Text book

HAM MOT BIEN PHUC

Supervisor: Dr. Bùi Thế Quân

Năm học 2023-2024

Mục lục

1 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND COMPLEX PLANE 4

1. Complex numers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2. Geometric form of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Complex numbers and complex planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3. Extended complex plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1. Complex Plane Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2. Stereographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4. Subset in the complex plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1. Closed set, open set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2. Interior, closure, and boundary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3. Compact set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5. Curves and domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.1. Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.2. Convex Sets and Connected Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3. Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2 Chapter 2: Complex Variable Functions 28

1. Complex Variable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2. Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3. Continuous Functions on Compact Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2. Sequences and Series of Complex Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1. Sequences of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2. Series of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3. Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

1
Functions of one complex variable

3. Basic elementary functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.1. Rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2. Transcendental function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3. Continuity of elementary functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4. Properties of exponential function ez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5. The relationships between the transcendental functions . . . . . . . . 37
4. Elementary transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1. Linear function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2. Linear fractional function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3. Joukowski function (see references) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4. Exponential function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3 Integration 47
1. Integration of a complex function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.2. Reminder: Line integral of a vector field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.3. Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.4. Primitive. The Newton - Leibniz formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.5. The index of a closed curve (see references) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2. Cauchy theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.1. Cauchy’s integral formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2. Cauchy theorem for multiply domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3. The existence of antiderivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3. Cauchy’s integral formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1. Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2. The Cauchy Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3. Cauchy integral formula for derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4. 4. Some corollaries of Cauchy integral formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1. Theorem Morera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2. Cauchy inequality for derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3. Liouville’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.4. Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5. Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

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Functions of one complex variable

4.6. Principle of maximum modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

5. Harmonic function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.1. Harmonic function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2. Determining the holomorphic function knowing the real or imaginary
part. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.3. SCHWARTZ AND POISSON’S THEOREM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4 Series and Residue 68

1. Taylor series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.1. Taylor series of holomorphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.2. Uniqueness of Holomorphic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

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Chương 1

COMPLEX NUMBERS AND

COMPLEX PLANE

1. Complex numers
1.1. Definition
On R × R = R2 we define these operations:

+ Addition (a1 , b1 ) + (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 ) .

+ Multiplication (a1 , b1 ) . (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 , a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) for all (a1 , b1 ) , (a2 , b2 ) ∈ R2 .

Khi đó (R2 , +, •) is a filed which has:

+ The unit element of + : (0; 0).

+ The inverse element of (a; b) is (−a; −b).

+ The unit element of • is (1; 0).

(a, b).(c, d) = (ac − bd, ad + bc) = (1; 0)



 1 −b

0 a


 a

 c = = 2
a + b2

a −b





® 
 b a
ac − bd = 1 
⇒ ⇒
ad + bc = 0 



 a −1


 b 0 −b
d= = 2


a + b2

a −b





b a


4
Functions of one complex variable

−b
Å ã
−1 a
+ The inverse element of (a; b) is (a, b) = ; .
a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2
We call (R2 , +, •) is the complex field. Every elements z with z = (a; b) ∈ (R2 , +, •) is called
a complex number
We denote it as C.
We identify (a; 0) with a. One has:

(a; 0) + (b; 0) = (a + b; 0) = a + b
(a; 0).(b; 0) = (ab; 0) = ab

We denote the complex number (0; 1) := i as an imaginary.

Then, we have: z = (a; b) = (a; 0) + (b; 0).(0; 1) := a + bi
where the real part (Rez) is a, the imaginary part (Imz) is b.

Example 1.1.

(1 + 3i) + (1 − 2i) = (1; 3) + (1; −2) = (2; 1) = 2 + i

(1 − i)(1 + 3i) = (1; −1)(1; 3) = (4; 2) = 4 + 2i
1−i
Å ã Å ã
−1 2 1 1 3 1 3
= (1; −1).(2; −1) = (1; −1) ;− = ;− = − i
2+i 5 5 5 5 5 5

1.2. Geometric form of complex numbers

For the Cartesian axis Oxy.
Given z = (a; b) ⇔ cho M (a; b) ∈ Oxy.
M (a; b) is called the geometric form of the complex number z.
The Cartesian Oxy axis is called the geometric form of the complex number z. The Cartesian
Oxy axis is called the complex plane.
z = (a; 0) = a ⇔ M (a; 0) ∈ Ox and Oxis called the real axis.
z = (0; b) = bi ⇔ M (0; b) ∈ Oy and Oy is called the imaginary axis.

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Functions of one complex variable

z = (a, b) = M
b

arg z
O a x

−−→
We call r = OM is a modulus of the complex number z.
−−→
arg z: is a trigonometric angle between Ox and OM .
arg z: is the value of arg z such that 0 ≤ z ≤ 2π.
We have: Arg z = {arg z + k2π, k ∈ Z} .
√
Let φ = arg z, it can be seen that r = a2 + b2 .
z = a + ib = r cos φ + i.r sin φ = r(cos φ + i sin φ).
The above representation is called the trigonometric form of the complex number, one has:
z = r(cos φ + i sin φ) := r.eiφ với eiφ = cos φ + i sin φ . Indeed, the Maclaurin expansion gives
us:
x 2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + · · · ⇒ thay φ.
2! 4! 6!
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + · · · ⇒ thay φ nhận thêm i
3! 5! 7!
2 3 4
x x x
ex = 1 + x + + + + · · · ⇒, substitute i.φ
2! 3! 4!
Then,
(iφ)2 (iφ)4 (iφ)6
cos φ = 1 + + − + . . . (Do i2 = −1, i4 = 1)
2! 4! 6!
(iφ)3 (iφ)5 (iφ)7
i sin φ = iφ + + + + . . . (Do i3 = −i, i5 = i)
3! 5! 7!
2 3
(iφ) (iφ) (iφ)4
eiφ = 1 + iφ + + + + . . . nên với eiφ = cos φ + i sin φ
2! 3! 4!

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Functions of one complex variable

With z1 = r1 ei.φ1 , z2 = r2 ei.φ2 one has

z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos (φ1 + φ2 ) + i. sin (φ1 + φ2 )] = r1 r2 .eφ1 +φ2

z1 r1 r1
= [cos (φ1 − φ2 ) + i. sin (φ1 − φ2 )] = .eφ1 −φ2 .
z2 r2 r2
n n n i
z = r (cos nφ + i. sin nφ) = r .e φ

Indeed, we have:

z1 z2 = r1 (cos φ1 + i. sin φ1 ) .r2 (cos φ2 + i. sin φ2 )

= r1 r2 [cos φ1 cos φ2 − sin φ1 sin φ2 + i. (sin φ1 cos φ2 + cos φ1 sin φ2 )]
= r1 r2 [cos (φ1 + φ2 ) + i. sin (φ1 + φ2 )] = r1 r2 .eφ1 +φ2 .
z1
Similar to . With PMI Principle.
z2
z n = z.z.z . . . .z = rn (cos nφ + i. sin nφ) (∗).

