Kinematics

Desired Learning Outcomes

1. Define and differentiate between key kinematic concepts such
as displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
2. Apply kinematic equations to describe the motion of objects in
one and two dimensions.
3. Analyze graphical representations of motion to extract
information about an object's kinematics.
4. Solve problems involving uniform motion, uniformly
accelerated motion, and motion with varying acceleration.
5. Interpret the significance of slope and area under velocity-time
graphs.
6. Utilize vector notation to describe motion in two dimensions.
7. Apply kinematic principles to real-world scenarios, including
scenarios involving projectiles and circular motion.
Concepts Covered
• Motion, position, time
• Speed (average, instantaneous)
• X vs. T graphs, v vs. T graphs, a vs. T graphs
• Vectors, scalars, displacement, velocity
• Adding collinear & perpendicular vectors
• Acceleration
• Free fall, air resistance
Motion and Rest
Rest:
An object is said to be at rest if if does not change its
position w.r.t its surroundings with the passage of
time.
Motion:
A body is said to be in motion if its position changes
continuously w.r.t. the surroundings (or with respect
to an observer) with the passge of time.
Position, Distance and Displacement

•Position (x) – where you are located

•Distance (d ) – how far you have traveled,
regardless of direction
•Displacement (x) – where you are in
relation to where you started
 Distance vs. Displacement
• You drive the path, and your odometer goes up by 8
miles (your distance).
• Your displacement is the shorter directed distance
from start to stop (green arrow).
• What if you drove in a circle?

start

stop
Distance vs. Displacement
Distance:
• Refers to how much ground an
object covers during its motion.
• It is a scalar quantity,
• For example, if you walk around a
track and cover 400 meters, your
distance is 400 meters.

Displacement:
• Refers to the change in position of
an object from its starting point to
its ending point.
• It is a vector quantity.
• For example, if you walk around the
same track and end up at your
starting point, your displacement is
zero, even though the distance you
walked is 400 meters.
Motion Along a Line

• Motion: change in position of an object compared to

a frame of reference (a "stationary" reference point)
• Measuring Motion (along a line)
• position, x: location with respect to the origin The
origin is (x=0), unit: m
• displacement, s = x : change in position
x = xf – xi
displacement = final position – initial position
Motion Along a Line –
Displacement Examples
 Speed vs. Velocity
◼ Speed: the amount of velocity S=d/t
◼ Velocity is speed and direction (+/- along a

line), speed doesn’t have direction. V=∆x/t

◼ a velocity of -24 m/s is not the same as +24

m/s (opposite directions), but both have the

same speed (24 m/s).
◼ car speedometer indicates speed only; for

velocity, you would need a speedometer and

a compass.
 Speed, Velocity, & Acceleration
• Average speed ( v ) – distance / time
• Acceleration (a) – how fast you speed
up, slow down, or change direction;
the rate at which velocity changes
 Speed vs. Velocity
•Speed is a scalar (how fast something is
moving regardless of its direction).
Ex: v = 20 mph
•Speed is the magnitude of velocity.
 Speed vs. Velocity
• Velocity is a combination of speed and direction. Ex:
v = 20 mph at 15 south of west
• The symbol for velocity is type written in bold: v or
hand written with an arrow: v
 Speed vs. Velocity
• During your 8 mi. trip, which took 15 min., your
speedometer displays your instantaneous speed, which
varies throughout the trip.
• Your average speed is 32 mi/hr.
• Your average velocity is 32 mi/hr in a SE direction.
• At any point in time, your velocity vector points tangent
to your path.
• The faster you go, the longer your velocity vector.
 Speed vs. Velocity Summary

Aspect Speed Velocity

Rate of change of Rate of change of

Definition
distance displacement
Type of
Scalar Vector
Quantity

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Formula 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Graphing Motion

•interpreting an x vs. t (position vs. time)

graph

x
(m)
t (s)
constant constant constant – changing changing
+v v=0 v +v +v
(moving (not (moving (speeding (slowing
forward) moving) backward) up) down)
 Graphing Motion
• interpreting an x vs. t (position vs. time) graph
• for linear x vs. t graphs:
slope = rise/run =
x x/t, so slope = vav

rise = x,
the vertical
change bet. 2
points (up
and down)
t
run = t the horizontal change between
two points (line goes left or right)
Graphing Motion

