading to the behaviour
• Behaviour – action
• Consequence – reinforcer associated with the behaviour
Extinction: Remove a reinforcer to reduce the frequency of behaviour, e.g. time-out for kids.
Token economies are used in institutions where people can earn a token to exhibit the desired behaviour, which can be
exchanged for privileges or treats.
Contingency contract—A formal, written agreement between the therapist and client (or teacher and student). It clearly
states the goals for behavioural change, reinforcements, and penalties.
 PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 3

Participant modelling - learning through the observation & imitation of others' models demonstrates the desired behaviour in
a step-by-step process. The client is encouraged to imitate the model.

Mindfulness
“Mindfulness is an awareness that arises through paying attention, on purpose, in the present moment, non-judgementally,”
said Jon Kabat-Zinn. “It’s about knowing what is on your mind.”
It involves:
o Breathing practices
o Embracing sensations as they arise in the body to ground ourselves in the here and now
o Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) - Jon Kabat-Zinn - Treats stress and pain using a
combination of mindfulness meditation, body awareness and yoga.
o Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) - Marsha Lineham uses CBT and mindfulness. Provides support
for people to identify their strengths and build on them and to pay attention to problems and work
them out.
o Mindfulness-Based Cognitive therapy (MBCT) Zindel Segal, J. Mark Williams & John Teasdale
• Cognitive therapy with meditative practices and attitudes to cultivate mindfulness.
• Used to treat depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder
o Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Stephen Hayes, Kelly G. Wilson, and Kirk Strosahl –
Uses clinical behaviour analysis and mindfulness.
Somatic/Body Based

o Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing – Considered a pseudoscience. The client attends to
emotionally disturbing material while simultaneously focusing on an external stimulus. This acts as a
distraction, reducing memory-associated emotions.
o Somatic Experiencing—People experience the world through their thoughts, emotions, and bodies. This
form of therapy emphasises the physiological responses that occur when someone experiences or
remembers an overwhelming or traumatic event.
▪ When a response to a threat is interrupted, the charge of energy gets ‘stuck’ in our bodies. We
develop symptoms that indicate unresolved activation or energy “stuck” in the body. We resolve
symptoms by allowing natural self-protective impulsive impulses to be felt, bringing the cycle to
completion and returning to the baseline.

Group therapy
Therapy is conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from the interaction.
o Family therapy – a form of group therapy in which family members meet with a counsellor or therapist to
resolve problems that affect the entire family; the therapist treats the family as a system. Views an
individual’s unwanted behaviours as being influenced by or directed at other family members.

Hospitalisation
Mental Hospitalization - A person placed in a protected, therapeutic environment staffed by mental health professionals.
Used as a last resort after all other options were exhausted. Inpatient care is recommended for people struggling with
psychiatric conditions, substance use disorders, or other serious mental health conditions.
Halfway houses - Short-term group living facilities for individuals making the transition from an institution (mental hospital,
prison, etc.) to independent living. Offer many health services, such as prevention, education, therapy, and crisis intervention.

Biomedical therapy
Using medication to eliminate or decrease the severity of psychological disorders. E.g. Prozac, Zoloft for depression and Abilify
for schizophrenia.
• Drug therapies
o Antipsychotic drugs – drugs used to treat schizophrenia and thought disorders – e.g. hallucinations
 PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 4

o Anti-anxiety drugs – drugs used to control anxiety, depress the central nervous system
o Anti-manic drugs – used to treat manic episodes.
o Anti-depressants – drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and OCD, increasing neurotransmitters
norepinephrine and serotonin.
• Brain Stimulation
o Electroconvulsive therapy – used for depression that does not respond to drug therapy. Electrodes are
placed on either one or both sides of a person’s head. An electric current strong enough to cause a seizure or
convulsion is passed through the electrodes.
o Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) – Performed on awake patients, magnetic pulses are
applied to the cortex to stimulate and suppress brain activity.
o Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) - scalp electrodes used to pass very low amplitude direct
currents to the brain.
• Psychosurgery – surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue to change behaviour.
o Bilateral Anterior Cingulotomy: Electrode wire is inserted into the anterior cingulated gyrus area of the
brain, guided by a magnetic resonance imaging machine. Destroys that area of brain tissue with an electric
current. Use as a last resort to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). major depressive disorder.
o Lobotomy is a type of psychosurgery that disconnects the nerves in the frontal lobes to the emotion-
controlling centres of the inner brain.
 PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 5

Self-Study
Reading the corresponding book chapter is important for success in this course. Attempt these questions only
after reading the notes and chapter in the text. This will help you assess if you have retained the information.
It would be best to try the exercises without referring to your notes.

Fill in the Blanks

1. __________ or counselling, is the process of meeting with a therapist to resolve problematic

behaviours, beliefs, feelings, relationship issues, and/or somatic responses.
2. _____________ involves uncovering the unconscious through methods such as dream analysis,
analysis of resistance, analysis of transference, and dream association.
3. Carl Rogers developed __________ therapy, which focuses on the person’s conscious self-perceptions
and involves the therapist listening without judging or interpreting.
4. ________________ uses learning principles to eliminate maladaptive behaviours and involves
techniques like classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
5. __________ is an ancient method involving boring, chipping, or bashing holes into a patient’s head,
often resulting in the patient not surviving.

Short Answer Question

1. What is therapy, and what are its main purposes and methods?