The formula (*) is called the Morve - Laplace formula.

Modulus (mô-đun) and conjugate complex
Let z = a + bi, we call z − a − bi là is a conjugate complex of z denoted as z̄.
√
The value |z| = a2 + b2 is called the modulus of z
Note:

1. z, z̄ is symmetric along Ox.

2. z 7→ z̄ is called a standard on C.

The property of its conjugate and its modulus:

1. z = z̄¯.

2. z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 .

3. z1 .z2 = z1 .z2 .

4. z + z = 2. Re z, z − z = 2. Im z, z.z = |z|2 = a2 + b2 .
z1 |z1 |
5. |z1 .z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | , = .
z2 |z2 |
6. |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

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Functions of one complex variable

z1 z1 z2 z1 z2
Note: = = .
z2 z2 z2 |z2 |2
Given M (xM ; yM ) = z1 , N (xN ; yN ) = z2 , then
»
δ (z1 , z2 ) = (xM − xN )2 + (yM − yN )2

determine a mertic (distance) on complex plane C .

The root of a complex number
We say w is a nth order of a complex number z if wn = z.
Let’s consider z = r (cos φ + i. sin φ) , w = ρ. (cos ψ + i. sin ψ) .
We have wn = ρn (cos nψ + i. sin nψ) .
 n √
 ρ =r
(
ρ= nr
z = wn ⇔ cos nψ = cos φ ⇔ φ + k.2π
ψ= , k = 0, n − 1
sin nψ = sin φ

n
When representing the square root of the complex number on the plane C : they lie on a
√ φ
circle of radius r , the first point making an angle with the Ox-axis is and the second
2
point is kπ.
y

r
√
n
r w1

O x
w2

So the conplex number z has two square roots, located symmetrically about the origin.
When representing the cube root of a complex number z: They lie on a circle with radius

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Functions of one complex variable

√ φ
3
r with the first point making an angle with Ox-axis is , the following two points are
3
2π
separated by an angel of and form an equilateral triangle.
3
Then, we generalize to the n-th root case n
√
Example: Find the 4-th root of z = 1 + i. 3
 π π
Rewrite z: z = 2 cos + i. sin .
3 3
Set w = ρ. (cos ψ + i. sin ψ) , we have:
 √
4
 ρ= 2

π
w4 = z ⇒ + k2π
 ψ= 3
 , k = 0, 3
4
So,the 4-th root of z is
√
4
 π π
w1 = 2 cos + i. sin
12 12 ã
√
4
Å
7π 7π
w2 = 2 cos + i. sin
12 12
√
4
Å
13π 13π
ã
w3 = 2 cos + i. sin
12 12
√
4
Å
19π 19π
ã
w4 = 2 cos + i. sin .
12 12

2. Complex numbers and complex planes

Definition 2.1. Complex sequences : Given a complex sequence zn . Value a ∈ C is said
to be the limit of sequence zn if:

∀ε > 0, ∃n0 : n > n0 ⇒ |zn − a| < ε

We also have a sequence zn is convergent at a, we denote lim zn = a or zn → a.

n→∞
Note zn → a ⇔ d (zn , a) = |zn − a| → 0.

Proposition 2.1. Assume that zn = xn + i.yn , z = a + ib. Then

ß
xn → a
zn → z ⇔
yn → b
ß
2 2 xn → a
Indeed zn → z ⇔ |zn − z| → 0 ⇔ (xn − a) + (yn − b) → 0 ⇔
yn → b
Å ã Å ã
1 1
Example 2.1. 1 + + i. 1 + → 1 + i.e.
n n

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Functions of one complex variable

Property 2.1. Let’s consider zn → z, wn → w. Then:

1. wn ± zn → w ± z.

2. wn .zn → w.z.
zn z
3. → .
wn w
Proposition 2.2. Cauchy’s criterion. The sequence zn is convergent if and only if:

∀ε > 0, ∃n0 : m, n > n0 ⇒ |zm − zn | < ε

Proof: (⇒): is a convergent sequence by Cauchy condition

(⇐): Let’s consider zn = xn + i.yn and the sequence zn satisfy the Cauchy’s condition. Then:
»
2 2
ßm − xn ) + (ym − yn ) = |zm − zn | < ε, ∀m, n > n0
(x
|xm − xn | < ε
⇒ ∀m, n > n0
|ym − yn | < ε
⇒ {xn } , {yn } are Cauchy sequences in R.
⇒ xn → a, yn → b
⇒ zn → a + bi.
∞
X
CComplex series: Given a complex sequence zn . Form total zn = z0 + z1 + z2 + . . . is
n=0
n
X
said to be a complex series with general coefficient zn . For every n, we say that sn = zk
k=0
is the nth partial sum of the series.
P∞
We say that zn converges to s ∈ C if sn → s. When a sequence is not convergent we call
n=0
it divergent.
∞
P ∞
P P∞
Proposition: Suppose that zn = xn + i. yn and s = a + i.b
n=0 n=0 n=0
 P ∞
∞

 xn → a
n=0
P
Then zn → s ⇔ P∞ .
n=0 
 yn → b
n=0
∞
P
Proposition: The sequence zn is convergent if and only if
n=0

n+p
X
∀ε > 0, ∃n0 : n > n0 : p ∈ N ⇒ zk < ε
k=n+1

n+p
P
Remark zk = |sn+p − sn | .
k=n+1
Note:

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Functions of one complex variable

∞
P
1. zn converges ⇒ zn → 0.
n=0

∞
P ∞
P ∞
P
2. zn → z, wn → w then (zn + wn ) → z + w.
n=0 n=0 n=0

∞
P ∞
P
Definition 2.2. The complex series zn is absolute convergence |zn | hội tụ.
n=0 n=0
∞
P ∞
P ∞
P
If zn converges but |zn | is not convegent zn is conditionally convergent.
n=0 n=0 n=0

∞
Å ã
1P 1
Example 2.2. 2
+ √ i is absolute convergence
n=0 n … n3
1 1 1 1 1 P∞ 1
Indeed, 2 + √ = + ∼ √ for n large enough. Besides, √ is conver-
n n3 i n4 n3 n3 Ç å n=1 n 3

