1.

Provide a rational understanding on the significance of doing research;

2. Describe the characteristics and purpose of research;
3. Apply the basic understanding of research into practical use.

What is Research?

Research is defined differently by different scholars, yet beneath this

diversity lies a shared foundation. Rooted in the historical origins of the old
French term "cerchier," meaning "seek" or "search," research embodies the
innate human inclination to delve into the unknown, driven by a profound curiosity
to unravel mysteries and gain deeper insights. Research serves as a dynamic
process that extends beyond mere inquiry. It entails a systematic and objective
approach, characterized by the careful analysis and recorded observations
under controlled conditions. This disciplined methodology is designed to
transcend the boundaries of uncertainty, aiming to unearth truths that may
otherwise remain concealed. It is through this methodical exploration that
researchers aspire to contribute to the broader body of knowledge, laying the
groundwork for the emergence of generalizations, principles, or theories.

The trajectory of research is marked by a perpetual quest for

understanding, where individuals embark on intellectual journeys to seek more
explanations, validate existing assumptions, and uncover new facets of reality.
This intellectual pursuit is driven not only by an innate human desire for
knowledge but also by a commitment to advancing our collective understanding
of the world. Research extends beyond academic, manifesting in the practical
applications that shape and influence the course of events. By discerning
patterns, formulating general principles, and constructing theories, researchers
pave the way for predictions and, in some instances, the ultimate control of
phenomena. This transformative potential underscore the significance of
research as a catalyst for progress, shaping the trajectory of scientific,
technological, and societal advancements.

While the interpretations of research may vary among scholars, the

common thread lies in its fundamental purpose — to seek, to inquire, and to
contribute to the ever-expanding mosaic of human knowledge. It is an intricate
tapestry woven with threads of systematic exploration, objective analysis, and
the pursuit of understanding, ultimately propelling society towards enlightenment
and mastery over the intricacies of the world

1
 Importance of Research

No matter what job you have or where you are in society, there's always
room to learn. This is true for students too. Research can be tough and make
you tired, and many students try to avoid it. But it's a really important part of
learning and becoming a smart student. Without doing research, it's almost
impossible to grow intellectually. Why is it so important? Let's explore a few
reasons why research is crucial in education.

 Building Knowledge. Research helps you expand your knowledge,

whether you're an expert or exploring a new topic. It opens doors to
learning and intellectual growth.
 Enhancing Learning. Research boosts memory, math, and problem-
solving skills, improving your overall learning capacity compared to those
who avoid it.
 Boosting Employment Prospects. In the business world, research is
vital. Companies invest in research and development, and your academic
phase prepares you for future research tasks.
 Understanding Issues. Research highlights problems yet to be
addressed, offering opportunities to tackle societal issues.
 Providing Evidence. Research dispels myths and provides factual
knowledge, helping you access truthful information.
 Exercising Your Mind. Regularly engaging in research stimulates your
mind, fostering curiosity and prompting it to seek new answers.
 Staying Updated. Research keeps you abreast of new discoveries,
preventing misinformation and enhancing your credibility.
 Introducing New Ideas. Research uncovers multiple viewpoints,
encouraging the consideration of fresh ideas and potential shifts in
perspective.
 Raising Awareness. Research on significant issues allows you to share
real stories, extending beyond data collection to create awareness.
 Encouraging Curiosity. Research fuels a lifelong love for learning,
opening new possibilities and developing analytical skills.
 Preparing for the Future. Research in various fields, like business or
medicine, equips you with the knowledge needed to plan and strategize
for the future challenges in your chosen fie

2
 Characteristics of a Good Research Topic

 Relevant. A good topic must be relevant to the specific field of study,

addressing current issues or filling gaps in knowledge to ensure the
research holds significance and has a meaningful impact.

 Specific. The topic should be specific enough to focus the research. A

broad subject might lead to unclear findings, while a well-defined topic
allows for in-depth exploration.

 Original. An exceptional research topic adds something novel to the

existing body of knowledge. It should strive to fill gaps or challenge
established theories, contributing fresh insights to the field.

 Feasible. A good topic should be manageable within your skill, knowledge

and capacity to do, as well as within the time prescribed the curriculum,
ensuring you can conduct thorough research.

 Interesting. Consider a topic that really interests you. Your enthusiasm

will drive your research forward and make the process more enjoyable.

 Clear. A well-thought research topic should be easy to understand. It

should convey the research's purpose and scope sufficiently.

 Academically Significant. An exceptional research topic should align

with the goals and objectives of your course or degree. It should contribute
to your field of specialization.

3
Program:
[ ] BEEd Name:
[ ] TTEd
[ ] BSEd Specialization: [ ] General Ed [ ] Mathematics [ ] Science
[ ] CIT [ ] Filipino [ ] BTVTEd [ ] BTLEd [ ] Others, (specify)
[ ] MAEd
WORKBOOK IN RESEARCH
Field of
[ ] Science Education [ ] TLE & Home Economics
Inquiry
[ ] Social Sciences [ ] Environmental Education
What field of inquiry [ ] Elementary Education [ ] Early Childhood Education
or area do you
plan to do [ ] Mathematics Education [ ] Others (specify) ______________________________
research? Put
a checkmark on the
space that Note: Choose a cluster that is appropriate to your specialization (BEEd, BSEd Mathematics,
represents your Science, TLE, etc.).
response.

[ ] Learning experiences and assessment [ ] Education for sustainable development

Higher [ ] Instructional materials development [ ] Indigenous knowledge and integration
Order
Thinking [ ] Learner capacity development [ ] Conceptual studies
Topics [ ] Teaching modes and strategies [ ] ICT in Education
Identify the
general field [ ] Curriculum integration and implementation
you are [ ] Others (specify)
researching

Current
Practices in
the Specific
Field
Discuss the
Practices
currently used by
researchers in the
same field and
explain the
significance,
relevance, and
contribution of
these practices
to your own field.

4
 Research
Gap
Identify the
aspects under
your topic of
interest that have
not been
addressed by the
current practices
in the field. You
may state that
there are limited
studies
conducted in
current research.
The research gap
should be
relevant and
remains
unaddressed.

Contribution
of Your
Study

Explain how your

own study will fill in
the research gap
identified. This
can be in the
form of a new
methodology,
new perspectives,
or the development
of a new theory.

5
1. Construct background and purpose of the study

Writing the Background of the Study

Background of the study introduces important aspects that establish the general
context where your study revolves. This part may include a description of the subjects of
the study or the history involving the research. Another important component of the
background is the research gap. It is an issue that has not been fully addressed by
previous studies. The following are the components to consider in making research gaps
in your paper:

(1) current state of the field you are researching;

(2) current and conventional practices in addressing the issue relevant to the field;
(3) research gap
(4) contribution of your present study in addressing the gap identified.

Types of Research Gaps

1. Theoretical Gap

Discrepancy between existing theories or models and observed phenomena.

For example, there is a lack of studies examining the relationship between X and Y. To
address the gap, conduct a further research to test existing theories or develop new
theoretical frameworks.

2. Methodological Gap

Insufficiency or inadequacy in the method used to investigate a research

question. For example, there is an absence of studies utilizing qualitative methods in the
field. To address the gap, review and refine research methodologies. Consider alternative
approaches or combine methods to address limitations.

3. Empirical Gap

Missing data or evidence needed to fully understand or explain a

phenomenon. For example, there a limited research on the long-term effects of treatment
X. To address the gap, gather additional data through experiments, surveys, or
longitudinal studies to fill gaps in knowledge.

4. Conceptual Gap

Lack of clarity or consensus regarding key concepts or definitions in the field.

For example, there is a variation in definitions of “success” across studies. Clarify
definitions through consensus-building efforts, standardization of terms, or development
of clear conceptual frameworks.
6
5. Temporal Gap

Lack of research over a certain period, leaving in a discontinuity in

understanding. For example, there are sparse studies examining the impact or recent
technological advancements. Conduct studies to address current gaps and ensure
research keeps pace with the latest developments in the field.

6. Spatial Gap

Absence of research in specific geographical areas, limiting generalizability.

For example, there are few studies that explore the cultural differences in consumer
behavior across regions. To address the gap, expand the research efforts to include
underrepresented geographical areas, ensuring a more comprehensive
understanding phenomenon.