For example, if you have two points (x1,

y1) and (x2, y2), the slope m can be
calculated as :

m = y2 – y1 / x2 – x1
Sample Problem on Slope
Problem: Suppose you have two points on a line
(2,3) and (6,11). Find the slope of the line passing
through these points.
Solution:
1. Identify the coordinates of the points:
• Point 1: (x1, y1) = (2,3)
• Point 2: (x2, y2) = (6,11)
2. Use the slope formula and plug in the coordinates
m = y2 – y1 / x2 – x1; 11-3 / 6 – 2; 8/4 so m = 2
Graphing Motion
• interpreting an x vs. t (position vs. time) graph
• for curving x vs. t graphs:

slope of
tangent line =
vinstantaneous
t
Slope of a Tangent Line
The general steps to find the slope of the tangent
line are:
1. Find the derivative of the function f(x), which is
denoted as f’ (x).
2. Evaluate the derive at the specific point x = a to
find the slope of the tangent line.

Mathematically, this can be written as

mtangent = f’ (a)
Example of a slope of a tangent line
For example, if you have function f(x) = x2 and you
want to find the slope of the tangent line at x = 3:

1. First, find the derivative of f(x) = x2; f’(x) = 2x

2. Then, evaluate the derivative at x = 3;
f’(3) = 2 x 3 = 6

So the slope of the tangent line to the curve f(x) = x2

at the point x = 3 is 6
Graphing Motion

•interpreting a v vs. t (velocity vs. time) graph

v
(m/ s)
t (s)

constant constant constant – changing changing

+v v=0 v +v +v

(moving (not (moving (speeding (slowing

backward) up) down)
forward) moving)
Graphing Motion
• comparing an x vs. t and a v vs. t graph

x
(m)
t (s)

v
(m/ s)
t (s)
 x Graphing !
B 1 – D Motion
A
t

A … Starts at home (origin) and goes forward slowly

B … Not moving (position remains constant as time
progresses)
C … Turns around and goes in the other direction
quickly, passing up home
x
Graphing w/
Acceleration
B C

A D

A … Start from rest south of home; increase speed gradually

B … Pass home; gradually slow to a stop (still moving north)
C … Turn around; gradually speed back up again heading south
D … Continue heading south; gradually slow to a stop near the
starting point
x
Tangent Lines
t

On a position vs. time graph:

SLOPE VELOCITY SLOPE SPEED
Positive Positive Steep Fast
Negative Negative Gentle Slow
Zero Zero Flat Zero
x Increasing &
Decreasing
t

Increasing
Decreasing

On a position vs. time graph:

Increasing means moving forward (positive direction).
Decreasing means moving backwards (negative direction).
x
Concavity
t

On a position vs. time graph:

Concave up means positive acceleration.
Concave down means negative acceleration.
x Special
Q Points
P R
t
S

Inflection Pt. P, R Change of concavity

Peak or Valley Q Turning point
Time Axis Times when you are at
P, S
Intercept “home”
x Curve
B
C
Summary
t
A D

Concave Up Concave Down

v>0 v>0
Increasing a > 0 (A) a < 0 (B)

Decreasing v<0 v<0

a > 0 (D) a < 0 (C)
x All 3 Graphs
t

t
x Graphing Tips
t

• Line up the graphs vertically.

• Draw vertical dashed lines at special points except intercepts.
• Map the slopes of the position graph onto the velocity graph.
• A red peak or valley means a blue time intercept.
 Graphing Tips
The same rules apply in making an acceleration graph from a velocity
graph. Just graph the slopes! Note: a positive constant slope in blue
means a positive constant green segment. The steeper the blue slope,
the farther the green segment is from the time axis.

t
 Real life
Note how the v graph is pointy and the a graph skips. In real life,
the blue points would be smooth curves and the green segments
would be connected. In our class, however, we’ll mainly deal with
constant acceleration.

t
 Area under a velocity graph
v “forward area”

“backward area”

Area above the time axis = forward (positive) displacement.

