Menoufia University

Faculty of Electronic Engineering

PEM045: Physics (2)

LECTURE_4

CH2
X-RAYS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Course Lecturer
DR. Mohamed Tharwat
Lecturer in Engineering Physics
Engineering Physics and Mathematics Department
Credited Hours Programs Level_0

Session Policy

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

Credited Hours Programs Level_0

Outline
1. Introduction
2. Production of X-rays by a Coolidge Tube 10. Safety precautions
3. Origin of X-rays
4. Absorption of X-rays
5. Properties of X-rays
6. Moseley’s Law
7. X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures
8. Detection of X-rays
9. Applications of X-rays
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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1- Introduction

 In 1895, Roentgen discovered X-rays, which are produced when a beam of

cathode rays strikes a solid target. Their nature was unknown at that time.
 After performing a series of experiments, Roentgen concluded that when a
beam of fast-moving electrons strikes a solid target, an invisible high penetrating
radiation is produced.
 It took almost two decades to establish its exact nature.
 X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength.
 Till today, X-rays are an invaluable tool in the field of material
characterization and medical sciences.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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1- Introduction

 X-rays with energies ranging from about

100 eV to 10 MeV are classified as
electromagnetic waves, which are only
different from the radio waves, light, and
gamma rays in wavelength and energy.

 X-rays therefore occupy the region between

gamma and ultraviolet rays in the complete
electromagnetic spectrum.

Fig. 2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum.

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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1- Introduction

The propagation velocity c of electromagnetic wave (velocity of photon) with

frequency and wavelength λ is given by the relation.

= = × m/s

 Each photon has an energy E, which is proportional to its frequency

= = = . × J.sec

.
= Check this relation
( )
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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2- Production of X-rays by a Coolidge Tube

 Most X-ray devices emit electrons from a cathode, accelerate them with a
voltage, and allow them to hit an anode, which emits X-ray photons.

 The basic requirements of the production of X-rays are:

a) A source of electrons
b) Effective means of accelerating the electrons
c) A target of suitable materials of high atomic weight

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

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2- Production of X-rays by a Coolidge Tube

Modern Coolidge tube
 It consists of a highly evacuated hard glass bulb
containing a cathode and an anode target.
 The pressure inside the tube is 10-6 mm of
mercury.
 The electrons are emitted by the process of
thermionic emission from the cathode.
 The filament is surrounded by a molybdenum
cylinder G kept at a negative potential to the
filament.
 The electrons emitted from the filament are Fig. 2.2 The schematic diagram of a self-rectifying filament

collimated into a fine pencil of electron beam. Coolidge tube.

 The target T consists of a copper block in which a

piece of tungsten or molybdenum is fixed.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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2- Production of X-rays by a Coolidge Tube

Modern Coolidge tube
 A high D.C. potential of about more than 30,000 volts is applied between
filament F and the target T.

 Due to this high potential difference, the electrons emitted from the filament
are accelerated to a high speed and high energy.

 When these accelerated electrons strike the target, they give up their kinetic
energy and thereby, produce X-rays.

 Most of the kinetic energy of the electrons striking the target is converted
into heat, less than 1% being transformed into X-rays.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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2- Production of X-rays by a Coolidge Tube

Modern Coolidge tube
 In order to save the target from heat, it is constantly cooled by a cooling
arrangement. Generally, the target is cooled by flowing cooled water into it.

 The intensity of X-rays depends upon the number of electrons striking the
target, i.e., the rate of emission of electrons from the filament. Thus, in a
modern Coolidge tube, the intensity of X-rays can be controlled by
regulating the current flowing through the filament.

 Higher is the accelerating voltage, higher is the energy of the striking

electrons and consequently, more penetrating X-rays are produced.
 The penetrating power also increases with increase in atomic number of the
target material.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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2- Production of X-rays by a Coolidge Tube

 High penetrating X-rays are termed as hard X-rays while low penetrating X-
rays are termed as soft X-rays.

 The quality of X-rays, i.e., its penetrating power depends on the cathode–
target potential difference and the atomic number of the target.

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

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2- Production of X-rays by a Coolidge Tube

 The target should have the following characteristics:

i. High atomic weight.

ii. High melting point (so that it is not melted due to the bombardment of fast-moving
electrons that generates a lot of heat).

iii. High thermal conductivity (to carry away the generated heat).

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

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3- Origin of X-rays
The continuous spectrum
 The continuous spectrum of an X-ray is due to the rapid and continuous
deceleration of the electrons on hitting the target. A few fast-moving
electrons penetrate deep into the interior of the atoms of the target material
and collide with its atoms. Due to this, the electrons are deflected from their
original paths. In this way, the electrons are decelerated continuously and
there is continuous loss of energy. This continuous loss of energy during
deceleration is given off in the form of radiation called X-rays.

