Okay, here are chemistry notes tailored for the Cambridge O Level Chemistry (5090)

syllabus. These are designed to be concise reminders of key concepts. Remember to

consult your textbook and past papers for more detailed explanations and practice!

I. States of Matter

Solid: Fixed shape & volume, strong forces, particles vibrate in fixed positions.

Liquid: Fixed volume, no fixed shape, weaker forces, particles can move around.

Gas: No fixed shape or volume, very weak forces, particles move randomly.

Changes of State:
Melting: Solid → Liquid (endothermic). Melting point: temperature at which solid
turns to liquid.
Boiling/Evaporation: Liquid → Gas (endothermic). Boiling point: temperature at
which liquid rapidly turns to gas (evaporation below boiling point also occurs).
Condensation: Gas → Liquid (exothermic).
Freezing: Liquid → Solid (exothermic).
Sublimation: Solid → Gas (endothermic) (e.g., iodine, dry ice).

Kinetic Theory: Explains states of matter based on particle movement/kinetic

energy. Increase in temperature increases kinetic energy of particles.
Diffusion: Movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration. Faster at higher temperatures, lower molecular mass.

II. Elements, Compounds, & Mixtures:

Element: Substance made of only one type of atom (e.g., O, Cu, C).
Compound: Two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio (e.g., H₂O,
NaCl). Properties are different from the elements that formed it.
Mixture: Two or more substances physically combined (e.g., air, salt water).
Components retain their individual properties.
Homogeneous: Uniform composition throughout (e.g., saltwater).
Heterogeneous: Non-uniform composition (e.g., sand and water).
Separation Techniques:
Filtration: Separates insoluble solid from a liquid.
Evaporation: Separates a soluble solid from a liquid.
Crystallization: Obtaining pure solid crystals from a solution.
Distillation: Separates liquids with different boiling points.
Fractional Distillation: Separates liquids with close boiling points (e.g., crude
oil).
Chromatography: Separates substances based on their differing solubilities in a
solvent and adsorption onto a stationary phase. (Rf value = distance travelled by
substance / distance travelled by solvent).

III. Atomic Structure

Atom: Basic unit of matter.
Protons: Positive charge, in nucleus.
Neutrons: No charge, in nucleus.
Electrons: Negative charge, orbit the nucleus in shells/energy levels.
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in an atom. Identifies the element.
Mass Number (A): Number of protons + number of neutrons.
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons (different mass numbers). Have similar chemical properties.
Electronic Configuration: Arrangement of electrons in shells (e.g., Na: 2,8,1). The
outermost shell electrons determine the chemical properties. 1st shell max 2
electrons, next shells 8 (octet rule)
Ions: Atoms that have gained or lost electrons.
Cations: Positive ions (lost electrons).
Anions: Negative ions (gained electrons).

IV. Chemical Bonding

Ionic Bonding: Transfer of electrons between a metal and a non-metal. Forms ions
with opposite charges which are attracted to each other. Forms a crystal lattice.
High melting/boiling points, conduct electricity when molten or aqueous.
Covalent Bonding: Sharing of electrons between two non-metals.
Simple Covalent: Low melting/boiling points, generally do not conduct electricity.
e.g., H2, CH4
Giant Covalent (Macromolecular): High melting/boiling points, insoluble. Examples:
Diamond, Graphite (conducts electricity), Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)
Metallic Bonding: Delocalized electrons in a lattice of positive metal ions.
Explains conductivity and malleability.
Dot and Cross Diagrams: Show electron arrangement in bonding.

