Tautology,
Contingency, and
Contradiction
ALMON AND BAGTIKAN
01
define the three classifications of
propositions
02
Learning determine whether or not two
Outcomes propositions are equivalent
03
prove a tautology using the three
various methods.
Let's recall...
A truth table is a table showing the relationships
between all the possible truth values of the simple
propositions involved in a compound proposition,
together with the logical connectives.
Let's remember!
In general, the number of combinations of truth values
in a truth table is given by
!
2
where n is the number of simple propositions involved.
Let's recall...
Negation: This is formed when a given proposition is
negated. Given a proposition 𝑝, its negation is given by
~𝑝.
Let's recall...
Conjunction: The conjunction of the simple
propositions 𝑝 and 𝑞 is the compound proposition 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞,
which we read as ‘𝑝 and 𝑞’.
Let's recall...
Disjunction: This is a compound proposition in which
two or more simple propositions are joined together by
the connective ‘or’. In symbols, if 𝑝 and 𝑞 are simple
propositions, then 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, read as ‘𝑝 or 𝑞’, is a disjunction.
Let's recall...
Conditional: If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are any two propositions, then
the statement 𝑝 → 𝑞 read as ‘If 𝑝, then 𝑞’ or ‘𝑝 implies 𝑞’ is
a conditional statement.
Let's recall...
Biconditional: A statement in the form “𝑝 if and only if
𝑞”, in the form 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞, is a biconditional statement.
Activity
Let's remember!
01 Given any implication, what is its truth value if the
hypothesis is true and the conclusion is false?
Let's remember!
02 Given the implication “If it rains, then the
pavement gets wet”, find the following:
a Converse
b Contrapositive
c Inverse
Let's remember!
03 Construct the truth table for ~ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 → 𝑟
Analysis
01 When is a conditional statement false?
02 When is a biconditional statement true?
03 Can we determine the truth value of a proposition
for all combinations using a truth table?
Tautology,
Contradiction, and
Contingency
Let's define...
A tautology is a compound proposition that is true for all
possible values of its component propositions.
Let's define...
A contradiction is a compound proposition that is false for
all possible values of its component propositions.
Let's define...
A contingency is a compound proposition that is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction
EXAMPLE 1 Determine whether the proposition 𝑞 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.
How can we determine if the proposition is a tautology,
contradiction, or contingency?
EXAMPLE 2 Determine whether the proposition
(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) is a tautology, contradiction,
or contingency.
How many propositions are there? How many combinations of
truth values are there?
EXAMPLE 3 Determine whether the proposition
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ↔ (~𝑝 → 𝑞) is a tautology,
contradiction, or contingency.
How many propositions are there? How many combinations of
truth values are there?
Logical Equivalence
ALMON AND BAGTIKAN
Let's define...
Two propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are logically equivalent if 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 is
a tautology. In symbols, 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄 (read as 𝑃 is logically
equivalent to 𝑄). Alternatively, two propositions are
logically equivalent if they have the same truth values
based on their truth tables.
EXAMPLE 4 Determine whether the two propositions are
logically equivalent.
Proposition 1: 𝑝 → 𝑞
Proposition 2: ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
Algebra of Propositions
These logical equivalences become theorems in
Mathematics. These equivalences can be summarized as
laws of the Algebra of Propositions.
Algebra of Propositions
Idempotent Laws
𝑝∨𝑝 ≡𝑝
𝑝∨𝑝 ≡𝑝
Associative Laws
(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
Commutative Laws
𝑝∨𝑞 ≡𝑞∨𝑝
𝑝∧𝑞 ≡𝑞∧𝑝
Distributive Laws
𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)
Identity Laws
𝑝∨𝑇 ≡𝑇 𝑝∨𝐹 ≡𝑝
𝑝∧𝑇 ≡𝑇 𝑝∧𝐹 ≡𝐹
Complement Laws
𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 ≡ 𝑇
𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 ≡ 𝐹
Negation
~𝑇 ≡ 𝐹
~𝐹 ≡ 𝑇
Involution Law
~(~𝑝) ≡ 𝑝
De Morgan’s Law
~ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞
~ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞
Algebra of Propositions
Substitution
Another method of showing or proving tautologies is by
the PRINCIPLE OF SUBSTITUTION. This illustrates the
process of replacing a proposition with its logical
equivalence.
EXAMPLE 5 Show that the proposition 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 ∨ ~(𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞)
is a tautology
We can use substitution to prove if the proposition is a
tautology.
EXAMPLE 6 Using Algebra of Propositions, show that
𝑝 → 𝑞∧𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 →𝑞 ∧ 𝑝 →𝑟
EXAMPLE 7 Using Algebra of Propositions, show that
(~ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
Summary
Tautology
A tautology is a compound proposition that is true for all
possible values of its component propositions.
Contradiction
A contradiction is a compound proposition that is false for
all possible values of its component propositions.
Contingency
A contingency is a compound proposition that is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction
Logical Equivalence
Two propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are logically equivalent if 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 is
a tautology. In symbols, 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄 (read as 𝑃 is logically
equivalent to 𝑄). Alternatively, two propositions are
logically equivalent if they have the same truth values
based on their truth tables.
Algebra of Propositions
Evaluation
01
define the three classifications of
propositions
02
Learning determine whether or not two
Outcomes propositions are equivalent
03
prove a tautology using the three
various methods.
TELL ME...
For items 1-4, refer to the table below.
a b c d e
T T F T T
T F F F T
F T T F X
F F T T Y
01 What letter corresponds to the column which
determines/shows whether a proposition is a
tautology, contingency, or contradiction?
02 If X is true, what must Y be so that the truth table
shows a tautology?
03 What value of Y will make the proposition
corresponding to the truth table a contingency
04 Can we manipulate the table such that it shows a
contradiction? Why?
Algebra of Propositions
THANK YOU!
