General Science 27
Elements can be divided into three groups: into liquid. For example: Camphor, Ammonium
metals, non-metals and metalloids. chloride (NH4Cl), etc.
1. Metals: Any chemical element that is an • Decantation: This process is applied to a mixture
effective conductor of electricity and heat in which one compound is a liquid and the other
can be defined as a metal. These are 90 in an insoluble solid heavier than the liquid.
number. • Crystallization: For the separation and
2. Non-metals: These are substances that do purification of solid substances, this method is
not exhibit such characteristic properties of most widely used.
metals as hardness, mechanical adaptability,
or the ability to conduct electricity. There
Processes and Terms Related to Matter
are 24 non-metals, out of which 12 found in
solid state, one in liquid (Br) state and 11 in • Diffusion of Gases: Diffusion is the movement
gaseous state. of a gas into space or the mixing of one gas with
3. Metalloids: Metalloids possess the another: e.g. when deodorants or perfumes are
characteristics of both metal and non- released in one part of a room, they diffuse and
metal, e.g. Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) and one can soon detect the odour in all parts of the
Antimony (Sb). room. The detection of leakage of LPG, because
• Compound: Two or more elements chemically of mixing of ethyl mercaptan, is also an example
combined to form a substance is called a of diffusion of gases.
compound. • Effusion of Gases: It is the escape of a gas
• Mixture: More than one substance (elements through a tiny hole. If gases are placed in a
or/and compounds) is combined together to container with porous walls, such as in a balloon,
form a mixture. It can be separated by physical the particles effuse through its walls, causing the
processes into two or more substances. volume to gradually decrease.
Classification of mixture is done under two • Freezing Point: The temperature at which a liquid
categories:
freezes at a certain pressure is known as the
(i) Homogeneous mixture: A homogeneous freezing point. Due to the presence of impurities
mixture, which is also called a solution,
in a substance, its melting point (MP) and freezing
has a uniform composition throughout. For
point (FP) decreases. This is the reason that in an
example: Air with nitrogen and oxygen as two
ice-cream factory a little amount of salt (NaCl) is
main constituents, honey, a solution of salt or
mixed with the substance to be freezed.
sugar, etc.
(ii) Heterogeneous mixture: A mixture which • Melting Point: The melting point is the
consists of basically distinct parts, each with temperature at which a solid changes into a
different properties, is called a heterogeneous liquid.
mixture. For example: When oil is mixed with • Boiling Point: The temperature at which a
water it forms a heterogeneous mixture. liquid changes into gas or vapour is known as
Filtration, sublimation, decantation, the boiling point. The boiling point of water is
chromatography, crystallization, etc. are 100°C.
some of the methods by which substances
can be separated from a mixture. Do You Know?
• The melting point of an alloy is less than that of
Separation of Matter its constituent elements due to the presence
of impurities.
• Filtration: It is a process of separating a
suspended solid, such as a precipitate, from • The boiling point of alcohol is lower than that
the liquid in which it is already suspended by of water.
straining it through a porous medium that can be • Evaporation: Evaporation is the process of
penetrated easily by liquids. change of liquid into a gas. Evaporation takes
• Sublimation: Heating certain substances which place at all temperatures. Wet clothes dry even
directly change into vapour without changing in shadow due to evaporation.
28 Rajasthan Public Service Commission | Assistant Engineer Examination
Atomic Structure • Nucleus: The nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons and these are collectively known as
• In 1803, John Dalton propounded the atomic nucleons. Since the electrons are of negligible
theory, according to which an atom is indivisible, mass, the entire mass of the atom is due to the
and this concept remained predominant up nucleus, i.e. nucleons. The sum of the neutrons
to the end of the 19th century. But later atomic and protons is known as the mass number.
models and atomic theories proved that atoms
Mass number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons
are divisible and they have a definite internal
configuration and composition. Mass number is generally represented by the
letter A.
• Atomic models like Rutherford’s model and
Bohr’s model have confirmed that the atoms are
composed of a number of micro particles like Rutherford Atomic Model
electron, proton and neutron. Apart from electron, In 1911, Rutherford conducted an experiment to
proton and neutron, some micro particles such as detect the inner composition or configuration of
positron, meson and neutrino are also present. an atom. It was called Rutherford’s alpha particle
Atom and Molecule: scattering experiment.
The atom of an element is that smallest particle which
This model has the following conclusions:
takes part in a chemical reaction but doesn’t exist
in a free state. Similarly, the molecule of an element (i) In an atom there is a central massive part called
or compound is that smallest particle which doesn’t nucleus, which is surrounded by the electrons.
take part in a chemical reaction but exists in a free In this nucleus protons and neutrons are packed
state. together.
(ii) The atom is spherical and most of its part is
Fundamental Particles of the Atom empty.
(iii) The size of the nucleus is very small in comparison
• Electron: This fundamental particle was invented
to the entire atom.
by J. J. Thomson in 1897. It is a negatively
(iv) Rutherford predicted empirically that the
charged particle that rotates in various orbits
electrons rotate in the various orbits around the
around the nucleus.
nucleus, while the electrons and the proton of
• The mass of an electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg and the
the nucleus have a force of attraction which is
charge of an electron = –1.6 × 10–19 coulomb.
equal to the centripetal force to keep the electron
The mass of electron can be equated to 1/1837
orbiting in the circular orbits.
of that of a hydrogen atom.
• Proton: This fundamental particle was invented
Bohr Atomic Model
by Goldstein in 1919 and it is a positively charged
stable particle. The mass of a proton = 1.67 × In 1913, Neils Bohr introduced a quantum concept to
10–27 kg and the charge of a proton = + 1.6 × explain the stability of an atom.
10–19 coulomb. Bohr provided the following new ideas on the basis
• Neutron: This fundamental particle was invented of Planck’s quantum theory called the postulates of
by Chadwick in 1932. It is a neutral unstable Bohr’s theory, which are as given below:
particle. The masses of a proton and neutron are (i) The centripetal force required for an orbiting
nearly equal. electron is counterbalanced by the electrostatic
Coulombian force of attraction between the
Particle Mass (kg) Charge Relative nucleus and the electron.
charge (ii) The electrons in an atom revolve only in a
Electron 9.10 × 10–31 –1.6 × 10–19C –1 certain definite orbit in which energy is fixed
(e) and quantized. This orbit is stationary and in any
such orbit electron doesn’t radiate any energy
Proton 1.67 × 10–27 +1.6 × 10–19C +1
although it is accelerated.
(P)
(iii) Electrons of greater radii possess greater energy
Neutron 1.67 × 10–27 0 0
and vice-versa. But if any electron jumps from
(n)
any higher orbit to any lower one then a quantum
