Eduridge Evening Coaching

CHAPTER

2 Solving A Biological

Problem

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Solving A Biological Problem Eduridge Evening Coaching
Introduction:

Science is the systemized knowledge derived from observations and experiments.These

experiments are carried out to determine the principles about how nature operates.

Scientists like chemists, biologists and physicists use the same scientific method to make

and test new theories.

2.1 Biological Method
Definition:

->The scientific method in which biological problems are solved, is termed as biological method
It comprises the steps a biologist adopts in order to solve a biological problem.

Purpose of Biological Method

Questions about living things have provided problems that man has investigated to aid his

own survival and to satisfy his desire to know

Biological method has played an important part in scientific research for almost 500 years
From Galileo’s experiment ( in the 1590’s ) to current research, the biological method has

contributed to the advancements in medicine, ecology, technology etc. Biological method

also ensures the quality of data for public use

Point to ponder
Man has always been a biologist. He had to be a biologist in order to live. Early in history,

he was a hunter of animals and a gatherer of fruits, seeds, roots etc. The more he knew about

animals and their habitat, the more successful hunter he was. The more he knew about plants,

the better he distinguished between edible and non-edible plants.

2.1.1 Biological problem, hypothesis, deductions and experiments:
In biology (like other sciences), new things are being discovered and long-held theories are

being modified or replaced with better ones as more data/knowledge is accumulated.

This happens when biologists recognize some biological problem and go for its solution. In
solving a biological problem, biologist takes following steps;
Recognition of biological proble
Observations
Hypothesis formulation
Deduction
Experimentatio
Summarization of results (create tables, graphics etc
Reporting the results

The details of these steps are as under:

1. Recognition of the Biological Problem

Use:

Biologists go for adopting biological method when they encounter some biological problem
Define Biological Problem:

A biological problem is a question related to living organisms that is either asked by some

one or comes in biologist’s mind by himself.

2. Observations:

Observations are made with five senses, as given:

visio
hearin
smel
tast
touch.
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Types:

Observations are of two types:

-> Qualitative

-> Quantitativ
As the first step in solving a biological problem, biologist recalls his/her previous observations

or makes new ones

Quantitative observations are considered more accurate than qualitative ones because the

quantitative are invariable and measurable and can be recorded in terms of numbers
Example:
Qualitative Observation Quantitative Observation
The freezing point of water is colder than
The freezing point of water 0 °C and the

the boiling point. boiling point is 100 °C

A liter of water is heavier than a liter of
A liter of water weighs 1000 grams and a

ethanol. liter of ethanol weighs 789 grams.

->Note
Observations also include reading and studying what others have done in the past because

scientific knowledge is ever-growing.

. ormulation of ypotheses:
3 F H

Tentative explanation of observations is called a hypothesis. It may be defined as a

proposition that might be true. A hypothesis should have the following characteristics:

• It should be a general statement.

• It should be a tentative idea.

• It should agree with available observations.

• It should be kept as simple as possible.

• It should be testable and potentially falsifiable. In other words, there should be a way to

show the hypothesis is false; a way to disprove the hypothesis.

-> A great deal of careful and creative thinking is necessary for the formulation of a hypothesis.

Biologists use reasoning to formulate a hypothesis.

->Note:

bservations do not become scientific observations until they are organi ed and related t
O z o

a uestion.Biologist organi es his her and others observations into data form and constructs a

q z / ’

statement ypothesis that may prove to be the answer of the biological problem under study.
(H )

4 D . eductions:
Definition:

eductions are the logical consequences of hypotheses

D .

Note :

iologist draws deductions from hypotheses

B .

-> For this purpose, a hypothesis is taken as true and e pected results deductions are draw
x ( ) n

from it .

-> Generally in biological method, if a particular hypothesis is true then one should e pec x t

deduction a certain result. his involves the use of

( ) T logic.
“if-then”

5. Experimentation:
Biologist performs experiments to see if hypotheses are true or not. The deductions,

which are drawn from hypotheses, are subjected to rigorous testing.