7. Literature Gap

Failure to address existing knowledge gaps or build upon prior research

adequately. Neglecting to consider recent advancements in the literature when
designing a study. To address the gap, conduct a thorough literature review to identify
existing gaps and build upon prior research findings to contribute to the advancements of
knowledge.

General guidelines in writing the background of the study:

 Describe the field you will be researching.

 Discuss why this field is important.
 Describe the current and relevant “hot topics” in the field.
 Describe the specific area you will be researching in the field.
 Identify what and describe how your research will contribute to the field.
 Describe your research as answers to research questions you have been
assigned to research.
 Explain what you will do in your research to test your hypothesis or demonstrate
your model.
 Summarize the current research base in your specific area of interest and
highlight any gaps in the research that you plan to address with your research.

7
 1. Formulate a research title

Writing the Research Title

The title summarizes the main idea of the research and is the most apparent
part of the research manuscript. Therefore, it must be written using the fewest words
(no more than 15 words) possible but without compromising its clarity and idea. The
title is the topic, but the topic is not the title.

General guidelines:

 Avoid an overly general research title such as “Teaching strategy”.

 Do not use abbreviations unless they are known to the readers.
 Avoid using phrases such as “A Study of…” and “An Investigation of…” since
they add wordiness in the title. An example of this is “A study on the effects of
automated assessment on the students’ engagement in General Science”
 Indicate the subject and scope of the study by specifying your dependent and
independent variables.
 As much as possible, avoid indicating the year the study was conducted. Ex.,
“Examining the study habits of Industrial Education students in a state
university during school year 2023-2024”. However, in historical researches,
the year may be indicated.
 Employ declarative form in formulating your research title.
 The research title must contain at least four elements: goal of the study, the
independent variable, the dependent variable and the study locale (optional).

INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
GOAL LOCALE
VARIABLE VARIABLE
academic
The effect… hands on exposure State Univeristy
achievement
La Paz
The relationship… motivation engagement Elementary
School

 The title must contain no more than 15 technical terms (See guidelines in
Appendix B).
 Use the current acceptable terminologies in your field of study when writing
your research title

8
1. Formulate a research problem/ objectives of study

Writing the Statement of the Problem and the Specific Research Questions

After selecting your topic, the next step is to identify your research problem.
Research questions are important components of your research which will help
define the research problem that your study also intends to answer. The following
are the types of research problem:

General research question- derived from the main problem of the study, it
must contain words related to chosen methodology, such as effects or relationships.
Terms like who, when, or where shall not be placed in the general research question
as these imply factual questions that may not require extensive research and
discussion.

Specific research questions- anchored on the general questions, it helps in

developing tools for collecting data, gathering related references, organizing papers,
and drawing valid conclusions from finding. How you write the specific questions
depends on the type of research methodology you do.

General Guidelines in formulating research questions

 Ensure that the research questions articulate the problem with clarity, avoiding
the inclusion of unnecessary terms such as "should," "ought," "best," and "poor."
These terms can introduce personal bias and value judgments, potentially skewing
the objectivity of the research. For instance, instead of framing a question as "Should
sex education be introduced in schools?" Consider a more neutral approach such as
"What is the impact of introducing sex education in schools?"

 Avoid formulating research questions that require YES or NO responses.

Research questions should be designed to prompt in-depth exploration and analysis,
fostering a deep understanding of the issue at hand. Rather than posing a question
like "Is there a correlation between exercise and mental health?" consider framing it
as "What is the nature and extent of the relationship between exercise and mental
health?"

 Express research problems in the form of questions. This format encourages

a focused and interrogative approach to the investigation, guiding the research
process systematically. Questions, as opposed to statements, invite exploration and
analysis. For example, instead of stating a problem as "Lack of digital literacy affects
teacher pedagogical competence," rephrase it as "How does the level of digital literacy
impact teachers' pedagogical competence?" This approach facilitates a more
comprehensive examination of the research problem.

9
 Formulate the Research Questions
There are two problems to be stated: general and specific problems. The general problem consists of the general purpose of the
study. It is usually patterned from the research title. The general problem is broken down into specific problems or sub- problems
to be researchable units. Usually, the general problem starts with "This study..." while the sub-this problem starts with
"Specifically, study..."

Guidelines in formulating research questions:

1. It must be a completely Unit researchable

2. it is arranged in a logical order from actual to analytical based on the paradigm
3. Specifically, correctly, and grammatically worded
4. Should not overlap
5. Has corresponding statistical tool

General research problem (derived from the research topic and the issues associated with the topic. Go back to your background of the
study part. Must be contain words related to quantitative research, such as effects or relationship)

Specific research question 1 (anchored on the general research problem. Depends on the type of research: descriptive, correlational, etc.)

Specific research question 2

Specific research question 3

10
1. State research hypothesis correctly

Writing the Research Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a working assumption temporarily accepted to be true. It

should be measurable and testable. After specifying your research questions,
formulate the hypotheses for your study. Note that not all questions have
hypotheses. Correlational and experimental research should have a
hypothesis. It is a statement that defines the testable relationship you expect
to see from examining the variables in your research. From this, you can make
statements predicting what will happen in your research. It is employed when
conducting correlational, ex post facto, quasi- experimental and experimental
studies.

1. Null hypothesis (Ho)

States that there is no relationship between variables. In correlational

studies, a null hypothesis merely states that this relationship is, indeed,
absent. In experimental, quasi and pure experimental and ex post facto
studies, however, a null hypothesis states that the independent variable has
no effect on the dependent variable.

2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha)

States there is a relationship between variables. Similar to Ho, Ha in
correlational studies merely express existence of this relationship. This
statement changes in experimental, quasi and ex post facto studies. In these
studies, an Ha states that the independent variable has an effect on the
dependent variable.

Hypothesis also tells direction. Direction points out if the variables have
a negative or positive relationship with each other. (1) Directional hypothesis-
according to specific direction (one-tailed test) (2) Non-directional hypothesis-
does not specify a specific direction and merely states that there is a
relationship between two variables (two-tailed test).

General guidelines in formulating the research hypothesis

 Identify the independent variable and dependent variables in your

study, as they need to be stated in your hypothesis.
 Your hypothesis must be falsifiable. This means that your hypothesis
can be proven wrong through experiments or empirical data.
 Your hypothesis must show a relationship between your variables. Will
your independent variable increase, improve or decrease with the
dependent variable?

11
 Formulating the Research Hypothesis (For quantitative research only)
A hypothesis is necessary to have some points to which you may be oriented in terms of data search. It should be measurable
and testable. After specifying your research questions, formulate the hypothesis for your study. Note that not all questions have
hypotheses. Correlational and experimental research should have a hypothesis.

Research Questions Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis

Non- Directional Non- Directional
1.

Directional Directional

Non- Directional Non- Directional

2.

Directional Directional

12
 Non- Directional Non- Directional
3.

Directional Directional

Non- Directional Non- Directional

4.

Directional Directional

13
1. Discuss the significance of the study

Writing the Significance of the Study

The significance of the study section of the research paper details the
contribution or benefit that your study provides to different people and
organizations, including the academe and other sectors of society. May be
practical, methodological, or theoretical sense. May be written topically or in an
enumeration format. Topical arrangement is done in paragraphs and based on
the weight of the individual contributions. It can also base on how you sequence
your specific research questions.

For enumeration format, the details must be arranged according to the

beneficiaries:

 Field of study (e.g., education, science)

 Government agencies (e.g., Dep Ed, CHED)
 Private organizations (e.g., BIOTA Philippines, MTAP)
 Organizations or company involved in the study
 Staff, heads, and administrators of specific organization or company
 Population the participants belong to
 Other researchers

Some of the useful phrases that you can use in writing this section are as follows:

 The findings of this study will be useful to the following entities:

 This study will contribute to…
 This study will benefit the following groups or individuals:

14
 Significance of Study
What practical value does your study have? Of what use is the study? To whom is the study
most useful?. Detail the contribution or benefit that your study provides to different people and
organizations. Write using the topical or enumeration arrangement (follow institutional format)

15
1. Define the Key terms in research conceptually and
operationally

Writing the Definition of Terms

It is essential to provide clear definitions for terms to enhance

understanding. In particular, technical terms and those specific to the study
may carry different meanings for different individuals. Technical terms,
jargon, or terms that may have varied interpretations need explicit clarification
to avoid confusion and ensure that everyone interprets the research content
consistently. To prevent any confusion or misinterpretations, it is necessary
to explicitly define these terms. Throughout the research paper, including the
research title, statement of the problem, assumptions, hypothesis, conceptual
framework, and various other sections, these definitions can be located. A
term can be explained using lexical, authoritative, or operational definitions.
If a term is defined based on its usual meaning or by an expert, proper citation
is required to acknowledge the source and maintain transparency in the
research communication.