Area below the time axis = backward (negative) displacement.
Net area (above - below) = net displacement.
Total area (above + below) = total distance traveled.
v “forward area”
Area
t

“backward area”

The areas above and below are about equal, so even though a
significant distance may have been covered, the displacement is
about zero, meaning the stopping point was near the starting
point. The position graph shows this too.

t
v (m/s)
12
Area units
t (s)

• Imagine approximating the area

under the curve with very thin
12 m/s rectangles.
• Each has area of height  width.
0.5 s • The height is in m/s; width is in
seconds.
• Therefore, area is in meters!

• The rectangles under the time axis have negative

heights, corresponding to negative displacement.
x Graphs of a ball
thrown straight up
The ball is thrown from
t the ground, and it lands
on a ledge.
v
The position graph is
parabolic.
The ball peaks at the
t
parabola’s vertex.
The v graph has a
a
slope of -9.8 m/s2.
Map out the slopes!
t
There is more “positive
area” than negative on
the v graph.
 Graph Practice
Try making all three graphs for the following scenario:
1. Schmedrick starts out north of home. At time zero he’s
driving a cement mixer south very fast at a constant speed.
2. He accidentally runs over an innocent moose crossing
the road, so he slows to a stop to check on the poor moose.
3. He pauses for a while until he determines the moose is
squashed flat and deader than a doornail.
4. Fleeing the scene of the crime, Schmedrick takes off
again in the same direction, speeding up quickly.
5. When his conscience gets the better of him, he slows,
turns around, and returns to the crash site.
Motion in a Plane
Motion in a Plane
•Start at the Old
Lagoon
•Go 50 paces East
•Go 25 Paces North
•Go 15 paces West
•Go 30 paces North
•Go 20 paces
Southeast
•X marks the Spot!
Motion in a Plane

•Trigonometry
•sine:
sin  = opp/hyp hypotenuse opposite
side
•cosine: 
cos  = adj/hyp adjacent
•tangent: side
tan  = opp/adj
Motion in a Plane

•Vectors
• scalars: only show how much (position, time,
speed, mass)
• vectors: show how much and in what direction
• displacement, r or x : distance and direction
• velocity, v : speed and direction
• acceleration, a: change in speed and direction
Motion in a Plane

•Vectors 
• arrows: velocity vector v
v = v (speed),  (direction)
• length proportional to
amount
• direction in map coordinates N
• between poles, give degrees
N of W, degrees S of W, etc. E
W

S
Motion in a Plane
Two vectors are said to be collinear vectors,
if they act along a same line.

B
Q

A P
Motion in a Plane

• Combining Vectors

• Draw a diagram & label the origin/axes!

• Collinear vectors: v1 v2 v1 v2

• Resultant: vnet= v1 + v2 (direction: + or –)

• ex: A plane flies 40 m/s E into a 10 m/s W headwind.

What is the net velocity?
• ex: A plane flies 40 m/s E with a 10 m/s E tailwind.
What is the net velocity?
Sample Problems on Collinear Vectors
Problem 1: Two forces F1 and F2 are acting on an object along the
same line. Force F1 has a magnitude of 7N to the right and force F2
has a magnitude of 3N to the left. Find the resultant force acting on
the object.
Ans. 4N to the right
Problem 2: An object is subjected to three collinear forces: F1 with a
magnitude of 12N to the right, F2 with a magnitude of 15N to the left,
and F3 with a magnitude of 8N to the right. Find the resultant force.
Ans. 5N to the right
Problem 3: A car is subjected to two forces: F1 with a magnitude of 500N
pushing forward and F2 with a magnitude of 200N acting as friction
opposing the motion. Find the resultant force acting on the car.
Ans. 300N forward
Motion in a Plane
•Perpendicular vectors:
resultant’s magnitude:
vx 2 2
v= vx + vy

vy resultant’s direction:
v
−1 y 
 v
 = tan  
 vx 
 Vectors are perpendicular (angle = 90⁰)
R
P + Q = Q
α
P
Magnitude: Direction:
R= P 2 + 2PQ cos 90° + Q2 Q sin 90° Q
tan α = =
P + Q cos 90° P + 0
R= P 2 + 0 + Q2
Q
α= tan−1
R= P 2 + Q2 P
Sample Problems on Perpendicular
Vectors
Problem: Two forces acting on an object. Force 1 has a
magnitude of 6N and is directed along the x-axis. Force F2 has
a magnitude of 8N and is directed along the y-axis. Find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the
object.