Purpose:

Through experimentation, biologist learns which hypothesis is correct.

-> Through experimentations, biologist learns which hypothesis is correct.

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An accepted hypothesis makes further predictions that provide an important way to further

test its validity.

6. Summarization of results:
Biologist gathers actual, quantitative data from experiments. Data for each of the groups

are then averaged and compared statistically. To draw conclusions, biologist also uses the

statistical analysis.
What is “Control” in experiments?
In science when doing the experiment, it must be a controlled experiment. The scientist

must contrast an “experimental group” with a “control group”

The two groups are treated exactly alike except for the one variable being tested
Example:

-> in an experiment to test the necessity of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, one

can contrast the control group (a plant with freely available carbon dioxide) with

an experimental group (a plant with no carbon dioxide available). The necessity

of carbon dioxide will be proved when photosynthesis occurs in the control group

and does not occur in the experimental group.

7. Reporting the results:
Publishing of results is an essential part of scientific method.
It allows other people to verify the results or apply the knowledge to solve other problems
Biologists publish their findings in scientific journals and books, in talks at national and

international meetings and in seminars at colleges and universities.

-> An Example Of Biological Method

Study Of Malaria
Intro:

We know malaria is a common disease in many countries including Pakistan. We will go

through the history of this disease to know how biology solved the biological problem

concerning the cause and transmission of malaria.

History:

In ancient times (more than 2000 years ago), physicians were familiar with malaria.
They described it as a disease of chills and fevers with recurring attacks
They also observed that the disease was more common among people living in low,

marshy areas
It was thought that the stagnant water of marshes poisoned the air and as a result of

breathing in this “bad air”, people got malaria.

-> This belief led to the name of this disease
The Italian words “mala” means bad and “aria” means air.

Experiment:

For further clarification of the observation, some volunteers drank stagnant water from

the marshes. They did not develop malaria.

History of treatment:

In the 17th century when the New World (America) was discovered, many plants from

America were sent back to Europe to be used as medicines

The bark of a tree known as Quina-Quina was very suitable for curing fevers.

* It was so beneficial that soon it was impossible to carry enough bark to Europe. Some

dishonest merchants began to substitute the bark of another tree, Cinchona which closely

resembled Quina-Quina.
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This dishonesty proved much valuable for mankind. Cinchona bark was found to be excellent

for treating malaria.We now know the reason:

Note
Cinchona bark contains quinine that is effective in treating the disease
At that time, physicians treated malaria with cinchona without understanding the cause of

malaria.

-> Two hundred years later, it was found that some diseases are caused by tiny living organisms.

After this discovery, it also became a belief that malaria, too, might be caused by some

microorganism.
=>Laveran
In 1878, a French army physician Laveran began to search for the “cause” of malaria.
Process
He took a small amount of blood from a malarial patient and examined it under microscope.

He noticed some tiny living creatures

His discovery was not believed by other scientists
Two years later, another physician saw the same creatures in the blood of another malarial

patient
Three years after the second discovery, the same creatures were observed for third time
The organism was given a name Plasmodium.
19th Century:

In the last part of nineteenth century, many different causes of malaria were being

suggested. By that time, there were four major observations about malaria
Malaria and marshy areas have some relation
Quinine is an effective drug for treating malaria
Drinking the water of marshes does not cause malaria
Plasmodium is seen in the blood of malarial patients.
Hypothesis:

W e know that a scientist uses whatever information and observation he has and makes on e

or more hypotheses he hypothesis made in this case was

. T ;

“Plasmodium is the cause of malaria.”

Deduction:

Scientist does not know whether his hypothesis is true or not, but he accepts it may be true

and makes deductions. ne of the deductions from the above hypothesis was
O ;

“If Plasmodium is the cause of malaria, then all person ill with malaria

should have Plasmodium in their blood.”