P∞ 1 1 P∞ 1 1
gent, then 2
+ √ i is convergent. ⇒ + √ 3 i is absolute convergence.
n=1 n n3 n=1 n2 n
Next, here is an example of conditionally sequence:
1 1
Ö è
n
P (−1) . cos n i. sin
n
Example 2.3. + is a conditionally sequence. Rediscovering
n n
Leibnitz’s Theorem (of convergence of alternating series):
∞
X
(−1)n un , un > 0
n=0

X∞
If un is strictly decreasing to 0, then (−1)n un is convergent.
n=0
∞
Å ã
P 1 1 1 1
we have cos + i. sin is not convergent since cos + i. sin → 1 ̸= 0 .
n=1 n n n n
On the other hand, we can consider the following alternating series:
Ã
1 1 1 1
(−1)n cos sin cos2 + sin2
n + i. n = n n = 1
n n n2 n

1 1
∞ cos cos
P
(−1)n n . Consider u = n.
n
n=1 n n
1
cos
Set f (x) = x , x ≥ 1.
x
1 1 1 1 1
2
.x sin − cos sin − x. cos
f ′ (x) = x x x = x x ⇒ f ′ (x) < 0, with x ≥ x .
0
x2 x3

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Functions of one complex variable

1
∞ sin
P n có
n=1 n
1 1
sin
n ≤ n = 1.
n n n2
∞
P
Proposition: Suppose that zn is absolute convergence and its sum is S.
n=0

σ:N→N

is a bijection (a permutation).
∞
P
Then zσ(n) is also absolute convergence and its sum is S. S.
σ(n)=1
∞
P
Proof: For all ε > 0, since zn is absolute convergence, then ∃n0 , ∀n > n0 :
n=0
n
P ε n
P ε
|zk | − S < and |zk | <
k=0 2 k=n0 +1 2
Let’s consider N0 = max {σ(0), σ(1), . . . , σ(n0 )} thì N0 ≥ n0 .
If σ is taken from 1 → n0 then N0 = n0 .
we have:

N0
X n0
X N0
X
zσ(k) − S = zσ(k) − S + zσ(k)
σ(k)=0 σ(k)=0 σ(k)=n0
k>n0
n0
X N0
X
≤ zσ(k) − S + zσ(k)
σ(k)=0 σ(k)=n0
k>n0
n0 ∞
X X ε ε
≤ zσ(k) − S + |zk | < + = ε.
k=n+1
2 2
σ(k)=0

∞
P ∞
P ∞
P
Definition 2.3. Cho zn , tn be 2 complex sequences. We call Wn with
n=0 n=0 n=0

n
X
wn = zi .tn−i
i=0
P P
is the product chain of zn , tn .
∞
P ∞
P
Proposition 2.3. Giả sử zn , tn are 2 absolutely convergent series corresponding to
n=0 n=0
S and T

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Functions of one complex variable

∞
P P P
Then, the product chain Wn of zn , tn converge absolutely to the same sum S.T .
n=0
If one series converges absolutely and the other converges (not necessarily absolutely) to the
same sum.0
∞
P ∞
P
Proposition: Proof: we have zn absolutely converges ⇒ |zn | is convergent .
n=0 n=0
Consider

w0 + w1 + . . . wn = z0 t0 + (z1 t0 + z0 t1 ) + · · · + (z0 tn + z1 tn−1 + · · · + zn t0 )

= z0 (t0 + t1 + · · · + tn ) + z1 (t0 + t1 + · · · + tn−1 ) + · · · + zn t0
= z0 Tn + z1 Tn−1 + · · · + zn T0
= z0 (Tn − T + T ) + z1 (Tn−1 − T + T ) + · · · + zn (T0 − T + T )
= T (z0 + z1 + z2 + · · · + zn ) + z0 (Tn − T ) + z1 (Tn−1 − T ) + · · · + zn (T0 − T ) .

Now, we proof:

z0 + z1 + z2 + · · · + zn → z
z0 (Tn − T ) + z1 (Tn−1 − T ) + · · · + +zn (T0 − T ) → 0.

we have: Tn → T ⇒ {Tn } is bounded ⇒ ∃M > 0 : |Tn | ≤ M, ∀n.

zn → z ⇒ {zn } is bounded ⇒Ç∃k ∈ N : |zn | ≤ k, ∀n. å
P∞ Pn0 P n
P
zn absolute0 converges ⇔ ∀ε > 0, ∃n0 : |zk | < ε, |zk | < ε ⇔ Sn = |zi | ↗ S.
n=0 k=0 k>n0 i=0
Khi đThóen0:
n n
!
X X
wi − ZT = zi .T − ZT + z0 (Tn − T ) + z1 (Tn−1 − T ) + · · · + +zn (T0 − T )
i=0 i=0
n
X
≤ zi − Z |T | + |z0 | |Tn − T | + |z1 | |Tn−1 − T | + · · · + |zn | |T0 − T | .
i=0

As Tn → T ⇔ (∀ε > 0, ∃n1 : n ≥ n1 ⇒ |Tn − T | < ε)

Let N0 = n0 + n1 then ∀n ≥ N0 we have:
n
X n
X
w− ZT = zi − Z |T | + |z0 | |Tn − T | + · · · + |z0 | |Tn − T |
i=0 i=0
n n
!
X X
≤ zi − Z |T | + (|z1 | + |z2 | + · · · + |zn |) .ε + |zk | (M + T )
i=0 k=n0 +1

< ε. (|T | + S + M + |T |) → 0.

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Functions of one complex variable

∞ 1
z n with |z| ≤ q < 1 converges absolutely to
P
Example 2.4. .
n=0 1−z
1 − z n+1 1
1 + z + z2 + · · · + zn = converges to when n → ∞.
1−z 1−z
∞
|z|n ≤ q n , q n converges with q < 1.
P
n=0

The extended complex plane C = C ∪ {±∞} is the set of extended complex numbers
1
zn → ∞ ⇔ |zn | → +∞ ⇔ → θC
zn
z
z + ∞ = ∞, =0
z ∞
z ̸= 0, = ∞, z.∞ = ∞.
0 ÅÅ ã ã
1 1
In the space Oxyz consider the sphere B 0; 0; , .
Å 2 ã22
1 1
Then the equation of this sphere is x2 + y 2 + z − = .
2 4
z

P (0; 0; 1)

|z|2
Å ã
x0 y
π(M ) π(M ) = ; ;
1 + |z|2 1 + |z|2 1 + |z|2

O x

M (x; y; z)
y

ConsiderÅÅthe following
ã ã map:
1 1
π: B 0; 0; ; → Oxy ∪ {∞} = C
2 2
M 7→ π(M ) = P M ∩ Oxy
P 7→ ∞.
Clearly, π is a bijection. 
 x = 0 + x0 t
Suppose M (x0 ; y0 ; 0) ̸= ∞ we have (P M ) : y = y0 t , t ∈ R.
z =1−t