Solution:

1. Represent the forces as vectors:

• F1 = 6N along x-axis
• F2 = 8N along y-axis
Sample Problems on Perpendicular
Vectors
2. Find the components of the resultant force: Since the
forces are perpendicular, we can use the Pythagorean
theorem to find the magnitude of the resultant force. \

3. Calculate the magnitude

4. Find the direction of the resultant force: the direction can

be found using the tangent function.
Kinematics Formula Summary
For 1-D motion with constant acceleration:

• v f = v0 + a t eq. 1

• v = (v0 + vf ) / 2
avg eq. 2

• x = v0 t + a t
1 2
½ eq. 3
2

• vf2 – v02 = 2 a x eq. 4

Kinematics Derivations
a = v / t (by definition)
a = (vf – v0) / t
 vf = v0 + a t

v = (v0 + vf ) / 2 will be proven when we do graphing.

avg

x = v t = ½ (v0 + vf) t = ½ (v0 + v0 + a t) t

 x = v0 t + 1
2
a t 2

(cont.)
Kinematics Derivations (cont.)
v f = v0 + a t  t = (vf – v0) / a
x = v0 t + 1 a t 2 
2
x = v0 [(vf – v0) / a] + 1 a [(vf – v0) / a] 2
2
 vf2 – v02 = 2 a x

Note that the top equation is solved for t and that

expression for t is substituted twice (in red) into the
x equation. You should work out the algebra to
prove the final result on the last line.
Sample problems on 1D motion with
constant acceleration
Problem 1: A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly
at a rate of 2 m/s2 for 5 seconds. Calculate the final velocity
and the distance traveled by the car.

Solution:
1. Identify the known values.
2. Use the 1st equation to find the final velocity
3. Use the 3rd equation of motion to find the distance
traveled.
Ans: Vf = 10m/s and X = 25m
Sample problems on 1D motion with
constant acceleration
Problem 2: A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an
initial velocity of 20m/s. Calculate the maximum height it
reaches and the time taken to reach that height. (Assume the
acceleration due to gravity is 9.8m/s).
Solution:
1. Identify the known values.
2. Use the 4th equation of motion to find the distance
traveled.
Ans. T ~ 2.04s and X = 20.4m
Acceleration
 Acceleration
Acceleration – how fast you speed up, slow down, or
change direction; it’s the rate at which velocity
changes. Two examples:
t (s) v (mph) t (s) v (m/s)
0 55 0 34
1 57 1 31
2 59 2 28
3 61 3 25
m/s
a = +2 mph / s a = -3 s = -3 m / s 2
Uniform Acceleration

When object starts from rest and undergoes constant

acceleration:
• Position is proportional to the square of time.
• Position changes result in the sequence of odd
numbers.
• Falling bodies exhibit this type of motion (since g is
constant).
 Velocity & Acceleration Sign Chart
VELOCITY

A
C
+ -
C
E Moving forward; Moving backward;
L +
E Speeding up Slowing down
R
A
T
I
- Moving forward; Moving backward;
O Slowing down Speeding up
N
 Acceleration due to Gravity
Near the surface of the This acceleration
Earth, all objects vector is the same
accelerate at the same on the way up, at
rate (ignoring air the top, and on the
resistance). way down!

a = -g = -9.8 m/s2
9.8 m/s2

Interpretation: Velocity decreases by 9.8 m/s each second,

meaning velocity is becoming less positive or more negative. Less
positive means slowing down while going up. More negative
means speeding up while going down.
Sample Problems on Acceleration

Problem 1: A cyclist starts from rest and accelerates

uniformly at a rate of 1.5m/s2. How long will it take for the
cyclist to reach a speed of 9m/s, and how far will the cyclist
travel during this time?
Solution:
1. Identify the known values.
2. Use the 1st equation to find the final velocity
3. Use the 3rd equation of motion to find the distance
traveled.
Ans. T = 6s and X = 27m
Sample Problems on Acceleration

Problem 2: A car is moving with an initial velocity of 20m/s

and comes to a stop after traveling 50m with uniform
deceleration. Calculate the car’s acceleration and the time
taken to come to a stop.