Exp erimentation :

lood o malarial a ie s was e ami ed u der mi ros o e or h

The next step was to test the deduction through experiments which were designed as;

ur ose o ha i a o rol rou he lood o heal hy erso s wa

“B f 100 p t nt x n n c c p .F t e

also e ami ed u der mi ros o e

p p f v ng c nt g p, t b f 100 t p n s

x n n c c p .”

Results:

The results of experiments showed that almost all malarial patients had Plasmodium in their

blood while 07 out of 100 healthy persons also had Plasmodium in their blood (now we know that

Plasmodium in the blood of healthy people was in incubation period.

Incubation Period:

T he period between the entry of parasite in host and the appearance of symptom s

Note:

The results were quite convincing and proved that the hypothesis:

“Plasmodium is the cause of malaria” was true.

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Blood Cells

Plasmodium

Fig: Malarial patient

Blood Sample.
Malaria has killed more people than any other disease. The account of malaria is an example

of a biological problem and of how such problems are solved.

2nd Biological Problem
“How Plasmodium gets into the blood of man”.
Observations:

Biologists were having following observations

Malaria is associated with marshe
Drinking water of marshes does not cause malaria.

Note:

From these observations, it can be concluded that Plasmodium was not in the marsh water.

But it must be carried by something that comes to marsh water.

A. F. A. King

In 1883, a physician A. F. A. King, listed 20 observations. Some important observations of

King were
People who slept outdoors were more likely to get malaria than those who slept indoors
People who slept under fine nets were less likely to get malaria than those who did not use

such nets
Individuals who slept near a smoky fire usually did not get malaria.
Hypothesis:

On the basis of these observations King suggested a hypothesis:

“Mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium and so are involved in the spread of malaria.”

Deduction:

Following deductions were made considering the hypothesis as true

“If mosquitoes are involved in the spread of malaria then; “Plasmodium

should be present in mosquitoes.” “A mosquito can get Plasmodium by

biting a malarial patient.”

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In fact quinine was the only effective remedy for malaria from the 17th to the 20th century.
Experimentation
Ronald Rose:

In order to test the above deductions, a British army physician Ronald Ross working in India

in 1880’s; performed important experiments

He allowed a female Anopheles mosquito to bite a malarial patient.
He killed the mosquito some days later and found Plasmodium multiplying in mosquito’s

stomach.

=> The next logical experiment was to allow an infected mosquito (having Plasmodium) to bite a

healthy person.

-> If hypothesis was true, the healthy person would have got malaria. If hypothesis was true, the

healthy person would have got malaria

Rose used sparrows and redesigned his experiments. He allowed a female Culex mosquito to

bite on the sparrows suffering from malaria. Some of the mosquitoes were killed and studied

at various times
Ross found that Plasmodium multiplied in the wall of mosquito’s stomach and then moved into

mosquito’s salivary glands. He kept some mosquitoes alive and allowed them to bite healthy

sparrows.

Results:

Ross found that the saliva of the infected mosquito contained Plasmodia (plural of Plasmodium)

and these entered the sparrow’s blood. When he examined the blood of these previously healthy

sparrows, he found many Plasmodia in it.

Experiment on Human
In the end, the hypothesis was tested by direct experimentation on human beings
In 1898, Italian biologists allowed an Anopheles mosquito to bite a malarial patient
The mosquito was kept for a few days and then it was allowed to bite a healthy man
This person later became ill with malaria.
=> In this way, it was confirmed that mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium and spread malaria.

Malarial Patient Healthy Person Anopheles Malarial Patient

Malarial Sparrow Culex Healthy Sparrow Malarial Sparrow

Figure 2.1 : Malaria in sparrow and man is transmitted by Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes

respectively
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While testing the hypothesis that plasmodium is the cause of malaria, what would be the control group

of the experiment? Blood of malarial patients or blood of healthy persons?