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Functions of one complex variable

ÅÅ ã ã
1 1
We haveπ(M ) ∈ B 0; 0; , nên
2 2

1 2 1
Å ã
2 2
(x0 t) + (y0 t) + 1 − t − =
2 4
Å ã2
1 1
⇔ t2 x20 + y02 + t −


=
2 4
2 2 2 2


⇔ t x0 + y 0 + t − t = 0
⇔ t x20 + y02 + 1 − 1 = 0 (Dot = 0 ⇒ M = ∞)

1 1
⇔t= 2 2
=
x0 + y 0 + 1 1 + |z|2
Ç å
x0 y0 |z|2
⇒ π(M ) = ; ; .
1 + |z|2 1 + |z|2 1 + |z|2

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Functions of one complex variable

3. Extended complex plane

3.1. Complex Plane Extension
• C = C ∪ {∞}: the set of extended complex numbers.
1
• z → ∞ (infinity complex number) ⇔ |z| → +∞ ⇔ → 0.
z
z
• z + ∞ = ∞, = 0, |∞| = +∞.
∞
z
• For z =
̸ 0: z · ∞ = ∞, = ∞.
0
The extended complex plane with infinity added is called the extended complex plane.

3.2. Stereographic Projection

In the space Ox1 x2 x3 with the Cartesian coordinate system, consider the sphere with
1 1
center I(0, 0, ) and radius :
2 2
1 2 1
Å ã
2 2
(S) : x1 + x2 + x3 − =
2 4

x3

P (0, 0, 1)

π(M )

x2
O

M (x, y, 0)

x1

Consider the mapping π :

C = Ox1 x2 → S
z = M (x, y) 7→ π(M ) = P M ∩ S

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Functions of one complex variable

π is called the stereographic projection.

• Find π(M ): 
−−→ x1 = xt,
P M = (x, y, −1) ⇒ P M : x2 = yt, (t ∈ R)
x3 = 1 − t,


Substitute into the equation of (S):

1 2 1
Å ã
2 2
(xt) + (yt) + 1 − t − =
2 4

⇔ t2 (x2 + y 2 + 1) − t = 0

t = 0 (absurd)
⇔  1 1
t= 2 2
=
x +y +1 1 + |z|2

|z|2
Å ã
x y
Thus, π(M ) = , ,
1 + |z|2 1 + |z|2 1 + |z|2
• Conversely, given M ′ (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ S, find M ∈ Ox1 x2 = C such that π(M ) = M ′ :
Assume z = M (x, y) = M (x, y, 0). We have:
|z|2 2 x3
x3 = ⇒ |z| =
1 + |z|2 1 − x3 Å ã
x 2 x3 x1
Thus, x1 = 2
⇒ x = x1 (1 + |z| ) = x1 1 + =
1 + |z| Å 1 − x3
ã 1 − x3
y x 3 x 2
x2 = ⇒ y = x2 (1 + |z|2 ) = x2 1 + =
1 + |z|2 Å ã 1 − x3 1 − x3
x 1 x 2
Therefore, π −1 (M ′ ) = ,
1 − x3 1 − x3
The projection π isÅa bijection. If zã= ∞, then π(z) = P .
x1 x2
Suy ra W = N , là tạo ảnh của N ′ .
1 − x3 1 − x3
It is obvious that M → ∞ then π(M ) → P.
Let’s consider z = M (x, y), w = N (x′ , y ′ ), we have: π(z) = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), π(∞) = (x′1 , x′2 , x′3 ).
p
We define λ(z, w) = (x1 − x′1 )2 + (x2 − x′2 )2 + (x3 − x′3 )2 spherical distance between z
and w.

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Functions of one complex variable

With z, w ̸= ∞:

d2 (z, w) = (x1 − x′1 )2 + (x2 − x′2 )2 + (x3 − x′3 )2

= x21 + x22 + x′2 ′2 ′ ′ 2 ′2
1 + x2 − 2x1 x1 − 2x2 x2 + x3 + x3 − 2x3 x3
′

x2 + y 2 x′2 + y ′2 x.x′ + y.y ′ |z|4 |w|2

= + − 2. + +
(1 + |z|2 )2 (1 + |w|2 )2 (1 + |z|2 ) (1 + |w|2 ) (1 + |z|2 )2 (1 + |w|2 )2
|z|2 .|w|2
− 2.
(1 + |z|2 ) (1 + |w|2 )
|z|2 + |z|4 |w|2 + |w|4 x.x′ + y.y ′ + |z|2 .|w|2
= + − 2.
(1 + |z|2 )2 (1 + |w|2 )2 (1 + |z|2 ) (1 + |w|2 )
|z|2 . (1 + |w|2 ) + (1 + |z|2 ) .|w|2 − 2x.x′ − 2y.y ′ − 2|z|2 |w|2
=
(1 + |z|2 ) (1 + |w|2 )
|z|2 + |w|2 − 2x.x′ − 2y.y ′
=
(1 + |z|2 ) (1 + |w|2 )
x2 + y 2 + x′2 + y ′2 − 2x.x′ − 2y.y ′
=
(1 + |z|2 ) (1 + |w|2 )
(x − x′ )2 + (y − y ′ )2
=
(1 + |z|2 ) (1 + |w|2 )
|z − w|2
=
(1 + |z|2 ) (1 + |w|2 )

|z − w|
⇒ d(z, w) = 1 1
(1 + |z|2 ) 2 (1 + |w|2 ) 2
1
If w = ∞, then d(z, ∞) = 1
(1 + |z|2 ) 2

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Functions of one complex variable

4. Subset in the complex plane

4.1. Closed set, open set
• Let z ∈ C, r > 0, we say:

B = (z, r) = {w ∈ C : |z − w| < r}: a open disk with center z, radius r.

B = (z, r) = {w ∈ C : |z − w| ≤ r}: closed disk with center z, radius r.

• The set A ⊂ C is said open if: ∀z ∈ A, ∃εa > 0 : B(z, r) ⊂ A.

• The set A ⊂ C is said closed if: C \ A is open.

Proposition 4.1.

i) An open disk is an open set.

ii) A closed disk is a closed set.

iii) A is closed ⇔ ( If {zn } ⊂ A, zn → z then z ∈ A).

Proof: iii)

(⇒) Suppose that A is closed, {zn } ⊂ A, zn → z. We will prove that z ∈ A.

Suppose that z ∈
/ A, that is, z ∈ C\A is open. Therefore , there exists ε > 0 such that
B(z, ε) ⊂ C.
For ε > 0 is chosen, there exists n0 such that zn ∈ B(z, ε) ⊂ C\A for all n > n0 (which
contradicts {zn ⊂ A}).