Solution:
1. Identify the known values.
2. Use the 4th equation to find the acceleration
3. Use the 1st equation of motion to find the time traveled.
Ans. a = -4m/s and t = 5s
Free Fall, Air Resistance
Free Fall
Free fall is the motion of an
object under the effect of
gravitational force only.
Motion of bungee jumper Motion of skydivers
 Important Note

• Free fall does not mean that the object is falling

down only.

• Objects thrown upward or downward and those

released from rest are all the examples of free
fall.
 Falling objects and air resistance

More air resistance on without Less air resistance on

crumpled-up piece of paper crumpled-up piece of paper
Free Fall

•Air resistance reduces acceleration to zero

over long falls; reach constant, "terminal"
velocity.
•Why does this occur?
•Air resistance is proportional to v^2
Falling objects and air resistance

In vacuum both feather and apple

falls at the same rate.

Reason:
In vacuum there is no air, it means
there is no air resistance.
So surface area and mass makes
no difference.
 Free Fall
• Free Fall: all falling objects are
constantly accelerated due to
gravity
• acceleration due to gravity, g,
is the same for all objects
• use y instead of x, up is
positive
• g = –9.80 m/s2 (at sea level;
decreases with altitude)
 Acceleration due to gravity
0 s, v1 = 0 m/s • During each second of fall, the speed of a
1 s, v2 = 9.8 m/s ball changes by 9.8 m/s.

2 s, v3 = 19.6 m/s • The change in speed is due to gravity.

• Hence, the acceleration in this case is called
acceleration due to gravity.
3 s, v4 = 29.4 m/s

2
𝑔 = 9.8 m/s
4 s, v5 = 39.2 m/s
 Sign convention

Position Velocity Acceleration

y y y y y

y>0

0 0 v>0 v<0
a = -g
y<0
 Equations of motion for free fall
Kinematical equations of motion is also applicable for free fall
because, free fall is an example of uniformly accelerated
motion.
HORIZONTAL MOTION FREE FALL

vf = vi + at vf = vi − 𝑔t

1 2 1 2
xf − xi = vi t + at yf − yi = vi t − 𝑔t
2 2

vf2 = vi2 + 2a(xf − xi ) vf2 = vi2 − 2𝑔(yf − yi )

 Position-time graph for free fall
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 t
Time (s) Position (m)
-20
0 0
-40
1 -4.9 -60

2 -19.6 -80

3 -44.1 -100

-120
4 -78.4
y
5 -122.5
 Velocity-time graph for free fall
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 t
Time (s) Velocity (m/s)
-10
0 0
-20
1 -9.8
-30
2 -19.6
-40
3 -29.4 -50
4 -39.2 -60
5 -49 v
Acceleration-time graph for free fall
1 2 3 4 5 6
Acceleration 0 t
Time (s)
(m/s𝟐 ) -2
0 -9.8 -4
1 -9.8 -6

2 -9.8 -8

3 -9.8 -10

4 -9.8 -12

5 -9.8 a
Sample Problem on Free Fall
Problem 1: A stone that starts at rest is in free fall for 8.0 s.
(Level 1)
a) Calculate the stone’s velocity after 8.0 s.
b) What is the stone’s displacement during this time?
Solution:
a) vf = vi + at where a = −9.8 m/s2
= 0.0 m/s + (−9.8 m/s2)(8.0 s)
= −78 m/s or 78m/s downward
b) Choose the coordinate system to have the origin where the stone is at
rest and positive to be upward.
= 3.1×102 m downward
Answer:
a) 78 m/s downward
b) 310 m downward
Sample Problems on Acceleration
Problem 2: A ball is dropped from a height of 80 m.
Calculate the time it takes for the ball to hit the ground and its
velocity just before impact. (Assume the acceleration due to
gravity is 9.8m/s2 and neglect air resistance.
Solution:
1. Identify the known values.
2. Use the 3rd equation to find the acceleration
3. Use the 1st equation of motion to find the time traveled.
Ans. t = 4.04s and v = 39.6m/s