Guidelines in writing the definitions of terms:

 There must be an introductory sentence/paragraph before

starting defining a term.
 Terms may be arranged alphabetically or according to their
importance or use in the study. Refer to institutional policy
(See guidelines in Appendix B)
 Always indent the terms.
 Emphasize the terms to be defined either by bold print,
underlining or italics. Refer to institutional policy.
 If the term to be defined is followed by a dash, period, or no
punctuation, a consistent format must be followed all
throughout.
 Do not number the terms.
 Do not capitalize the terms, only the first letter.

16
 Definition of Terms
Terms must be defined for clearer understanding by the readers. Technical terms and terms which are
frequently used in the study with different interpretations must be defined. Terms can be found in the
research questions, hypothesis, assumptions paradigm or any other parts of the paper. Terms may be
defined lexically, authoritatively, or operationally.

For lexical and authoritative definitions, the sources must be cited appropriately (APA 7th Edition)

1. Provide an introductory sentence.

2. Arrange terms alphabetically or based on importance (refer to your institutional format)
3. Indent the terms.
4. Emphasize the term by writing in bold or in italic
5. Only the first letter is uppercase.
6. Use a dash (-) or a period (.) or no punctuation consistently.

Terms Lexical/ Authority Definition Operational Definition

(indicate in-text citation)

17
Use this space for reference citation of definition of terms.

18
1. Discuss the scope and limitation of the study

Writing the Scope and Delimitations

The scope of your research refers to its domain, outlining the

boundaries within which your research question will be investigated.
Clearly defining your study's scope from the outset is crucial as it
enables you to establish a focused and realistic research question. This
early articulation of scope is instrumental in guiding decisions about the
type and amount of data to be collected, influencing the design of data
collection tools. Ensuring precision in defining the scope is imperative
for the success of academic articles and funding applications alike.

Delimitations involve identifying and excluding specific factors or

aspects from the research area. The relationship between scope and
delimitations is close-knit, with delimitations providing a more detailed
and refined specification of exclusions within the study. In essence,
delimitations elucidate what intentionally falls outside the purview of the
research, offering clarity on aspects not considered in the given research
endeavor.

Limitations concern potential weaknesses out of the researcher’s

control. Associated with design, statistical tools, funding and other
imposed restrictions.

Guidelines in writing the definitions of terms:

 Indicate the topic of the study, objectives, and the issues it will
address.

 Specify the time and duration in which the study will be conducted.

 Present the locale or area where the study will be conducted.

 Define the characteristics of the participants in the study (age, sex,

education, economic status, civil status and other traits)

 Provide the response formats used in the study (if applicable). Do

not number the terms.

 Do not capitalize the terms, only the first letter.

19
 Scope and Delimitations
The study should indicate the coverage and the variables excluded. Limitation of the study
means the variables to be included while delimitation is not included since we cannot
include all variables. In this part, describe the parameters to which your study is set. Set
boundaries of your research in terms of certain aspects (topic, time frame, locale,
characteristics of subjects, response formats. You may begin this section with phrases such
as “This study focuses on….”, This study covers…”, “The study is limited to…”)

20
1. Formulate a theoretical and conceptual frameworks for a research problem

Selecting the Theoretical Framework and Developing the Conceptual

Framework

The theoretical framework serves as a broad reference framework

utilized for observation, defining concepts, constructing research designs, and
interpreting and generalizing findings. It is applicable across various types of
studies. On the other hand, a conceptual framework pertains to a structured
system of ideas, beliefs, assumptions, and theories specifically tailored to inform
and support your study.

Guidelines in selecting theoretical framework:

 Always indicate the name of the theory or theories including its author and
what the theory is all about.

 Indicate the applicability of the theory to the study.

 If there are many related theories, select the nearest theory and explain its
applicability to the present study.

 As much as possible map up or illustrate the theory.

 Do not include a theoretical framework in the thesis if there is no theory

involved or to be proven.

Guidelines in developing the conceptual framework:

 Always draw the schematic diagram/illustration and explain the relationship

of the boxes/circles, arrows, and everything in the diagram for the reader to
clearly understand its significance.

 If variables are to be related, identify the independent variables, dependent

variables, and the relationship of the variables.

 The mapping or framework must be understood by any reader since it is the

“blueprint of the study”.

 A figure number below the diagram must be indicated as a caption.

21
 Theoretical framework
A theory is an explanation of how one or more variables are correlated to another variable under study. It is an
attempt to develop a general explanation of the phenomenon. It concerns on explaining and therefore focuses
on determining cause- and-effect relationships. A theory must be in the form of a diagram or illustration to be
understood clearly.
1. Always indicate the name of the theory or theories including its author and what the theory is all about.
2. Indicate the applicability of the theory to the study.
3. If there are many related theories, select the nearest theory and explain its applicability to the study.
4. As much as possible, map out the theory.
5. Include theory only if applicable to the study.

Theoretical Framework 1 (if applicable)

Key Concept 1:

Key Concept 2:

Key Concept 3:

Key Concept 4:

Theoretical Framework 2 (if applicable)

Key Concept 1:

Key Concept 2:

Key Concept 3:

Key Concept 4:

22
 Conceptual framework
Conceptual framework refers to a system of ideas, beliefs, assumptions, and theories that inform, support,
and cater specifically to your study. Presented in visual or narrative format or both.
Paradigm depicts the concept of the study and becomes the framework when mapped or diagrammed.
1. Always draw the schematic diagram/illustration and explain the relationship of the boxes/circles, arrows,
and everything in the diagram for the reader to clearly understand its significance.
2. If variables are to be correlated, identify the dependent variables and their relationship.
3. The mapping or framework must be understood by any reader since it is the blueprint of the study.
4. A figure number below the diagram must be indicated as a caption.

Conceptual framework

Variable 1: Visual model:

Variable 2:

Variable 3:

Variable 4:

Relationship of the
table:

23
Explanation:

24
1. Conduct a systematic review of related literature and studies

Writing the Review of Related Literature

The review of related literature (RRL) comprises a compilation of relevant

readings, whether published or unpublished, from both local and foreign contexts.
Sources of pertinent information and data include books, articles, relevant
documents, speeches, programs, theses, dissertations, and various publications.
The foundation of all empirical investigations lies in building upon the existing
knowledge gleaned from these sources. It can show you studies like yours and
how other researchers dealt with similar situations. This helps you learn different
ways to handle problems you might face. It can also introduce you to data sources
you didn't know about.

Types of Review Related Literature

Conceptual literature encompasses non-research reference materials

authored by subject authorities, encapsulating experiences, viewpoints, and
interpretations relevant to the research study. This category includes
encyclopedias, books, journals, commentaries, and other publications.

Related studies comprise research literature, including theses,

dissertations, special problems, and seminar papers, whether published or
unpublished, that are pertinent to the ongoing research study.

Ethical considerations in writing the RRL:

 Report the findings in your cited studies objectively. Refrain from distorting
the findings of other research works.

 Avoid injecting editorial comments or manipulating the ideas in a certain

study just to make it support your own claims.

 Always cite your sources as a way of acknowledging the studies relevant

to your own and practicing intellectual honesty.

 Refrain from fabricating information or making up data and reporting them

as actual data from a certain research work.

See guidelines in the proper citation and references for RRL.

25
 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURS (RRL)

Title:
Author/s:
Volume & Issue:
Journal:
Year:
Page:
Key Points:

Title:
Author/s:
Volume & Issue:
Journal:
Year:
Page:
Key Points:

Use separate sheets for additional related literature and make sure to present in the same
format above. At least 30 related studies are required.

26
1. Describe research design

Writing the Research Design and the Methodology

Quantitative Design involves a systematic exploration of observable

phenomena, with the researcher collecting numerical data subjected to statistical
methods. It operates in a highly deductive manner, using data to test hypotheses and
theories. Utilizing statistical tools like Pearson’s r, t-Tests, Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), and multiple regression analysis, its primary objective is hypothesis testing,
exploring causal relationships, making predictions, and generalizing findings within a
population. Employing larger samples through highly randomized probability sampling,
quantitative research is characterized by low subjectivity and high generalizability.

