Fabric Bursting Strength:

Bursting strength is a method of measuring strength in which the material is stressed in all the directions at the
and is therefore more suitable for materials such as knitted fabrics, lace or non-woven.
Fabrics used in parachute, filters, sacks and nets are simultaneously stressed in all the directions during service
service, a fabric is more likely to fail by bursting than by a straight tensile fracture;
Example: The stress present at elbows and knees of clothing. During a test a fabric fails across the direction wh
lowest breaking extension

Tensile test is unidirectional and thus suitable for woven fabrics where definite warp and weft direction st
measured.
In case of knitted or nonwoven fabrics, where no definite alignment of yarns/fibres is there, multidirection
required.
Some fabrics (even woven also) stressed in all direction during use (parachute, filters, sacks, nets etc.)
These types of fabrics more likely to fail by bursting in service than it is to break by a straight tensile frac
Fabric fails across the direction which has lowest breaking extension. Because in all the directions the fab
the same extension. This is not necessarily the direction with the lowest strength.

Types of Fabric Bursting Strength Test:

1. Diaphragm bursting test.

2. Ball bursting test

(a) Diaphragm bursting test:

In this test the fabric sample is clamped over a rubber diaphragm by means of an
annular clamping ring.
An increasing fluid pressure is applied to the underside of the diaphragm until
the specimen bursts.
The operating fluid may be a liquid or a gas.
Sample:
Specimens of two sizes are used; 30mm and 113mm.
The specimen with the larger diameter fails at lower pressure
(approximately 1/5 of the 30mm diameter value).

The standard requires 10 specimens to be tested.

Procedure:
The fabric sample is clamped over the rubber diaphragm.
The pressure in the fluid increases at such a rate that the specimen
bursts within 20 ± 3 sec. (P1).
 The height (extension) of the diaphragm is noted
Another test is carried out without a specimen.
The pressure to do this is noted and then deducted from the earlier reading.
(P1 - P2) is the actual bursting strength of the specimen.
Mean bursting strength “kN/m2”

Mean bursting distance “mm”

Disadvantages:
Fabrics with very high extensibility (knitted fabrics) creates problem because the rubber diaphragm
has to stretch to the same amount.
Blank test is required, which needs accuracy, or pressure – distance calibration chart is required.
Spilling of liquid may occur or chances of leakage.
Diameter of the specimen may be varied.
It is good to have a test length greater than the fibre length. A diameter of say 1.2'',
which is recommended by some standard, is little on the smaller side for woven cotton cloth.
For knotted fabrics the length of yarn (a 1.2'' circular fabric) is much longer due to looped structure.
Crimp percentage in warp and weft plays an important role. For similar yarn, the direction
with lower crimp percentage will break.
(b) Ball bursting strength:
The US standard ASTM D 3787 specifies a 1.0000 inch diameter ball (25.4mm) with a
clamp diameter of 1.75 inch (44.45mm) and a speed of 12 inch/min (305mm/min).
The British Standard for coated fabrics BS 3424 specifies a very similar dimension with a
ball diameter of 25.2mm, a clamp diameter of 45mm and a testing speed of 5mm/s. an example
of a compression fixture to carry out this test is shown.

Diaphragm bursting test is not suitable for highly stretchable fabrics.

Errors due to diaphragm expansion.
This test can be performed using an attachment on a standard tensile testing m/c.
25mm diameter ball is pushed through the stretched fabric and force required is recorded.
In diaphragm pressure is measured, but here force is measured.
No limit to the amount that a sample can be extended.
The load cell operates in compression mode.

Pilling:
A garment is considered to be serviceable when it is fit for its particular end use.
It is a fabric surface fault characterized by little pills of entangled fibre clinging to the cloth surface an
giving the garment an unsightly appearance.
Formed by rubbing action on loose fibres that are present on the fabric surface.
Stronger component in the blend aggravated its seriousness.
Higher breaking strength and lower bending stiffness results more pill.
 Low twist factor, higher hairiness, and loose fabric structure results easy and large pills (knitwear)
Measurement of fabric pilling:
a) Objective method:
Counting the number of pills or by removing and weighting them.
Time consuming, also does not take into account the degree of colour contrast with the ground.
b) Subjective method:
By comparing it with either standard sample or with photograph or by the use of a written scale of severity.

Methods of Measurement:
1. ICI pilling box
2. Random tumbling pilling test
3. Pilling test by Martindale Abrasion Tester
1. ICI pilling box:

A specimen (125 mm x 125 mm) is cut from fabric (2 for warp 2 for weft).

Stitched face-to-face and turned inside out.

The fabric tube is then mounted on rubber tubes.

The loose ends taped with PVC tape.