(⇐) Suppose that, if {zn } ⊂ A, zn ⇒ z then z ∈ A and A is not closed.

Therefore, C\A is not open, in this case, there exists z ∈ C\A such that B(z, ε)∩A ̸= ∅
for all ε > 0.
Choose zn ∈ B z, n1 ∩ A for all n. In this case, we have {zn } ⊂ A, zn → z.

According to the hypothesis, we have z ∈ A, which contradicts z ∈ A.

Property 4.1.

i) ∅, C is open (closed).

ii) The arbitrary union of open (closed) sets is open (closed).

iii) The finite intersection of open (closed) sets is open (closed).

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Functions of one complex variable

4.2. Interior, closure, and boundary.

• intA =
T
α Gα , Gα is open ⊂ A.

• clA =
S
α Fα , Fα is closed, A ⊂ Fα .‘

• ∂A = FrA = {z ∈ C, ∀ε > 0 : B(z, ε) ∩ A ̸= ∅, B(z, ε) ∩ (C \ A) ̸= ∅}.

4.3. Compact set

A set A ⊂ C is said compact if for all {zn } ⊂ A there exists a convergent subsequence in
A.

Proposition 4.2. A ⊂ C compact ↔ A is closed, bounded.

Proof:

(⇒) Suppose A compact. Take a sequence {zn } ⊂ A, zn → z. We will prove that z ∈ A.

Since A compact, there exists a subsequence znk → z ′ ∈ A.
Due to the unique property of limits, we have z = z ′ ∈ A.
Suppose A is not bounded, in this case, there exists a sequence {zn } ≤ n, ∀n.
The chosen sequence has no convergent subsequences, which contradicts A compact.

(⇐) Take any sequence {zn } ⊂ A. Suppose that zn = xn + iyn .

From |xn | ≥ |zn | , |yn | ≥ |zn |, we deduce that {xn } , {yn } is bounded.
According to the lemma B-W, there exists {xnk } → x, {ynk } → y.
In this case, znk = xnk + iynk ⇒ x + iy = z. Since A is closed, z ∈ A.

Proposition 4.3. | · | và d(·, ·) are equivalent in terms of sequences in C. That is, the
sequence {zn } converges to z ∈ C according to | · | if {zn } is convergent to z according to
d(·, ·).

Proof:

(⇒) {zn } converges to z according to | · |, that is |zn − z| → 0.

|zn − z|
We have, d (zn , z) = Ä ä1/2 ≥ |zn − z| → 0.
1 + |znk |2 · (1 + |z|2 )1/2

(⇐) Suppose that {zn } converges z according to d(·, ·), that is, d (zn , z) → 0.
First, we prove the existence, M > 0 such that |zn | ≥ M, ∀n.

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Functions of one complex variable

Suppose that, {zn } is not bounded, in this case, there exists a subsequence {znk } such
that {znk } → ∞.
In this case,
d(z, ∞) ≥ d (znk , z) + d (znk ) , ∞)
1 d (zn , z)
= d (znk , z) + Ä 1/2
·
|znk |
ä
1 + |znk |2
Whereas, d (zn , z) → 0, |znk | → ∞.
We deduce that, z = ∞, which contradicts z ∈ C. Do đó |zn | ≥ M for all n.
In this case,
Ä ä1/2
1/2
|zn − z| = 1 + |zn |2 · 1 + |z|2 · d (zn , z)

1/2
1/2
≥ 1 + M2 · 1 + |z|2 · d (zn , z) → 0

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Functions of one complex variable

5. Curves and domains

5.1. Curves
A curve (or path) in the complex plane is a mapping

γ : [a, b] → C

from the interval [a, b] on the real line into C. Set:

y(t) = x(t) + iy(t), t ∈ [a, b],

Giving the curve γ is equivalent to giving two real functions x and y on the interval [a, b].
We always assume the curve is continuous, which means the functions x(t) and y(t) are
continuous.
We often identify γ (as a mapping) with the set L = γ ([a, b]), which is the image of the
mapping γ. This is done to simplify notation when there is no risk of confusion. Note that
each set L is the image of numerous different curves.
Two curves γ1 : [a, b] → C and γ2 : [c, d] → C are called equivalent if there exists a
bijective, continuous, strictly increasing function g : [a, b] → [c, d] such that γ1 (t) = γ2 (g(t))
for every t ∈ [a, b].
We do not distinguish between equivalent curves. It is easy to see that every curve
γ : [a, b] → C is equivalent to some curve σ : [0, 1] → C.

Example 1

1. Given γ1 (t) = t, γ2 (t) = sin πt, t ∈ [0, 1]. Both curves γ1 and γ2 have the image as the
interval [0, 1] ⊂ C but are not equivalent. Indeed, as t varies from 0 to 1, γ1 (t) varies
from 0 to 1 whereas γ2 (t) varies from 0 to 1 and then back to 0.

2. For every n ∈ N consider the curve εn (t) = eint , t ∈ [0, 2π]. These curves all have
the image as the unit circle {z ∈ C : |z| = 1}. However, as t varies from 0 to 2π, εn (t)
travels around the unit circle n times. Therefore, εm is not equivalent to εn if m ̸= n.

• A curve γ : [a, b] → C is called to be closed if γ(a) = γ(b).

• A curve γ is called to be simple if γ (t1 ) ̸= γ (t2 ) for t1 ̸= t2 and {t1 , t2 } ̸= {a, b}. A
simple, closed curve is called a Jordan curve or contour.

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Functions of one complex variable

• A curve γ : [a, b] → C is called to be smooth if

γ ′ (t) = x′ (t) + iy ′ (t)

exists and it is continuous and nonzero for all t ∈ [a, b] (considering one-sided deriva-
tives at a and b).

• A curve γ is called to be piecewise smooth if there are points a = t0 < t1 < . . . < tm = b
such that for every i = 1, . . . , m, the curve γi (t) = γ(t), t ∈ [ti−1 , ti ] is smooth.

5.2. Convex Sets and Connected Sets

Let z and ω ∈ C. Then, the line segment connecting z with ω is defined as

[z, ω] = {(1 − t)z + tω : t ∈ [0, 1]} .

Hereafter, we always understand the segment [z, ω] as the smooth curve

γ(t) = (1 − t)z + tω, t ∈ [0, 1]

A set A ⊂ C is called convex if for every z, ω ∈ A, we have [z, ω] ⊂ A.