Strengths of Quantitative research:

 Replicability: The research design allows for replication in various
contexts.
 Generalizability: Findings are applicable to a broad population.
 Causality: It provides a more conclusive establishment of causality.
 Predictive Capability: Numerical, quantifiable data enables accurate
predictions.
 Efficiency in Data Analysis: Statistical software facilitates quicker data
analysis.
 Lower Data Gathering Demands: Data collection techniques are
generally less demanding than qualitative methods.
 Objectivity: It exhibits a low degree of subjectivity.
 Measurable Validity and Reliability: Validity and reliability can be
quantitatively measured.

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research:

 Inadequate In-Depth Information: Quantitative research may struggle to provide

the detailed information necessary for describing and explaining complex
phenomena.
 Lack of Comprehensive Textual Descriptions: Its limitations include an inability
to offer a comprehensive textual description of human experiences.
 Insufficiency in Analyzing Intangible Factors: Numerical data may prove
insufficient for analyzing intangible factors such as gender roles, socio-economic
status, and social norms within a given population.
 Limited Flexibility in Study Design: Quantitative research exhibits less flexibility
in terms of study design.
 Restricted Participant Responses: Participant responses are confined to the
specific questions asked, potentially limiting the depth of information in certain
cases.
 Accuracy Issues in Self-Reported Data: Self-reported data may lack accuracy
as respondents might tend to underestimate or overestimate their skills and behavior
during self-assessment tasks.

27
 Types of Quantitative Research Methodology

1. Descriptive Research

Goal: Observe and report on a specific phenomenon.

Variable: Measured as they naturally occur, without experimental manipulation.
Data Collection Techniques: Utilizes questionnaires and observations.

2. Correlational Research

Goal: Determine the nature of relationships between variables without investigating

causation.
Variables: Measured without experimental manipulation.
Data Collection Techniques: Involves questionnaires, observations, and tests.

3. Ex post facto or Causal-Comparative Research

Goal: Infer the causes of a previously occurred phenomenon.

Variables: No experimental manipulation; compares groups exposed to a presumed
cause with those not exposed.
Data Collection Techniques: Primarily relies on questionnaires.

4. Quasi-experimental Research

Goal: Establish cause-and-effect relationships with limited experimental

manipulation.
Variables: May have restricted use of experimental manipulation; uses intact groups.
Data Collection Techniques: Relies on tests.

5. Experimental Research

Goal: Establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Variables: Involves experimental manipulation; subjects randomly assigned to
treatment and control groups.
Data Collection Techniques: Utilizes tests with random assignment providing more
conclusive evidence of causal relationships between variables.

28
 Qualitative research is a comprehensive approach to inquiry that delves
into the exploration and interpretation of individuals' experiences, behaviors, and
social phenomena. In this method, researchers engage with non-numerical data,
encompassing elements such as words, images, and observations, to derive
meaning and insights. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical
analysis, the primary aim of qualitative research is to construct a holistic and
nuanced picture of the subject under investigation. This methodology values
depth of understanding over statistical measurements, allowing for a more
profound exploration of the complexities inherent in human experiences and
social dynamics. By embracing the richness of qualitative data, researchers can
capture the intricacies of individuals' perspectives and behaviors, contributing to
a more comprehensive understanding of the studied phenomena.

Strengths of qualitative research:

• Rich Insight: Provides in-depth understanding and rich insights into

complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Adaptable and flexible, allowing for exploration of
unforeseen aspects.
• Contextual Understanding: Emphasizes the context, offering a holistic
understanding of social phenomena.
• Participant Perspectives: Captures participants' perspectives and
experiences directly.
• Exploratory: Well-suited for exploring new or emerging areas where
little is known.

Weaknesses of qualitative research:

• Subjectivity: Findings may be influenced by the researcher's

subjectivity.
• Limited Generalizability: Limited ability to generalize findings to
broader populations.
• Time-Consuming: Data collection and analysis can be time-intensive.
• Small Sample Size: Often relies on smaller sample sizes, potentially
impacting statistical validity.
 Interpretation Challenges: Interpretation can vary, posing challenges
to standardization and reliability.

29
 Types of Qualitative Research Methodology

1. Case Study

Focuses on a single unit, such as one individual, one group, one

organization, or one program. The goal is to arrive at a detailed description and
understanding of the case. A case study can result in data from which
generalizations to theory are possible. Case studies use multiple methods, such
as interviews, and observations, to gather data

2. Phenomenology

Examines human experiences through the description provided by the

people involved; these experiences are lived experiences of the people
themselves. The subject is the human world; people are asked to describe the
experiences as they perceive them; hence, the purpose is to describe the
meaning of experiences that hold for each subject. Involves bracketing of the
experiences of the researcher. Themes and patterns are sought in the data such
as individualism, self-determination, love and affection, wholeness of being,
uniqueness of personality, caring attitude, and all other qualities of humanness.
Common in sociology, psychology, philosophy, education, criminology, and other
social sciences. Purposive sampling is usually the sampling type

3. Ethnography

A systematic process of observing, detailing, describing, documenting, and

analyzing the cultural beliefs, practices, rituals, and customs of a cultural group
in order to obtain information about the culture in a particular environment. It is
learning from other people how actions in one society make sense from the point
of view of another society. Involves intensive field researchers to discover and
describe accurately and comprehensively the culture of the people being studied.
The researcher has to live with the people and become part of the culture. To be
able to understand the culture of the people under study, the researcher must be
able to understand the language, beliefs, practices, and attitudes and be familiar
with their cultural environment. This qualitative methodology is popular in the field
of sociology and anthropology. Data are usually collected through observation
and direct interview. To be able to comprehend accurately and reliably the
cultural patterns of the subjects, the researcher should put aside his own personal
bias.

4. Grounded theory

Aims at deriving theory from the analysis of multiple stages of data

collection. Constant comparison analysis helps to identify commonalities and an
integration of participants’ key views on the research topic.

30
 Research Design and Methodology
Research Design:
[ ] Quantitative [ ] Qualitative [ ] Mixed-Sequential

Methodology: Explain the merits and appropriateness of your chosen methodology based on
Chapter 1. Then, specify the type of chosen methodology e.g. for
[ ] Descriptive Survey experimental, pre-test-post-test controlled group design. For qualitative
design, specify the version of the chosen methodology e.g. for
[ ] Descriptive Normative Phenomenology, descriptive hermeneutics.
[ ] Descriptive Correlational
[ ] Descriptive Evaluative
[ ] Descriptive Assessment
[ ] Descriptive Comparative
[ ] Descriptive Continuity
[ ] Descriptive Trend & Continuity
[ ] Descriptive Narrative
[ ] Descriptive Ex-Post Facto
[ ] Descriptive CaseStudy
[ ] True Experiment
[ ] Quasi Experiment
[ ] Pre-Experiment
[ ] Historical
[ ] Content Analysis
[ ] Ethnography
[ ] Phenomenology
[ ] Grounded Theory
[ ] Case Study
[ ] Narrative Inquiry
[ ] Exploratory Sequential
[ ] Explanatory Sequential
[ ] Others, specify:

31
1. Differentiate population from sample;
2. determine sample size;
3. identify and describe sampling technique for specific type of study and explain
its use.

Determining the Sample, Calculating Sample Size, and Choosing the

Sampling Techniques

Sampling is the systematic selection of individuals, units, or groups to be

analyzed during the conduct of the study done to get information about the target
population. Thus, it is the goal in research to make sure that the samples selected
represent the target population. Well done sampling increases the
generalizability of the findings. Probability sampling ensures that each element
in the population has a known and non-zero chance of being included in the
sample, providing a solid foundation for generalization to the larger population.

 Simple Random Sampling: Each member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected.
 Stratified Random Sampling: Divides the population into subgroups
(strata) and randomly samples from each stratum.
 Systematic Random Sampling: Selects every nth individual from a list
after an initial random start.
 Cluster Sampling: Divides the population into clusters and randomly
selects entire clusters for inclusion.
 Multistage Sampling: Involves multiple stages of random sampling,
often combining different probability sampling methods.

Non-probability sampling is often used when it is challenging to establish a

complete list of the population or when strict randomness is not feasible. While
these methods may lack the statistical rigor of probability sampling, they are
valuable in certain research contexts.