Ans:Blood of healthy persons
2.1.2 Theory, Law and Principle
Theory:

The hypotheses that stand the test of time (often tested and never rejected), are called

theories. A theory is supported by a great deal of evidence

When a hypothesis is given a repeated exposure to experimentation and is not falsified, it

increases biologists’ confidence in hypothesis.Such well-supported hypothesis may be used

as the basis for formulating further hypotheses which are again proved by experimental

results
Productive theory keeps on suggesting new hypotheses and so testing goes on.

=> Many biologists take it as a challenge and exert greater efforts to disprove the theory.

=> Law or Principle

A scientific law is a uniform or constant fact of nature. It is an irrefutable theory
If a theory survives such doubtful approach and continues to be supported by experimental

evidence, it becomes a law or principle.

->Example:
Hardy-Weinberg la
Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
When a female mosquito pierces the skin with her mouthparts, she injects a small amount of

saliva into the wound before drawing blood. The saliva prevents the blood from clotting in her

food canal.
Female mosquitoes need the blood of mammals or birds for the maturation of their eggs.

The welts that appear after the mosquito leaves is not a reaction to the wound but an

allergic reaction to the saliva. In most cases, the itching sensation and swellings subside

within several hours.

Biting Mosquit Welts

Injectng Saliva

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Biological

Problem

Observations

Hypothesis

Deductions

Experimental
Control

Group Group
Law

&

Principles
Experiments
Further Testing

Theory
Org
Da isatio

sis
aly

an

An Data
ta

Further Testing
n

Summarization
Discussions

If not Proved Reporting

&

Of Results If Proved
Of Results Seminars

Figure : Biological method

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2.2 Data Organization And Data Analysis
Data organization and data analysis are important steps in biological method. Data can be

defined as the information such as names, dates or values made from observations and

experimentation.
Data organization
In order to formulate and then to test hypotheses, scientists collect and organize data. Prior to

conducting an experiment, it is very important for a scientist to describe data collection methods.

It ensures the quality of experiment.

=>Data is organized in different formats like

graphic
table
flow chart
map
diagrams.
Data analysis
Data analysis is necessary to prove or disprove a hypothesis by experimentation. It is done

through the application of statistical methods.

i.e.
ratio an
proportion

Ratio Of A Number.

When a relation between two numbers e.g. ‘a’ and ‘b’ is expressed in terms of quotient (a/b),

it is called the ratio of one number to the other.

Ratio may be expressed by putting

=>a division (÷)

=>colon (:)

mark between the two numbers.

Example:

The ratio between 50 malarial patients and 150 normal persons is 1:3.

Proportion

Proportion means to join two equal ratios by the sign of equality (=).

Example
a:b = c:d is a proportion between the two ratios.

This proportion may also be expressed as a:b::c:d. When three values in a proportion are

known, the fourth one (X) can be calculated. As, if a biologist can calculate how many birds will

get malaria when he allows infected mosquitoes to bite (100) healthy sparrows. In the previous

experiment he noted that when he allowed mosquitoes to bite (20) sparrows, (14) out of them

got malaria. Now he uses the proportion rule.

1st Ratio 14:20 (14 out of 20)
Proportion 14:20::X:100
2nd Ratio X:100 (How many out of 100)
5
14 = ____
X
___
20 100 X × 20 = 14 × 100 14 × 100
X = _________ = 14 × 5 = 70
20
It means 70 out of 100 sparrows get malaria
Statistics are thus a means of summarizing data through the calculation of mean value. This

step is very important as it transforms raw data into information, which can be used to summarize

and report results

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Solving A Biological Problem Eduridge Evening Coaching
2.3 Mathematics:

As An Integral Part Of Scientific Process

Biological method also involves the use of applied mathematics to solve biological problems.

Major biological problems in which knowledge of mathematics is used include gene finding,

protein structure, and protein-protein interactions etc. Bioinformatics refers to the computational

and statistical techniques for the analysis of biological data.

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