Example 2: An open (or closed) disk is a convex set. The intersection of a family of
convex sets is convex. A set A ⊂ C is called to be connected if there do not exist two
nonempty, closed subsets F1 and F2 of A such that

F1 ∩ F2 = ∅, F1 ∪ F2 = A (1.1)

Theorem 5.1. For a set A ⊂ C to be connected, it is necessary and sufficient that for every
set B ̸= ∅ which is both open and closed in A, we have B = A.

Proof:

Let’s consider A is connected Assume A is connected and B is a non-empty set that is

both open and closed within A. Set F1 = B and F2 = A \ B. Then F1 , F2 satisfy (1.1) and
since F1 ̸= ∅, it follows that F2 = ∅. Therefore, B = A.
Conversely, assume that there exists a set B ̸= ∅ which is both open and closed in A and
B = A, but A is not connected. Then there exist F1 , F2 satisfying (1.1). Let B = F1 . Then,
B is closed and non-empty. Moreover, B is also open in A since B = A \ F2 . By assumption,
B = A, i.e. F2 = ∅, leading to a contradiction. Hence, A is connected.

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Functions of one complex variable

Assume that z and ω ∈ A ⊂ C. If there exists a curve

γ : [a, b] → A

such that γ(a) = z and γ(b) = ω, then we say that z and ω can be connected by a curve
within A.
A set A ⊂ C is called path-connected if any two points in A can be connected by a path
lying within A.

Theorem 5.2. A path-connected set is connected.

Proof:

Assume A is path-connected but not connected. Then there exist two closed subsets
F1 , F2 satisfying (1.1). Choose z ∈ F1 and ω ∈ F2 and let γ : [a, b] → A be a path connecting
a+b
z and ω. Bisect the interval [a, b] at the midpoint m0 = . If γ (m0 ) ∈ F1 , then choose
2
[a1 , b1 ] = [m0 , b]. If γ (m0 ) ∈ F2 , then choose [a1 , b1 ] = [a, m0 ].
a1 + b 1
Continuing this process of bisecting the interval [a1 , b1 ] at the midpoint m1 = and
2
selecting subintervals [a2 , b2 ] such that γ (a2 ) ∈ F1 and γ (b2 ) ∈ F2 , and so on. This process
results in a sequence of narrowing intervals {[an , bn ]} where γ (an ) ∈ F1 and γ (bn ) ∈ F2 .
Let c be the unique common limit point of all intervals [an , bn ]. Since an → c, γ (an ) →
γ(c). Since the sequence {γ (an )} ⊂ F1 and F1 is closed, it follows that γ(c) ∈ F1 . Similarly, as
bn → c, γ(c) ∈ F2 . Hence, γ(c) ∈ F1 ∩ F2 , which contradicts the assumption that F1 ∩ F2 = ∅
0

Theorem 5.3. For A being an open subset in C, the following statements are equivalent:

i) A is connected;

ii) A is path-connected;

iii) Any two points in A can be connected by a piecewise smooth curve within A;

iv) Any two points in A can be connected by a polygonal line within A.

Proof:

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Functions of one complex variable

(i) ⇒ (iv) Proof:

Fix ω0 ∈ A and define B as the set of all points ω ∈ A that can be connected to ω0 by a
polygonal line within A. Clearly, B ̸= ∅. To prove that A = B, according to Theorem 5.1,
it suffices to show that B is both open and closed in A.
Take any z0 ∈ B. Since A is open, there exists r > 0 such that the open ball B(z0 , r) ⊂ A.
Any z ∈ B(z0 , r) can be connected to z0 by a straight line segment, and since z0 is connected
to ω0 by a polygonal line, z can also be connected to ω0 by a polygonal line. Thus, z ∈ B
and B(z0 , r) ⊂ B, indicating that B is open.
To prove that B is closed in A, assume zn ⊂ B converges to z0 ∈ A. We will show z0 ∈ B.
Since A is open, there exists r > 0 such that B(z0 , r) ⊂ A. Since zn → z0 , there exists n0
such that zn0 ∈ B(z0 , r). Note that ω0 is connected to zn0 by a polygonal line, and zn0 is
connected to z0 by a straight line segment; hence, ω0 is connected to z0 by a polygonal line
within A. Therefore, z0 ∈ B.
For A ⊂ C, a subset C ⊂ A is called a connected component of A if C is connected, and
if B is a connected subset satisfying C ⊂ B ⊂ A, then B = C.
Remark 1 Due to its maximal property, it can be shown that each connected component
of A is a closed subset within A. Different connected components of A are disjoint. It is clear
that a set is connected if and only if it has exactly one connected component.

5.3. Domain
A set D ⊂ C is called a domain if D is open and connected.
If D is a domain then D = D ∪ ∂D is called the closure of the domain. Note that the
closure of a domain is not a domain, but the interior of the closure is a domain.
If the domain D is bounded, then D is called a bounded domain. If D is a bounded
domain, then D is a compact set; therefore, a bounded domain is also referred to as a
compact domain. To denote D as a compact domain, we write D ⋐ C. If A is a bounded set
in D and A ⊂ D, then we also write A ⋐ D.
Example 4:

a) Open disks or more generally any open convex sets are domains.

b) A closed disk minus a point is a closed domain. Two curves γ0 , γ1 : [a, b] → D are
called to be homotopic in D, denoted γ0 ∼ γ1 , if there exists a continuous mapping

φ : [a, b] × [0, 1] → D

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Functions of one complex variable

such that φ(t, 0) = γ0 (t), φ(t, 1) = γ1 (t) and φ (a, s) = φ(b, s) for every t ∈ [a, b], s ∈ [0, 1].
The homotopy relation among curves defined over the interval [a, b] is an equivalence
relation.
Remark 2 If we define γs (t) = φ(t, s), t ∈ [a, b] then for each s ∈ [0, 1] there exists a
closed curve γs : [a, b] → D. We see that γ0 ∼ γ1 , which means that as s varies from 0 to 1,
γs continuously transitions from γ0 to γ1 .
If γ1 (t) =∗ ∈ D, (where γ1 (t) is a constant point) then instead of γ0 ∼ γ1 we write γ0 ∼ ∗

and call γ0 continuously contracting to a point or γ0 is null-homotopic. A domain is called

simply connected if every closed curve within it is null-homotopic. A domain that is not
simply connected is called a multiply connected domain. Geometrically, a simply connected
domain does not have "holes".
Example 5:

a) A set D is called star-shaped if there exists z0 ∈ D such that the segment [z0 , z] ⊂ D
for every z ∈ D. Clearly, all convex sets are star-shaped, and all star-shaped sets are
connected. Thus, any open, star-shaped set is a domain. We will demonstrate that a
star-shaped domain is simply connected.

Indeed, assume γ : [a, b] → D is an arbitrary closed curve. Define

φ(t, ξ) = z0 + (1 − ξ) (γ(t) − z0 ) , t ∈ [a, b], ξ ∈ [0, 1].