 Convenience Sampling: Involves selecting participants who are readily

available and accessible.
 Purposive Sampling: Involves selecting participants based on specific
characteristics relevant to the research.
 Snowball Sampling: Participants refer others, creating a chain or
'snowball' effect in recruitment.
 Quota Sampling: Sets quotas for specific demographic categories,
ensuring representation in the sample
 Judgmental Sampling: Involves the researcher's judgment or expertise
in selecting participants who are considered most relevant for the
study.

32
 Calculating Sample Size for Quantitative Research Methodology

Sample size refers to the number of individual units (or participants)

selected from a population for inclusion in a study. It is a crucial aspect of
research design and influences the reliability and generalizability of study
findings.

Slovin's Formula for Sample Size Calculation: Slovin's Formula is

commonly used to calculate the sample size when the population size is known.
The formula is given by the formula n = N ÷ (1+Ne2).
where:
 n = Sample size
 N = Population size
 e = Margin of error (expressed as a decimal)

There are several methods to determine sample size, and the choice often
depends on the research design, goals, and statistical considerations. Some
common approaches include:

 Cohen's Effect Size: Determines sample size based on the effect size,
variability, and desired level of statistical power.
 Power Analysis: Involves calculating the minimum sample size needed to
achieve a certain level of statistical power.
 Formula-Based Approaches: Various formulas exist for different study
designs, such as those for estimating sample size in proportion estimation,
mean comparison, or regression analysis.
 Practical Considerations: Sometimes, researchers determine sample size
based on practical constraints, such as available resources, time, and
budget.
 Previous Studies: Reviewing similar studies in the literature can provide
insights into typical sample sizes used in a specific field or research area.
 Statistical Software: Using statistical software with sample size calculators,
which often takes into account parameters like confidence level, margin of
error, and standard deviation.
 Rule of Thumb: In some cases, researchers may use a rule of thumb, like
a minimum sample size of 30 for parametric tests, although this is less
precise.

Selecting the most appropriate method depends on the study's objectives,
the type of analysis planned, and the available resources. Researchers often
consult with statisticians to ensure their chosen approach aligns with the study's
goals and statistical requirements.

33
 Determining Sample Size for Qualitative Research Methodology

In qualitative research, determining the sample involves a thoughtful and

purposeful selection of participants who can provide rich and meaningful insights
into the research questions. Unlike quantitative research, where random
sampling is common, qualitative research often employs purposeful and non-
random sampling techniques. Here are some common methods for determining
samples in qualitative research:

 Purposive Sampling: This is one of the most common sampling techniques

in qualitative research. It involves selecting participants based on specific
characteristics or criteria relevant to the research objectives. The goal is to
include individuals who can provide in-depth information or diverse
perspectives on the phenomenon being studied.
 Snowball Sampling: In situations where it's challenging to identify
participants directly, researchers often start with a small group of
participants and then ask them to recommend others who might be relevant
to the study. This creates a snowball effect, expanding the sample size.
 Maximum Variation Sampling: Also known as heterogeneous or diversity
sampling, this method involves deliberately selecting participants who vary
widely in characteristics relevant to the research. The aim is to capture
diverse perspectives and experiences.
 Theoretical Sampling: Commonly used in grounded theory studies,
theoretical sampling involves selecting participants based on emerging
theories and concepts as the research progresses. This approach allows
researchers to refine and develop their theories based on the data
collected.
 Criterion Sampling: Involves selecting participants based on pre-defined
criteria or specific experiences. This method ensures that participants have
particular qualities or experiences that are crucial to the study.
 Quota Sampling: Involves setting quotas for certain characteristics to
ensure diversity within the sample. While not random, it aims to represent
various groups within the population.

The determination of the sample in qualitative research is guided by the

principle of saturation, where the goal is to reach a point where new data no
longer provide additional insights. Sampling in qualitative research is more about
depth and richness of information rather than statistical representativeness.
Researchers often make deliberate choices based on their research questions,
goals, and the type of data they seek to collect.

34
 Sampling Plan
Sample is a subset of population elements and sampling is the process of selecting the portion of the
population to represent the entire population. The samples are those from whom the data are to be
collected. To determine sample size, a formula is used.

Target Population (to whom do

you wish to generalize the
findings?)

The Accessible Population

(to which population do you
have access?)

The Sampling Frame (through

what resource can you access
them?)

The Sample (who is

participating in your study?)

Sampling Technique Justify the merits and appropriateness of the chosen samples
and the sampling technique. Calculate the sample size using
Probability Slovin’s formula, Parten’s formula, Ibe’s formula, or the majority
rule formula, whichever is appropriate. For qualitative, e.g.
[ ] Simple Random purposive, indicate the criteria (inclusion and exclusion as
deemed fit)
[ ] Stratified Random
[ ] Systematic
[ ] Cluster
[ ] Multistage
[ ] Others, specify
Non-Probability

[ ] Convenience
[ ] Quota
[ ] Purposive
[ ] Snowball
[ ] Theoretical
[ ] Others, specify

35
1. Discuss how to prepare the questionnaire / interview schedule
2. Prepare a questionnaire / interview schedule

Research Instrument

A research instrument is a tool or device used by researchers to collect

data for their study. It helps gather information from participants, objects, or the
environment in a structured and systematic way. Research instruments can take
various forms and are selected based on the nature of the study and the type of
data required.

Types of Research Instruments:

 Questionnaires: Structured sets of questions designed to gather specific

information from participants. They can be administered in person, via mail,
or online.
Example: A survey questionnaire asking students about their preferences
for a program or course.

 Interviews: Conversations between a researcher and a participant to gather

detailed information. They can be structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured.

Example: In-depth interviews with individuals to explore their experiences

with a particular phenomenon.

 Observation Schedules/Checklists: A predefined list of behaviors or events

that the researcher observes and records during a study.

Example: A checklist for observing classroom behaviors in an educational

research study.

 Tests: Instruments designed to measure a specific attribute or skill of

individuals, often used in psychological or educational research.

 Example: A cognitive ability test used to assess participants' problem-

solving skills.

 Surveys: Broad data collection tools that can include a combination of

questionnaires, interviews, and observations to gather comprehensive
information.

Example: A national health survey collecting data on various health-related

behaviors and conditions.

36
 Writing the Study Locale

A study locale in a research paper refers to the specific geographical

location or setting where the research is conducted. It provides context for the
study, indicating where the data collection or experimental activities take place.
Describing the study locale is crucial to help readers understand the
environmental and contextual factors that may influence the study outcomes.

General guidelines in writing study locale:

 Begin by introducing the section where you will describe the study locale.
This usually falls under the broader "Methodology" or "Study Area" section.
 Provide specific details about the geographical location of the study. This
may include the country, region, city, or even specific sites within a city,
depending on the scope of your research.
 Describe the physical characteristics of the study area, such as climate,
topography, vegetation, or any other relevant environmental features. This
information helps readers understand the natural setting of your study.
 If applicable, include relevant demographic information about the
population in the study locale. This could involve details about the local
community, its size, cultural aspects, or any other factors that might impact
the research.
 Explain why the chosen locale is significant to your research. Highlight any
unique characteristics or features that make it an ideal setting for your
study.
 Connect the study locale to your research objectives. Clarify how the
chosen setting aligns with the goals of your research and why it is essential
for answering your research questions.
 Discuss any potential influences the study locale might have on your
results. This could include environmental factors, cultural influences, or any
other elements that may affect the outcomes of your research.
 Justify why you selected this specific study locale over others. This could
be based on practical considerations, the availability of resources, or the
unique characteristics that make it suitable for your research.
 If visuals can enhance the understanding of your study locale, consider
including maps, diagrams, or images to illustrate the geographical and
physical aspects you are describing.
 Conclude the section by summarizing the key points about the study locale.
Reinforce its relevance to the research and emphasize how the chosen
setting contributes to the overall study.

Remember to tailor the level of detail in your description based on the

nature of your research and the expectations of your audience. Providing a clear
and comprehensive description of the study locale enhances the transparency
and credibility of your research.

37
1. Understand the commonly used statistical tools in the SPSS software;
2. apply appropriate statistical tool to a problem

Data Analysis

Statistics deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation,

and organization of data. In the context of research, statistics plays a crucial role
in summarizing and making sense of the vast amounts of data researchers collect
during their investigations. There are two main types of statistics used in
research: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics involves the use of various techniques to summarize and

describe the main features of a dataset. Common measures include:

 Measures of central tendency: Mean, median, and mode.