V. Chemical Formulae & Equations

Valency: Combining power of an atom.
Formulae of Compounds: Determined by balancing valencies.
Balancing Equations: Ensure the number of atoms of each element is the same on both
sides of the equation.
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): Average mass of an atom compared to 1/12th the mass of a
carbon-12 atom.
Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): Sum of the Ar values of all atoms in a molecule.
The Mole: The amount of substance containing the same number of particles as there
are atoms in 12g of carbon-12.
Avogadro's Constant: 6.02 x 10²³ particles per mole.
Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance (numerically equal to Ar or Mr, but
in g/mol).
Calculations:
Moles = Mass / Mr
Volume of gas at r.t.p = moles x 24 dm³
Concentration = Moles / Volume

VI. Stoichiometry
Reacting Masses: Using balanced equations to calculate the masses of reactants and
products.
Limiting Reactant: The reactant that is completely used up in a reaction.
Determines the amount of product formed.
Excess Reactant: The reactant that is left over after the reaction.
Percentage Yield: (Actual Yield / Theoretical Yield) x 100%
Percentage Purity: (Mass of Pure Substance / Mass of Impure Substance) x 100%

VII. Acids, Bases, and Salts

Acids: Proton (H⁺) donors. pH less than 7. Turn litmus red.
Bases: Proton (H⁺) acceptors. pH greater than 7. Turn litmus blue.
Alkalis: Soluble bases.
Neutralization: Reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water. H⁺ +
OH⁻ → H₂O
Salts: Ionic compounds formed when the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal
or ammonium ion.
Strong Acids: Fully dissociate in water (e.g., HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃).
Weak Acids: Partially dissociate in water (e.g., CH₃COOH).
Strong Alkalis: Fully dissociate in water (e.g., NaOH, KOH).
Weak Alkalis: Partially dissociate in water (e.g., NH₃).
pH Scale: Measures acidity/alkalinity.
Indicators: Substances that change color depending on pH.
Titration: Accurate technique to find the concentration of a solution using a known
concentration.
Preparation of Salts:
Acid + Metal
Acid + Base (Neutralization)
Acid + Carbonate
Precipitation (mixing two solutions to form an insoluble salt)
Tests for Anions:
Carbonate (CO₃²⁻): Add acid, effervescence (CO₂), CO₂ turns limewater milky.
Chloride (Cl⁻): Add nitric acid, then silver nitrate. White precipitate.
Sulfate (SO₄²⁻): Add hydrochloric acid, then barium chloride. White precipitate.
Nitrate (NO3-): Add aqueos sodium hydroxide, then aluminium foil. Heat gently. Test
any gas produced. Ammonia is produced which turns damp red litmus paper blue.
Tests for Cations:
Ammonium (NH₄⁺): Add NaOH, heat, ammonia gas produced (turns damp red litmus paper
blue).
Flame Tests:
Lithium (Li⁺): Red
Sodium (Na⁺): Yellow
Potassium (K⁺): Lilac
Calcium (Ca²⁺): Orange-red
Copper (Cu²⁺): Blue-green
Addition of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) or Aqueous Ammonia (NH₃): Many metal hydroxides
are insoluble and form precipitates. Note the color and solubility of the
precipitate in excess reagent.

VIII. Redox Reactions

Oxidation: Loss of electrons, increase in oxidation number.
Reduction: Gain of electrons, decrease in oxidation number.
Oxidizing Agent: Accepts electrons (is reduced).
Reducing Agent: Donates electrons (is oxidized).
Redox Reactions: Reactions involving both oxidation and reduction.
Displacement Reactions: A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal
from its salt solution.

IX. Electrolysis
Electrolyte: A substance that conducts electricity when molten or dissolved in
water, and is chemically decomposed in the process.
Electrodes:
Anode: Positive electrode. Oxidation occurs here.
Cathode: Negative electrode. Reduction occurs here.
Ions: Carry charge in the electrolyte.
Electrolysis of Molten Compounds: The metal is discharged at the cathode, and the
non-metal is discharged at the anode.
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions: Factors determining discharge:
Position in the electrochemical series (more reactive metals/less reactive non-
metals are less likely to discharge).
Concentration (if similar in the electrochemical series, the more concentrated ion
is discharged).
Products of Electrolysis of Brine (NaCl solution):
Cathode: Hydrogen gas (H₂)
Anode: Chlorine gas (Cl₂)
Remaining solution: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Uses of Electrolysis: Electroplating, extraction of metals (e.g., aluminum).