All the four samples are then tumbled together in a cork-lined box 9'' x 9'' x 9'' and allowed for required
revolution cycle.
The specimens are taken out and removed from rubber tube and rated.
Also, pilling is mainly due to fibres with very high “lateral strength” or "bending strength" or “low
brittleness”.
 High “lateral strength” may be advantageous in some applications like technical textiles, floor covering,
etc.
However, the pilling tendency also increases, so in the apparel sector “low lateral strength" is preferable,
particularly in knitted goods.
Polyester fibres are deliberately made brittle for use in knitted products to avoid pilling (anti pilling
types).
Pills do not form where fibres with low lateral strength are used (wool and anti-pill man-made fibres).

They can be easily scrubbed off.

But fibres with “high lateral strength” will have higher pilling tendency.

Pilling resistance and durability are inversely related.

PILLING GRADES:
Grade 5 No or very weak formation of pills.
Grade 4 Weak formations of pills.
Grade 3 Moderate formations of pills.
Grade 2 Obvious formations of pills.
Grade 1 Severe formation of pills.

2.Random tumbling pilling test:

Random tumbling motion produced by tumbling specimen in a cylindrical test chamber lined with mildly
abrasive material.
To resemble the pills those with actual wear, small amount of cotton lint are added.
Three specimen of 105 mm x 105 mm are cut an angle 45º to length and edges are sealed with rubber
adhesive.
All these samples along with cotton lint are tumbled in the test chamber.
After certain time the fabric samples are assessed. The number and timing of the cycles depends on type o
fabric being tested and would be laid down in the relevant specification.
 Abrasion Resistance:

Abrasion is the rubbing away of the component fibres and yarns of the fabric.
Abrasion is of three types :
Plain or flat abrasion - A flat area of material is abraded.
Edge abrasion - Kind of abrasion which occurs at collars and folds.
Flex abrasion - Rubbing is accompanied by flexing and bending.

FACTORS AFFECTING ABRASION RESISTANCE:

1. Fibre type:
High elongation, elastic recovery, and work of rupture are considered to be more important factors. (Nylon polym
Blending of nylon or polyester with wool or cotton improves abrasion resistance.
2. Fibre properties:
Longer fibres incorporated into fabric confer better abrasion resistance, because they are harder to remove from y
the same reason filament yarns are more abrasion resistant than staple yarns made from the same fibre. Increasin
diameter up to a limit improves abrasion resistance. Above the limit the increasing strains encountered in bendin
counteract any further advantage and also a decrease in the number of fibres in the cross-section lowers fibre coh
3. Yarn twist:
Optimum twist increases the abrasion resistance. At low twist, fibres can come out and at high twist more abrasio
stiffer yarn.
4. Fabric structure:
If one set of yarn is predominantly on the surface then this set will wear most. Relative mobility of floats helps to
stress.
Factors affecting abrasion test result:

Type of abrasion: Plane, flex or edge abrasion or combination.

Type of abradant: standard fabric, steel plates, abrasive paper or stones selected based on actual use.
Pressure: Higher pressure, more abrasion
Speed of abrasion: A rise in temperature of sample can occur with high rubbing speeds, which can affec
properties (thermoplastic fibres).
Tension: At higher tension abrasion is more.
Direction: In many fabrics abrasion resistance in the warp differs from that of the weft. Ideally the rubbi
used by an machine should be such as to eliminate directional effects.

Method of Assessment:
 Abrade the sample until a predetermined end point, e.g. a hole and record the time on no. of cycles.
Abrade for a set time or no. of cycles and then assess some aspects of the abraded fabric, e.g. change in a
loss of mass, change in thickness, loss of strength etc.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT:

MARTINDALE ABRASION TESTER:

Four specimens (38 mm diameter) are mounted in the specimen holder.
The sample is abraded against standard abradant under standard load.
A complex motion (resultant of two s.h.m. at right angle to one another) is given to the specimen holder.
 Figure: MARTINDALE ABRASION TESTER

Assessment:
No. of cycles are noted when two threads are broken. The specimen is examined at suitable intervals. If lik
failure point is known, then first inspection can be made at 60% of that value.

Average rate of loss is mass:

Total eight specimens, out of that two specimens abraded up to two thread break.
Other pairs are abraded upto 25%, 50%, and 75% of the above and average loss in weightt can be
measured from a plot of loss in mass vs cycle (loss in mass in mg/1000 rubs).

For hosiery fabrics, a flattened rubber ball is pushed through the sample as the holder is tightened thus
stretching it. Tested at 12kpa pressure till hole appears.
Accelerator
Abrasion Tester:
The fabric specimen
is driven by rotor
inside a circular
chamber lined with
an abrasive cloth.
The sample suffers abrasion by rubbing against itself as well as the linear.
Evaluation is made by (i) weight loss, (ii) loss in grab strength.
Size of specimen depends on GSM, after abrasion the specimen is taken out and any loose debris are
removed and then wished % loss in weight is calculated.
(ii) 100mm x 300mm specimen size.
Folded 50mm from short edge and stitched to have 100mm x 100 mm specimen size.
Folded edge is abraded.
After abrasion the stitch is removed and the grab strength is measured.
The fabric specimen is driven by rotor inside a circular chamber lined with an abrasive cloth.
The sample suffers abrasion by rubbing against itself as well as the liner.
Evaluation is made by:
(i) Weight loss: Size of specimen depends on g/m2. After abrasion the specimen is taken out and any loose debri
are removed and then weighed. % loss in weight is calculated.
(ii) Loss in grab strength:

100mm x 300mm specimen size.