 Measures of dispersion: Range, variance, and standard deviation.
 Frequency distributions, histograms, and graphs.

Descriptive statistics provide a clear and concise summary of the main

characteristics of the data, making it easier for researchers to understand and
communicate their findings.

Inferential statistics goes beyond the data collected and make

inferences or predictions about a population based on a sample. This involves
using probability theory and statistical hypothesis testing. Common inferential
statistical techniques include:

 Hypothesis testing: Assessing the likelihood that observed differences

or relationships are not due to chance.
 Confidence intervals: Estimating the range within which a population
parameter is likely to fall.
 Regression analysis: Examining relationships between variables.

Inferential statistics help researchers draw conclusions about a

population from a sample, allowing for generalizations beyond the specific data
collected. Choosing the appropriate statistical tool for research involves defining
the research question, understanding the type of data, considering the research
design, checking assumptions, and examining factors like the number of groups,
data distribution, scale of measurement, and sample size. Factors such as the
experimental design, type of data, and distribution guide the selection of
parametric or non-parametric tests. Consulting statistical literature, experts, and
using statistical software can aid in making informed decisions. Additionally,
researchers should consider interpretability and the potential impact of multiple

38
testing. Careful consideration of these factors ensures the validity and reliability
of research findings.

Inferential statistics can be broadly categorized into parametric and non-

parametric methods. The choice between parametric and non-parametric
techniques depends on the characteristics of the data and the assumptions
researchers are willing to make.

Parametric statistics assume that the data follow a specific distribution

(usually a normal distribution) and involve estimating parameters from the sample
data to make inferences about the population. Common parametric tests include:

 t-Tests: Used for comparing means between two groups. Examples

include the independent samples t-test and paired samples t-test.
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA): Determines whether there are any
statistically significant differences between the means of three or more
groups.
 Regression Analysis: Examines the relationship between a dependent
variable and one or more independent variables.
 Correlation Analysis: Measures the strength and direction of the linear
relationship between two continuous variables.
 Chi-Square Test: Assesses the association between categorical variables.

Non-parametric statistics do not rely on assumptions about the underlying

distribution of the data. These methods are often used when the data do not meet
the assumptions of parametric tests. Common non-parametric tests include:

 Mann-Whitney U Test: Non-parametric alternative to the independent

samples t-test.
 Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test: Non-parametric alternative to the paired
samples t-test.
 Kruskal-Wallis Test: Non-parametric alternative to one-way ANOVA
when comparing three or more independent groups.
 Spearman's Rank-Order Correlation: Non-parametric alternative to
Pearson correlation for assessing relationships between variables.
 Chi-Square Test of Independence: Non-parametric alternative to the chi-
square test when analyzing the association between categorical variables.

Key Considerations:
Parametric tests are generally more powerful when the assumptions are
met. Non-parametric tests are robust and applicable when assumptions of
normality and homogeneity of variances are violated. The choice between

39
parametric and non-parametric methods depends on the nature of the data and
the research question.

Researchers should carefully consider the characteristics of their data and

the assumptions of each statistical method when choosing between parametric
and non-parametric tests for making inferences about populations.

Qualitative data analysis involves systematically examining and

interpreting non-numerical data to identify patterns, themes, and meanings.
Validation in qualitative research refers to ensuring the trustworthiness and rigor
of the analysis. Here's an overview of how qualitative data is analyzed and
validated:

Qualitative Data Analysis:

 Data Familiarization: Immerse yourself in the data by reading and

becoming familiar with the content. This helps develop a sense of the
overall context.

 Coding: Apply initial codes to segments of the data based on recurring

themes or patterns. This can involve both inductive (data-driven) and
deductive (theory-driven) coding.

 Categories and Themes: Group codes into broader categories and

themes. This step involves organizing and clustering codes to identify
overarching patterns and concepts.

 Constant Comparison: Continuously compare new data with previously

coded data to refine categories and themes. This iterative process
enhances the depth and complexity of the analysis.

 Theoretical Sampling: If applicable, use theoretical sampling to gather

additional data that can further support or challenge emerging concepts
and theories.

 Saturation: Continue analyzing data until saturation is reached, meaning

no new themes or insights emerge. Saturation indicates that the data is
sufficiently explored.

 Data Interpretation: Interpret the meanings and relationships between

categories and themes. Consider the context, participant perspectives, and
the overall narrative.

 Report Findings: Present the findings in a narrative form, incorporating

40
 quotes and examples to illustrate key themes. Connect the findings back
to the research questions or objectives.

There are several software tools designed specifically for qualitative data
analysis. These tools provide functionalities to manage, organize, and analyze non-
numerical data, helping researchers uncover patterns, themes, and insights. Here are
some popular qualitative data analysis software options:

1. NVivo:
 Description: NVivo is a comprehensive qualitative data analysis software
that supports a variety of data types, including text, audio, video, and
images. It offers features for coding, categorizing, and exploring themes in
qualitative data.
 Website: NVivo
2. ATLAS.ti:
 Description: ATLAS.ti is a powerful software for qualitative and mixed-
methods research. It provides tools for coding, organizing, and visualizing
qualitative data, and supports various data formats.
 Website: ATLAS.ti
3. MAXQDA:
 Description: MAXQDA is a qualitative data analysis software that offers
tools for coding, annotating, and visualizing data. It supports a range of
data types and provides features for teamwork in collaborative research
projects.
 Website: MAXQDA
4. Dedoose:
 Description: Dedoose is an online application for mixed-methods
research and qualitative data analysis. It provides collaboration features,
supports multimedia data, and offers a user-friendly interface.
 Website: Dedoose
5. QDA Miner:
 Description: QDA Miner is a qualitative data analysis tool with features
for coding, annotating, and exploring patterns in textual and multimedia
data. It also includes text mining capabilities.
 Website: QDA Miner
6. HyperRESEARCH:
 Description: HyperRESEARCH is a qualitative analysis tool that
facilitates coding, annotation, and linking of textual data. It is known for its
simplicity and ease of use.
 Website: HyperRESEARCH
7. Quirkos:
 Description: Quirkos is a qualitative data analysis tool with a visual and
intuitive interface. It allows users to code and explore themes in a dynamic
and interactive manner.
 Website: Quirkos
8. Weft QDA:
 Description: Weft QDA is a free and open-source qualitative data analysis
software. It provides basic tools for coding and exploring textual data.
 Website: Weft QDA

41
 Research Instrument
The research instrument is a data-gathering tool. It must be appropriate, valid, reliable, and
useful. It is the most important component of research design because it is used to gather
information to answer research questions.
Discuss the type of instrument chosen and explain how it will be
Instrument type developed, validated, and reliability tested. For adapted and
standardized instruments, cite the author/s.
[ ] Questionnaire
[ ] Test
[ ] Rating Scale
[ ] Checklist
[ ] Sociometry
[ ] Likert Scale
[ ] Opinionnaire
[ ] Semantic differential
[ ] Visual analog
[ ] Interview
[ ] Vignettes
[ ] Q Sorts
[ ] Others, specify

Data Collection Procedure

Briefly indicate how the investigation will be conducted. The conduct must start from the
approval of the permit to study, how the instrument will be distributed, who will be given,
how many and how the instrument will be retrieved.

42
 Study Locale
The locale of the study or research setting or research environment, is required for
experimental, descriptive historical, sociological, and anthropological. Discuss where you
will conduct your study and the reason why the place will be chosen. A map of the place
is also attached, and the specific location is highlighted.