X. Energy Changes
Exothermic Reactions: Release heat (ΔH is negative). Temperature increases. E.g.,
combustion, neutralization.
Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat (ΔH is positive). Temperature decreases. E.g.,
photosynthesis, thermal decomposition.
Activation Energy: Minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
XI. Rate of Reaction
Factors Affecting Rate:
Concentration: Higher concentration, faster rate.
Pressure (for gases): Higher pressure, faster rate.
Temperature: Higher temperature, faster rate.
Surface Area: Smaller particle size (larger surface area), faster rate.
Catalyst: Speeds up the reaction without being used up. Provides an alternative
pathway with lower activation energy.
Catalysis:
Homogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants.
Heterogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst is in a different phase from the reactants.
Enzymes: Biological catalysts.

XII. Chemical Equilibrium

Reversible Reactions: Reactions that can proceed in both directions.
Equilibrium: Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction.
Le Chatelier's Principle: If a change of condition is applied to a system in
equilibrium, the system will shift in a direction that relieves the stress.
Factors Affecting Equilibrium:
Concentration: Increasing reactant concentration shifts equilibrium to the right
(towards products).
Pressure: Increasing pressure shifts equilibrium towards the side with fewer gas
molecules.
Temperature: Increasing temperature shifts equilibrium in the endothermic
direction.
Catalyst: Does not affect equilibrium position, only speeds up the rate at which
equilibrium is reached.

XIII. Metals
Properties of Metals: Malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity,
high melting/boiling points (generally), lustrous.
Reactivity Series: (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Ag, Au)
Reactions of Metals:
With oxygen (forms metal oxides).
With water (forms metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas – some metals).
With acids (forms salt and hydrogen gas – some metals).
Extraction of Metals:
Metals above carbon in the reactivity series are extracted by electrolysis.
Metals below carbon can be extracted by reduction with carbon.
Iron:
Extracted in the Blast Furnace using iron ore, coke, and limestone.
Rusting: Corrosion of iron. Requires oxygen and water.
Rust Prevention: Barrier methods (painting, oiling, galvanizing), sacrificial
protection (using a more reactive metal like zinc).
Aluminum:
Extracted by electrolysis of molten alumina (Al₂O₃).
Strong, lightweight, resistant to corrosion.

XIV. Non-Metals
Properties of Non-Metals: Variable, generally brittle, poor conductors of heat and
electricity (except graphite).
Carbon:
Allotropes: Diamond (hard, giant covalent), Graphite (layers, conducts
electricity), Fullerenes.
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Greenhouse gas, produced by combustion and respiration.
Carbon Monoxide (CO): Toxic gas, produced by incomplete combustion.
Sulfur:
Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): Air pollutant, produced by burning fossil fuels containing
sulfur. Causes acid rain.
Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄): Important industrial acid.
Nitrogen:
Ammonia (NH₃): Produced by the Haber process (N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃). Used to make
fertilizers.

XV. Organic Chemistry

Homologous Series: A series of organic compounds with the same general formula,
similar chemical properties, and successive members differing by a -CH₂- group.
Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons (single bonds only). General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂.
Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (contain at least one double bond). General
formula: CₙH₂ₙ.
Alcohols: Contain the -OH functional group. General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH.
Ethanol (C₂H₅OH): Produced by fermentation of sugars or hydration of ethene. Uses:
solvent, fuel, drinks.
Carboxylic Acids: Contain the -COOH functional group.
Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH): Produced by oxidation of ethanol.
Addition Reactions: Adding atoms to a double bond (alkenes).
Hydrogenation (adding H₂).
Halogenation (adding halogens like Cl₂ or Br₂).
Polymerization: Joining many small molecules (monomers) to form a large molecule
(polymer).
Addition Polymerization: Alkenes form polymers (e.g., ethene → poly(ethene)).
Cracking: Breaking down large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, more useful
molecules using heat and a catalyst.
Isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae.
Key Tips for the Exam:

Read the questions carefully.

Show your working in calculations.
Use correct chemical terminology.
Practice past papers.
Manage your time effectively.
Review your notes thoroughly.
Good luck with your chemistry test!