Then φ is continuous, and φ(t, 0) = γ(t), φ(t, 1) = z0 for all t ∈ [a, b]. Therefore, γ ∼∗ .

b) The domain D = C\ {0} is multiply connected since the unit circle γ(t) = eit , t ∈ [0, π]
cannot be continuously contracted to a point.

It has been shown that a domain D ⊂ C is simply connected if and only if the boundary
of D in C is connected (note that the boundary is in C, not in C). According to Remark
1, D is simply connected if ∂C D has only one connected component.

If ∂C D has n connected components, then the domain D is called n-connected.

Example 6

a) D = Imz > 0\Rez = 0, 0 ≤ Imz ≤ 1 is simply connected because the boundary of D

in C is connected (it can be observed that D is star-shaped).

b) The domain D = C\0 is multiply connected because the boundary of D in C consists

of two connected components: 0 and ∞.

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Functions of one complex variable

c) The domain D = C\ {z1 , z2 , . . . , zn } is (n + 1)-connected.

d) The domain D in figure 3 is 3-connected.

l2

l1

H3 H4

A multiply connected domain can be transformed into a simply connected domain by adding
certain line segments to its boundary. For example, the domain D in figure 3 can be made
simply connected by adding two segments, l1 and l2 , to its boundary.
The positive direction of the boundary of a domain is defined such that when traversing
along the boundary, the domain being considered lies to the left.
In figure 3, the direction indicated by the arrows is the positive direction of the boundary.
The positively oriented boundary of the domain D is denoted as ∂D+ , while the boundary
oriented in the opposite direction is denoted as ∂D− .

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Chương 2

Chapter 2: Complex Variable

Functions

1. Complex Variable Functions

1.1. Definition
Definition 1.1. Let D ⊂ C, a mapping f : D −→ C is called a complex function of one
variable. Suppose

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), ∀z(x, y) ∈ D.

Defining a complex variable function f is equivalent to defining two real-variable functions

u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y).

Example 1.1. f (z) = z 2 = (x2 + y 2 ) + 2ixy

w = z2
y y
w = f (z)

O x O x

z
Example 1.2. Consider the function f (z) = w =
z+1

28
Functions of one complex variable

Let |z| = 1 ⇒ z = cos φ + i sin φ

cos φ + i sin φ
f (z) =
cos φ + 1 + i sin φ
(cos φ + i sin φ)(cos φ + 1 − i sin φ)
=
(cos φ + 1)2 + sin2 φ
1 sin φ
= +i· .
2 2 + 2 cos φ

1.2. Limits and Continuity

Definition 1.2. Let f : D −→ C, with z0 ∈ D such that (B (z0 , ε) ∩ D ̸= 0, ∀ε > 0). A
complex number L is called the limit of f as z → z0 , denoted by L = lim f (z), if:
z→z0

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 : 0 < |z − z0 | < δ ⇒ |f (z) − L| < ε.

Proposition 1.1. lim f (z) = L ⇔ (zn ⊂ D, zn → z0 ⇒ f (zn ) = L)

z→z0

Proposition 1.2. Suppose f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where z = (x, y) ∈ D, z0 = x0 + iy0 ,
and L = L1 + iL2 . Then,

 lim u(x, y) = L1
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
lim f (z) = L ⇔
z→z0  lim v(x, y) = L2
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )

Proof:

lim f (z) = L ⇔ ∀(zn ) ∈ D, zn → z0 ⇒ f (zn ) → L

z→z0
Ç® ® å
xn → x0 u (xn , yn ) → L1
⇔ ⇒
yn → y0 v (xn , yn ) → L2

 lim u(x, y) = L1
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
⇔ .
 lim v(x, y) = L2
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )

Definition 1.3. Let f : D → C, z0 ∈ D. We say that f is continuous at z0 if

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 : |z − z0 | < δ ⇒ |f (z) − f (z0 )| < ε.

Remark 1.1. f is continuous at z0 ⇔ (zn → z0 ⇒ f (zn ) → f (z0 )) ⇔ u, v are continuous at

(x0 , y0 ).

Definition 1.4. We say that f is uniformly continuous on D if

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 : ∀z, z ′ ∈ D, |z − z ′ | < δ ⇒ |f (z) − f (z ′ )| < ε.

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Functions of one complex variable

Remark 1.2. The uniform continuity of f on D implies the continuity of f on D (i.e., f

is continuous at every point z ∈ D).

Property 1.1. a) The properties of complex variable functions correspond to the proper-
ties of continuous two-variable functions.

b) The modulus function is a continuous function.

1.3. Continuous Functions on Compact Sets

Proposition 1.3. If f is continuous on a compact set K, then f is uniformly continuous
on K.

Proof:
Suppose f is not uniformly continuous on K. Then,
1 1
∃ε > 0, ∀δn = , ∃zn , wn ∈ D such that |zn − wn | < and |f (zn ) − f (wn )| ≥ ε0 .
n n
As K is compact, there exist sub-sequences (assume these are (znk ) and (wnk )) such that

(znk ) → z ∗ ∈ K and (wnk ) → w∗ ∈ K.

Thus,

|z ∗ − w∗ | ≤ |z ∗ − znk | + |znk − wnk | + |wnk − w∗ | → 0.

Resulting in w∗ ≡ z ∗ .
Due to the continuity of f , we have:

f (znk ) → f (z ∗ ) and f (wnk ) = f (w∗ ) = f (z ∗ ).

Then

ε0 ≤ |f (znk ) − f (z ∗ )|
≤ |f (znk ) − f (z ∗ )| + |f (z ∗ ) − f (wnk ) | (Contradiction)

Proposition 1.4. If f is continuous on a compact set K, then |f | attains its maximum and
minimum values on K, meaning there exist z1 , z2 such that

|f (z1 )| = inf {|f (z)| : z ∈ K}

|f (z2 )| = sup {|f (z)| : z ∈ K}.

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Functions of one complex variable

2. Sequences and Series of Complex Function

2.1. Sequences of Functions
Given D ⊂ C, F (D) is a function defined on D. Every maps from N to f (D) is called
the defined sequence of functions D, denoted as {fn }.

Definition 2.1. The sequence of functions {fn } is convergent to f on D, denoted as lim fn =

n→∞
f if

lim fn (z) = f (z), ∀z ∈ D.

n→∞

So, lim fn = f ⇔ (∀z ∈ D, ∀ε > 0, ∃n0 : n > n0 ⇒ |fn (z) − f (z)| < ε).
n→∞

We say the sequence of function {fn } is uniformly convergent on D to f if

∀ε > 0, ∃n0 , n > n0 ⇒ |fn (z) − f (z)| < ε, ∀z ∈ D.