43
 Statistical Analysis
In this section, re-state the general problem and the specific research questions. The data that
you will collect do not by themselves answer the research questions or test the hypotheses.
Data need to be systematically analyzed so that trends and patterns can be detected.
Detail the applicable descriptive List all the applicable inferential statistical
statistical approaches and approaches and contextualized them based on
contextualized them based on your your research questions. Justify the
research questions. Include measures appropriateness of the inferential statistics based
of central tendencies and measures of on the objective, sample size, distribution of the
variability. data, sampling technique, and variance.
Click as many as applicable: Click as many as applicable:

[ ] Frequency distribution [ ] t-Tests for Independent sample

[ ] Mean [ ] t-Tests for dependent sample
[ ] Median [ ] One sample t-test
[ ] Mode [ ] Analysis of Variance
[ ] Range [ ] Chi square
[ ] Standard Deviation [ ] Pearson’s r
[ ] Others, specify [ ] Regression
[ ] ANCOVA
Discussion: [ ] Factor Analysis
[ ] MANOVA/MANCOVA
[ ] Others, specify

Discussion:

44
For qualitative data analysis, take note that the data analysis is a consequence of the
methodological choice of the researcher. Thematic analysis is not a “one-size-fits-all”
analytic technique. Qualitative analysis is a labor-intensive activity that requires creativity,
conceptual sensitivity, and sheer hard work.
Type of Qualitative Methodology:

Data Analysis Procedure:

45
 Guidelines for the Ethical Conduct of Research with Human Subjects

The ethical conduct of research with human subjects is crucial for protecting
participants' rights, ensuring their well-being, and maintaining the integrity of the
research process. Here are general guidelines that researchers should follow when
conducting studies involving human subjects:

Obtain Ethical Approval: Before commencing the research, seek approval from an
institutional review board (IRB) or ethics committee. Provide detailed information about
the study's design, procedures, risks, and benefits.

Informed Consent: Obtain informed consent from all participants before their
involvement in the study. Ensure participants are fully informed about the purpose,
procedures, potential risks, and benefits of the research. Consent should be voluntary,
and participants should have the option to withdraw at any stage without consequences.

Privacy and Confidentiality: Protect the privacy of participants by avoiding

unnecessary intrusion into their lives. Safeguard confidentiality by using coded
identifiers and storing data securely. Clearly communicate how participant data will be
handled, stored, and shared (if applicable).

Minimize Risks and Harm: Identify potential risks and minimize them to the greatest
extent possible. Clearly communicate any potential risks to participants during the
informed consent process. Ensure that the benefits of the research outweigh the risks.

Fair Selection and Equity: Select participants fairly, avoiding bias or discrimination.
Ensure that the inclusion criteria are relevant to the research question and do not
unfairly disadvantage certain groups.

Respect for Autonomy: Respect participants' autonomy by allowing them to make

their own decisions about participation. If the research involves vulnerable populations,
obtain additional safeguards and consent considerations.

Debriefing (if applicable): If the study involves deception, provide a thorough

debriefing to participants at the earliest appropriate time. Explain the true nature and
purpose of the study and address any concerns or questions.

Continuous Monitoring: Continuously monitor the study to ensure that ethical

standards are upheld throughout the research process. Address any unexpected ethical
issues promptly and transparently.

Reporting Results Responsibly: Report research results accurately and responsibly.

Avoid selective reporting and provide a balanced representation of the findings. Clearly
differentiate between findings and interpretations.

Acknowledgment of Funding and Conflicts of Interest: Disclose any funding

sources for the research and acknowledge any potential conflicts of interest.
Transparency in these areas contributes to the overall ethical integrity of the study

46
 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
The Belmont Report articulated three primary ethical principles on which standards
of ethical conduct in research are based: beneficence, respect for human dignity, and
justice. Discuss briefly how your study adopt these principles and thus compliance of
the ethical code.

The following questions will help you critic the ethical aspect of your own research
protocol. Answer briefly each of the questions.

1. Is your study approved by the ethics review committee? (If the university does not
have ERC, refer to the research ethics code of your instructor)

2. Are the study participants subjected to any physical harm, discomfort, or

psychological distress? What appropriate steps will you carry out to remove or
prevent this harm?

3. Does the benefit to the participant outweigh any potential risk or actual discomfort?
Does the benefit to the society outweigh the costs to the participants?

4. How will you prevent any type of coercion or undue influence to recruit participant?
Can the participant refuse or withdraw from your study without penalty?

47
5. How will you avoid deceiving the participants? How will you make them aware of
the purpose of the study?

6. What steps are you going to take to safeguard the privacy of the participants?

7. Are vulnerable groups included in your study? What special precautions will you
institute to protect them?

Note: Attach a copy of informed consent form to your research protocol during
proposal defense.

48
The following section provides insights about the research purpose and types of research
questions that can be used to develop your research paper. Use the following section as a guide
in accomplishing Chapter 1.
QUANTITATIVE
PURPOSE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 What is this phenomenon?
Identification
 What is its name?
 How prevalent is the
phenomenon?
 What are the dimensions of the
 How often does the phenomenon?
Description phenomenon occur?
 What is important about the
 What are the
phenomenon?
characteristics of the
phenomenon?
 What factors are  What is the full nature of the
related to the phenomenon?
phenomenon?  What is really going on here?
Exploration
 What are the  What is the process by which the
antecedents of the phenomenon evolves or is
phenomenon? experienced?

 If the phenomenon X
occurs, will
phenomenon Y follow?
 How can we make the
Prediction and
phenomenon occur or
Control
alter its prevalence?
 Can the phenomenon
be prevented or
controlled?

 What is the underlying

cause of the
phenomenon or the  How does the phenomenon work?
causal pathway
 Why does the phenomenon exist?
Explanation through which the
 What does the phenomenon mean?
phenomenon unfolds?
 Does the theory  How did the phenomenon occur?
explain the
phenomenon?

49
 Useful Key Design Features for Quantitative Research
FEATURE KEY QUESTIONS DESIGN OPTIONS
 Will there be an  Experimental
intervention? (randomized,
 What specific design will controlled), quasi-
Intervention be used? experimental, non-
experimental design

 What type of comparison  Within-subject

will be made to illuminate design, between-
Comparison key processes or subject design
relationships?

 How will confounding  Randomization,

variables be controlled? crossover,
Control over
 Which confounding homogeneity,
confounding variables will be matching, statistical
variable controlled? control

 From whom will critical  Open vs closed

information be withheld to study, single-blind,
Masking avert bias? double-blind

 How often will the data be  Cross-sectional,

collected? longitudinal design
 When, relative to other
Timeframes events, will data be
collected?

 When will information on  Retrospective,

independent and prospective design
dependent variables be
Relative timing
collected? Looking
backward or forward?

 Where will the study take  Single site vs multi-

place? site, in the field vs-
Location controlled setting

50
Bibliography

Ariola, M. M. (2014). Research and Statistics with Thesis and Dissertation Writing.
Manila: Unlimited Books Library Services and Publishing Inc.

Beck, D. F. (2010). Essentials of Nursing Research: Appraising Evidence for

Nursing Practice. China: Wolters Kluwer Health.

www.TheWiseResearcher.com

51
 Appendix A- Statistical Approaches to data analysis

Dichotomous(two
Survival ( time to
Continuous, Nominal/ordinal/ Possible
Measurement event) (not clear)
parametric nonparametric outcomes
Kaplan-Meier
Describe one Median, survival curve,
Mean, SD Proportions
group percentiles median survival
Compare one
Chi-squared or
group to a
One sample t-test Wilcoxon test binominal test
hypothetical value

Compare two Fisher's or Chi- Log rank or

unpaired groups Unpaired t-test Mann-Whitney squared Mantel-Haenszel

Conditional
Compare two proportional
paired groups Paired t-test Wilcoxon McNamara's hazards
regression
Compare three or Cox proportional
more unmatched hazards
One way ANOVA Kruskal-Wallis Chi-squared
groups regression
Compare three or
Pearson Spearman Contingency
more matched
correlation correlation coefficients
groups
Cox
Linear (or
Predict value from Simple logistic proportional
nonlinear) Nonparametric
another variable regression hazards
regression regression
regression
Predict values
from several Multiple linear (or Cox proportional
Multiple logistic
measured or nonlinear) hazards
regression
binominal regression regression
variables

Source: This table is derived from Mikulski, H. (1995). Intuitive Statistics. Oxford
Press. New York

52
 Common Statistical Tests in Research

Statistical Test Use Assumptions Example Use Case

Compare means of two Normally distributed Compare test scores of two
t-Test
groups data, equal variances teaching methods

Compare test scores

Compare means of Normally distributed
ANOVA among three teaching
more than two groups data, equal variances
methods
Test if there's an
Test independence Random sample,
Chi-Square Test association between gender
between categorical Large enough sample
and preference for tea or
variables size
coffee
Measure linear
association between Linearity, Examine the relationship
Pearson Correlation
two continuous Homoscedasticity between age and income
variables

Predict a continuous Linearity.