Fig. 2.3 Continuous X-ray.

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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3- Origin of X-rays
The continuous spectrum
The continuous spectrum X-rays consist of a continuous range of frequencies up to
maximum frequency νmax or minimum wavelength λmin.

 The kinetic energy (in joules) of the electrons on impact is given by the equation

. = =

 The energy of X-ray produced can be given by

= . − . = = ( −

= = ⁄
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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3- Origin of X-rays Level_0

The continuous spectrum

As shown in the figure, as the applied
voltage increases, the curves become
higher and shift to the left. This is because,
as applied voltage increases, the number of
photons produced per second and the
average energy per photon both increases.

This total X-ray intensity of continuous

spectrum is given by

=
Fig. 2.4 The X-ray spectrum of molybdenum as a function of applied
where A is a proportionality constant, and m voltage ranging from 5 kV to 25 kV. In addition to the applied voltage,
the appearance of the characteristic spectra depends upon the target
is a constant with a value of about 2. material
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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3- Origin of X-rays Level_0

The characteristic spectrum

When the voltage on an X-ray tube is raised above a certain critical value, the
characteristic of the target metal, sharp intensity maxima appear at certain
wavelengths, superimposed on the continuous spectrum as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Since they are narrow and their wavelengths are characteristic of the target metal
used, they are called characteristic lines. These lines fall into several sets,
referred to as K, L, M, and so on, in the order of increasing wavelength, all the
lines together forming the characteristic spectrum of the metal used as the
target.
The continuous spectrum is caused by the rapid deceleration of electrons by
the target, but the origin of the characteristic spectrum lies in the atoms of the
material itself.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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3- Origin of X-rays
The characteristic spectrum
 A few fast-moving electrons having speed of about one
third of the velocity of light may knock out the tightly
bound electrons even from the inner-most shells (like K, L
shells, and so on) leaving the atoms in excited states.
Immediately, the vacancies so created are filled up by the
electrons from higher shells. The energy difference
radiated in these electronic transitions appears as X-rays
of very small but of definite wavelengths called
characteristic lines. The wavelengths of this X-rays
depend upon the atomic number of the target material.
− − Fig. 2.5 Electronic transitions in an atom
= = (schematic). Emission processes indicated by arrows.

−
=
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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3- Origin of X-rays
The characteristic spectrum
 The intensity of any characteristic line, measured above the continuous
spectrum, depends both on the tube current I and the amount by which the
applied voltage V exceeds the critical excitation voltage for that line. For a K
line, the intensity IK is given by

= ( − )
Here
=
= −
≈ 1.5
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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4- Absorption of X-rays
 Experiment shows that the intensity I of an X-ray beam decreases exponentially as it passes
through any homogeneous substance.

=
= intensity of the incident X-rays.
( ) = intensity of the X-rays after passing
through a distance x.
µ is called linear absorption coefficient
= ( ⁄ )

= + + ……….=

: Mass absorption coefficient of the sample

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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5- Properties of X-rays
Following are some of the important properties of X-rays:

X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very short-wavelength. They travel in

straight lines with the speed of light.

Under suitable conditions, X-rays are reflected and refracted like ordinary
light.

Under suitable conditions, they exhibit the property of interference,

diffraction and polarization like ordinary light.

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

Credited Hours Programs Level_0

5- Properties of X-rays
Following are some of the important properties of X-rays:
 They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields indicating that the rays
are uncharged.

 X-rays can penetrate through substances that are opaque to ordinary light, for
example, wood, flesh, thick paper, thin sheets of metals. Lead offers
maximum resistance to X-rays.

 They cause fluorescence in many substances like barium, cadmium,

tungstate, zinc sulphide, and so on.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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5- Properties of X-rays
Following are some of the important properties of X-rays:
 They are capable of causing ionization in a gas through which they pass.
 They can affect a photographic plate.
 X-rays have a destructive effect on living tissue. When they are exposed to the
human body, they cause reddening of the skin, sores and serious injuries to
the tissues and glands. They can destroy white corpuscles of the blood.

‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﺠﺴﻢ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن ﻓﺈﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ اﺣﻤﺮار اﻟﺠﻠﺪ‬.‫ﻟﻸﺷﻌﺔ اﻟﺴﯿﻨﯿﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻣﺪﻣﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻧﺴﺠﺔ اﻟﺤﯿﺔ‬
.‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻨﮭﻢ ﺗﺪﻣﯿﺮ ﻛﺮﯾﺎت اﻟﺪم اﻟﺒﯿﻀﺎء‬.‫وﺗﻘﺮﺣﺎت وإﺻﺎﺑﺎت ﺧﻄﯿﺮة ﻟﻸﻧﺴﺠﺔ واﻟﻐﺪد‬
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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5- Properties of X-rays
Following are some of the important properties of X-rays:
 They are capable of ejecting electrons from surfaces of metals, that is, they
causes photoelectric effect.

 They produce secondary X-rays on striking certain heavy metals

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

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6- Moseley’s law
 In 1913, Moseley studied the characteristic X-ray spectrum of a number of
elements by using them as targets in an X-ray tube. When the rays were
analyzed by means of a spectrometer, two series, namely K-series and L-
series, were observed. He drew the following conclusions from his
observations:
i. There was a clear regularity in the lines of a series.
ii. Spectra produced in case of various targets were similar to each other
except that the lines had different wavelengths.
iii. For a particular line, the frequency ν varied in a regular manner from one
element to the next in the periodic table of elements.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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6- Moseley’s law
 Moseley’s Law states that the square root of
the frequency of any particular spectral
line is proportional to the atomic number
of the target element. Mathematically,
Moseley’s law can be expressed as

= ( −

where C and are constants

Figure 2.6 Moseley’s relation between and and for two characteristic
lines.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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7-X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures

 The gaps in the atomic planes of crystals are of the order of X-ray
wavelength.

 The structure determination of a crystal in solid form is done in the following

way by using Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer.

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

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7-X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures

 Consider the two parallel planes of atoms
and in Figure 2.7, which have the same h, k,
and l Miller indices and are separated by the
interplanar spacing. Now assume that a
parallel, monochromatic, and coherent (in-
phase) beam of X-rays of wavelength is
incident on these two planes at an angle θ.
Two rays in this beam, labeled 1 and 2, are
scattered by atoms P and Q. Constructive
interference of the scattered rays 1 and 2
occurs also at an angle θ to the planes, if the
path length difference between 1-p-1 and 2-
Q-2 (i.e., + ) is equal to a whole
Fig. 2.7 Diffraction of x-rays by planes of atoms.
number, n, of wavelengths. That is, the
condition for diffraction is
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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7-X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures

= +
= +
=
The magnitude of the distance between
two adjacent and parallel planes of
atoms (i.e., the interplanar spacing) is a
function of the Miller indices (h, k, and
l) as well as the lattice parameter (a).
For example, for crystal structures that
have cubic symmetry,
Fig. 2.7 Diffraction of x-rays by planes of atoms.
=
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7-X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures

XRD Equipment

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7-X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures

XRD Chart

Fig. 2.8 Diffraction pattern for powdered lead.

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

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7-X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures

Scherrer Equation
.
=

Where
D: Average crystal size
λ: The X-ray wavelength
: The line broadening at half the maximum intensity (FWHM)
θ: The Bragg angle.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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1. Photographic film
8- Detection of X-rays
Photographic film is affected by X-ray in much the same way as by visible light, and film is the
most widely used means of recording diffracted X-rays beams.

2. Fluorescent screens
Fluorescent screens are made of a thin layer of zinc sulfide, containing a trace of nickel,
mounted on a cardboard backing. Under the action of X-rays, this compound fluoresces in the
visible region, i.e. emits visible light, in this case yellow light.

3. Ionization devices
Ionization devices measure the intensity of X-ray beams by the amount of ionization they
produce in a gas.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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9- Applications of X-rays
1. Medical applications

The most common form of X-ray used is X-ray radiography, which can be used to help detect or
diagnose [Bone fractures, Some tumors, Dental issues and etc.…..]

2. Industrial applications
 X-rays are used to detect the defects or flaws within a material.

 X-rays can be used for testing the homogeneity of welded joints, insulating materials etc.

3. Scientific research

X-rays are used for studying the structure of crystalline solids and alloys.
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
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10- Safety precautions

 The operator of X-ray apparatus is exposed to two obvious dangers, electric

shock and radiation injury, but both of these hazards can be reduced to
negligible proportions by proper design of equipment and reasonable care on
the part of the user. Nevertheless, it is only prudent for the X-ray worker to be
continually aware of these hazards.

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

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Questions and Discussion

Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat

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The End

Good Luck
See You in Next Lecture ISA
With my Best Wishes
Dr. Mohamed Tharwat
Physics (2) Dr. Mohamed Tharwat