Cut in two pieces of 100mm x 150mm
Folded 50mm from short edge and stitched to have
100 mm x 100 mm specimen size.

Fabric Stiffness

For industrial fabrics performance characteristics are important like, smooth, rough, stiff or
limp, draping, etc.

Stiffness is a special property of fabric. It is the tendency of fabric to keep standing without
any support. It is a key factor in the study of handle and drape of fabric. The stiffness of a
fabric in bending is very dependent on its thickness, the thicker the fabric, the stiffer it is if all
other factors remain the same.

(1) Principle of measurement of bending characteristics:

Cantilever principle: (Shirley Stiffness Tester)
The horizontal strip of fabric is allowed to bend like cantilever, index its own weight.

A rectangular strip of fabric, 6 in. x 1 in., is mounted on a horizontal platform in such a way that it over
change, like a cantilever, and bends downwards as shown in figure.

Figure: Fiber stiffness, cantilever principle

From the length l and the angle θ a number of values are determined. Here the length of the fabric that
will bend under its own weight to a definite extent is called bending length. It is a measure of stiffness
that determines draping quality. The calculation is as follows:

Three specimens in warp way and three in weft are usually tested and since he relative humidity can
affect the results the test should be made in a standard testing atmosphere. The horizontal platform of
the instrument is supported by two side pieces made of plastic. These side pieces have engraved on
them index lines at the standard angle of deflection of, at which angle f {41(1/2)o} = 0.5. Attached to the
instrument is a mirror which enables the operator to view both index lines from a convenient position.
The scale of the instrument is graduated in centimeters of bending length and it also serves as the
template for cutting the specimens to size.
 Where,

Pierce empirical equation, M = Mass per unit area (g/m2)

G = Flexural rigidity.

C = Bending length (mm)

θ = Angle fabric bends

at θ = 7.1º, X = 1

Higher the bending length, stiffer is the fabric.

θ = 7.1º, C = L (mm)

So, pierce definition of bending length is “the length of rectangular strip of material which will bend
under its own mass to an angle of 7.1º.

Shirley Stiffness factor:

200mm x 25mm specimen.
Allowing this strip to bend to a fixed (41.5º) under its own weight.
The over changing length is twice the bending length (C = L/2) at θ = 41.5º, X = 0.5.

(2) Hanging Loop Method:

Fabrics that are too limp to give a satisfactory result by the cantilever method may have their
stiffness measured by forming them into a loop and allowing it to hang under its own
weight.
L - strip length, lo = undistorted length of loop, i.e. the distance between grip to the farthest
point.
After hanging, due to their own weight the distance becomes “l”
 Stiffness is calculated from the difference ‘d’ = l – l0
Ring loop: lo = 0.3183 L

Bending length (C) = L × 0.133 × f(θ),

θ = 157º × d/lo,

Heart Loop: lo = 0.1337L, C = L x 0.1337 x f(θ)

θ = 32.85º x d/lo

Flexural Rigidity:
It is the ratio of the small change in bending moment per unit width of the material to the
corresponding small change in curvature . Flexural Rigidity,

G = M x C3 x 9.807 x 103 Micro N.m, where C = bending length in mm.

Bending Modulus:
The stiffness of a fabric in bending is very dependent on its thickness, the thicker the fabric, the
stiffer if all other factors remain the same. The bending modulus is independent of the dimensions
of the strip tested so that by analogy with solid materials it is a measure of ‘intrinsic stiffness’.

Bending Modulus aWhere T = fabric thickness (mm)

 Drape:
The term used to describe the way a fabric hangs under its own weight determines how good a garment looks in
use.
It differs from fabric to fabric and depends on end use.
A particular value cannot be classified as either good or bad.
The multidirection curvature formed is dependent on shear property and bending stiffness.

Cusick Drape Test:

The shadow that the fabric casts, is traced onto an annular piece of paper. Paper mass per unit area is
constant.
Drape Co-efficient (D)= (Mass of shaded area / Total mass of paper ring) x 100
Mass of whole paper ring is taken and thin shadow part is cut and weighed
 Three different specimen diameter is recommended.

 24 cm for very limpy fabric, D < 30%

 30 cm is medium fabric
 36 cm for stiff fabric, D > 85%.

 Drape coefficient has direct correlation with bending length and shear stiffness.
 For bending length (C) between 2 cm and 4 cm an almost linear relationship is predicted.
 D(%) = 30 C – 30
 13-2