Predicting house prices
dependent variable Homoscedasticity,
Regression Analysis based on square footage,
based on one or more Independence of
number of bedrooms, etc
independent variables errors

Compare distributions Compare test scores

Mann-Whitney U Independence of
of two independent between two different
Test observations
groups schools
Compare distributions Independence of Compare performance of
Kruskal-Wallis Test of more than two observations, Similar different teaching methods
independent groups distributions across multiple schools
Wilcoxon Dependent variable
Compare distributions Compare pre-test and post-
Signed- should be continuous
of two related groups test scores within a group
Rank Test or ordinal
Compare paired
Compare the effectiveness
proportions or Binary data,
McNemar's Test of two treatments on a
frequencies in a 2x2 Dependent groups
binary outcome
contingency table

Assess the association

Low sample size (<
Compare proportions in between gender and
Fisher's Exact Test 20), Independence of
a 2x2 contingency table smoking status in a small
observations
sample

53
 Appendix B- APA Paper Format and Style

A good research title serves as a concise summary of the core focus

of the study. It is essential for the title to convey key elements without
Research
Title
excessive technical jargon, ensuring accessibility to a broader
audience. As a general rule, a good research title contains no more
than 15 technical terms.
The title page contains the research title placed at the center and in
bold text, with a two-space gap between lines. Capitalize key terms
Title Page
and proper nouns in the title. If the title spans two or more lines,
arrange it in an inverted pyramid.
The American Psychological Association (APA) style provides variety
of choices for font style such as 12-point Times New Romans, 11-point
Georgia, 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, 10-point-Lucida Sans
Font Style Unicode, and 11-point Tahoma. The College of Education
recommends the use 12-point Times New Romans and researchers
are advised to use the same font consistently throughout the
manuscript.
Maintain a double-space format between lines for the entire research
manuscript. Apply double spacing to preliminary components like the
Spacing title page, approval sheet, abstract, headings, tables, figures,
references, and appendices. Use a single space between words
throughout the entire manuscript.
According to APA 7 guidelines, maintain a one-inch margin on all
sides (top, bottom, left, and right). However, for hardbound copies,
Margin the College of Education recommends extending the left margin to
1.5 inches while keeping the other margins at 1 inch (top, bottom,
and right).
Begin each paragraph with a 0.5-inch indentation, and ensure that
subsequent lines align with the left-hand margin. The College of
Paragraph
Alignment
Education does not advise using "justified" text alignment but
recommends using "align left" to maintain uneven left-hand margins.
Avoid manually hyphenating the last word at the end of each line.
Paginate the research manuscript appropriately, with page numbers
positioned in the upper-right-hand corner of each page. Employ the
Pagination
automatic page-numbering function in MS Word to consistently insert
page numbers in this location across all pages.
Employ proper punctuation to structure and convey your ideas
effectively. Common English punctuations, such as commas, colons,
Punctuation semi-colons, and periods, guide readers on where to pause. Ensure
the insertion of one space after periods, commas, colons, and semi-
colons.
A period is used at the end of a complete sentence and to separate
initials in names. Always remember to allow one space after a period
Period
at the end of a sentence or after a period that separates initials in
names (J. B. De la Cruz). The period is also used in abbreviations
54
 with lower case letters such as e.g. for exempli gratia (for example).
No space is allowed after the internal period that separates common
abbreviated Latin words such as academic degrees (PhD, EdD,
MAEd, MEd, MA) and acronyms (DFA, CPA, FDA)

Correct: Michael G Garlan, PhD

Incorrect: Michael G. Garlan, Ph.D.
The comma serves to separate two independent clauses joined by a
conjunction. Additionally, employ a comma between items when
listing more than two elements in a series. The final comma in English
Comma punctuation, known as the serial comma, Oxford comma, or Harvard
comma (APA 7th ed.), is recommended. Avoid placing a comma
before a restrictive clause to prevent any unintended alteration of the
intended meaning.
Double quotation marks serve as a means to attribute and reference
Quotation
Marks
a quoted statement, indicating that the specific statement is directly
extracted from a source.
A verb is employed to convey a state of being or the relationship
between two variables. Consistently apply appropriate verb tenses
Verb for clarity, as per APA 7th edition guidelines. Utilize the future tense
Tenses when composing a research proposal, employ the past tense when
presenting findings in the final report, and use the simple tense to
articulate the conclusion.
Position the table number above the table, presented in bold and
aligned to the left (APA 7th ed., Section 7.10). Situate the table
beneath its corresponding number, with a double-spaced, italicized
Table and
format and two spaces between lines (APA 7th ed., Section 6.17 and
Figures
7.11). For figures, display the number boldly at the top, aligned to the
left, and ensure the figure title is double-spaced and italicized (APA
7th ed.).
Position the table number above the table, presented in bold and
aligned to the left (APA 7th ed., Section 7.10). Situate the table
beneath its corresponding number, with a double-spaced, italicized
Table and
format and two spaces between lines (APA 7th ed., Section 6.17 and
Figures
7.11). For figures, display the number boldly at the top, aligned to the
left, and ensure the figure title is double-spaced and italicized (APA
7th ed.).

Position the table number above the table, presented in bold and
aligned to the left (APA 7th ed., Section 7.10). Situate the
Table and table beneath its corresponding number, with a double-
Figures spaced, italicized format and two spaces between lines
(APA 7th ed., Section 6.17 and 7.11). For figures, display
the number boldly at the top, aligned to the left, and ensure

55
 the figure title is double-spaced and italicized (APA 7th
ed.).

When using someone else's statements, ideas, or opinions in

your paper, it is crucial to provide objective evidence,
establishing the validity, reliability, and integrity of your
research. As a fundamental practice, consistently cite your
sources to prevent plagiarism. Always adhere to the correct
procedures, following the guidelines outlined in the APA 7th
edition, to ensure the accurate formatting of your citations.

Article within a journal

Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, & R., Cruz,
P. (2001). Writing labs and the Hollywood connection.
Journal of Film Writing, 44(3), 213-245.

Article by DOI (with page numbers)

Slifka, M.K., & Whitton, J.L. (2000). Clinical implications of

dysregulated cytokine production. Journal of Molecular
Medicine, 78(2), 74-80. doi:10.1007/s001090000086.

Referencing Article by DOI (before issue publication and without page numbers)

Kreger, M., Brindis, C.D., Manuel, D.M., & Sassoubre, L. (2007).

Lessons learned in systems change initiatives: benchmarks
and indicators. American Journal of Community
Psychology. doi: 10.1007/s10464-007-9108-14.

Article in electronic journal by DOI (no paginated version)

Kruger, M., Brandis, C.D., Mandel, D.M., & Sassoure, J. (2007).

Lessons to be learned in systems change initiatives:
benchmarks and indicators. American Journal of Digital
Psychology. doi: 10.1007/s10469-007-5108-14.

Complete book

Calfee, R.C., & Valencia, R.R. (1991). APA guide to preparing

manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.

Book chapter, or an article within a book

56
O'Neil, J.M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role
journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and
transformation. In B.R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across
the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.

Online First chapter in a series (without a volume designation but

with a DOI)

Saito, Y., & Hyuga, H. (2007). Rate equation approaches to

amplification of enantiomeric excess and chiral symmetry
breaking. Topics in Current Chemistry.
doi:10.1007/128_2006_108.

Complete book, also showing a translated edition [Either edition

may be listed first.]

Adorno, T.W. (1966). Negative Dialektik. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.

English edition: Adorno, TW (1973). Negative Dialectics
(trans: Ashton, E.B.). London: Routledge.

Online document

Abou-Allaban, Y., Dell, M.L., Greenberg, W., Lomax, J., Peteet, J.,
Torres, M., & Cowell, V. (2006). Religious/spiritual
commitments and psychiatric practice. Resource document.
American Psychiatric Association.
http://www.psych.org/edu/other_res/lib_archives/archives/2
00604.pdf. Accessed 25 June 2007.

Online database

German emigrants database (1998). Historisches Museum

Bremerhaven. http://www.deutsche-auswanderer-
datenbank.de. Accessed 21 June 2007.

Supplementary material/private homepage

Doe, J. (2006). Title of supplementary material.

http://www.privatehomepage.com. Accessed 22 Feb 2007.

FTP site

Doe, J. (1999). Trivial HTTP, RFC2169. ftp://ftp.isi.edu/in-

notes/rfc2169.txt. Accessed 12 Feb 2006.

57
Organization site

ISSN International Centre (2006). The ISSN register.

http://www.issn.org. Accessed 20 Feb 2007.

For further guidance, see the Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association and the respective web site of
the Association (http://www.apastyle.org/).

58