Example 2.1. fn (z) = z n ⇒ θ(z) = 0 trên |z| < 1.

Indeed, for all z such that |z| < 1, for all ε > 0, we choose n0 > log|z| ε, with n > n0 , we
have:

|zn − θ(z)| < |zn |n < |z|n0 < ε.

Example 2.2. fn (z) = z n , |z| ≤ q = const < 1.

∀ε > 0, ∃n0 = logq ε, ∀n > n0 ⇒ |fn (z) − θ(z)| = |z|n ≤ q n < q0n < ε.

Proposition 2.1. If fn is continuous on D and {fn } is uniformly continuous on f to D

then f is continuous on D (the uniform continuity preserves).

Proof:
Take an arbitraryz0 ∈ D.

• {fn } is uniformly convergent on f : there exists n0 such that ∀n > n0 then

ε
|fn (z) − f (z)| < , ∀z ∈ D.
3
ε
In specific, |fn (z0 ) − f (z0 )| < .
3
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Functions of one complex variable

• fn is continuous on D so fn is continuous at x0 ∈ D. Then, there exists δ > 0 such

that |z − z0 | < δ so |fn (z) − fn (z0 )| < ε. Hence, with |z − z0 | < ε, we have:

|f (z) − f (z0 )| ≤ |f (z) − fn (z)| + |fn (z) − fn (z0 )| + |fn (z0 ) − f (z0 )|
3ε
≤
3
=ε

Proposition 2.2. The sequence of function {fn } is uniformly convergent on D if and only
if

∀ε > 0, ∃n0 , ∀n, m > n0 ⇒ |fn (z) − fm (z)| < ε, ∀z ∈ D (*).

Proof:
(⇒): It is obvious.
(⇐): Let’s consider f (n) satisfies (*). So, for all z ∈ D then {fn (z)} is a Cauchy sequence
in C, so it is convergence.
Set f (z) = lim fn (z), ∀z ∈ D.
n→∞
From (*) fixing n, given m ⇒ ∞, we get

∀ε < 0, ∃n0 : n > n0 ⇒ |fn (z) − f (z)| < ε, ∀z ∈ D

or {fn } is uniformly convergent f on D.

2.2. Series of Functions

Definition 2.2. Given the sequences of functions {fn } defined on D. The formal sum:
∞
X
fn = f0 + f1 + f2 + . . . + fn + . . .
n=0

is the series of functions.

For each n ∈ N, we say:
n
X
Sn = f0 + f1 + . . . + fn = fi
i=1

is the nth partial sum of the series.

∞
X
We say is convergent (uniformly convergent) on D to the sum function S if {sn }
n=1
convergent (uniformly convergent) on D về S.

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Functions of one complex variable

∞
X 1 − z n+1 1
Example 2.3. z k = sn = → .
k=0
1−z 1−z
∞
X
Proposition 2.3. The series of functions fn is uniformly convergent on D if and only
n=0
if

∀ε > 0, ∃n0 : ∀n > n0 , p ∈ N ⇒ |fn+1 (z) + · · · + fn+p (z)| < ε, ∀z ∈ D.

∞
X
Proposition 2.4. If fn is continuous on n and fn is uniformly continuous D to the sum
n=0
function S then S is continuous on D.
∞
X ∞
X
Proposition 2.5. (Weierstrass’s Criterion) Given fn (z), z ∈ D. Suppose cn is a
n=0 n=0
∞
X
convergent sequence of positive numbers such that |fn (z)| ≤ cn , ∀n ∈ N, ∀z ∈ D. If cn is
n=0
∞
X
convergent fn uniformly and absolute convergent on D.
n=0

Proof:
we have
n+p n+p
X X
| fk (z)| ≤ |fk (z)|
k=n+1 k=n+1
n+p
X
≤ cn
k=n+1

⇒0
∞ √
X nz + 1
Example 2.4. , |z| ≤ R,
n=1
n2

we have:
√ √
nz + 1 nz 1
≤ +
n2 n2 n2
R 1
≤ 3 + 2
n2 n
R+1
≤ 3 .
n2
∞ ∞ √
X R+1 X nz + 1
moreover 3 is convergent so is uniformly and absolute convergent |z| ≤
n=1 n2 n=1
n2
R.

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Functions of one complex variable

∞
X (2z)n
Example 2.5.
n=1
3n + 1
we have
n (2z)n 2 2 3
lim n
= z < · = 1.
n→∞ 3 +1 3 3 2
3
• Nếu z < thì chuỗi đã cho hội tụ đều và tuyệt đối.
2
3
• Nếu z > thì chuỗi đã cho phân kỳ.
2

2.3. Power Series

∞
X
Definition 2.3. A power series is a series of the form: cn z n với cn are complex constant
n=0
with z ∈ C.
∞
X
Proposition 2.6. Cho cn z n . Then,
n=0
∞
X ∞
X
a) If cn z0n is convergent cn z n is uniformly convergent in |z| ≤ q < |z0 |.
n=0 n=0
∞
X ∞
X
b) If cn z0n is divergent cn z n is divergent on |z| > |z0 |.
n=0 n=0

Proof:

∞
X
cn z0n is convergent ⇒ cn z0n = 0.
n=0

a) If the sequence {cn z0n } is convergent then, it is bounded, which means there exists
M > 0 such that |cn z0n | ≤ M, ∀n ∈ N. Then, with |z| ≤ q < |z0 |, we have
Å ãn
n n z
|cn z | = cn z0 ·
z0
z n
= |cn z0n | ·
z0
q n
Å ã
≤M· .
|z0 |
∞ Å
q n
ã
q X
Vì < 1 nên hội tụ.
|z0 | n=0
|z0
∞
X
Vậy cn z n in uniformly converges and absolute in |z| ≤ q < |z0 |.
n=0

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Functions of one complex variable

b) Similarly prove.
∞
X
Proposition 2.7. There exists a real number R such that cn z n is uniformly continuous
n=0
and absolute in |z| ≤ q < R and it is divergent |z| > R with R is convergent radius.
cn+1 »
Proposition 2.8. (Cauchy - H’Adamard) If lim = l or lim n |cn | = l then
n→∞ cn n→∞


 0, l = ∞

R = ∞, l = 0 .
 1
 , l ∈ (0, ∞)

l

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Functions of one complex variable

3. Basic elementary functions

3.1. Rational functions
Rational function is a function which has a general form:
a0 z n + a1 z n−1 + ... + an
f (z) = .
b0 z m + b1 z m−1 + ... + b + m
There are some important cases of Rational functions.

i) Linear function: f (z) = az + b.

ii) Power function: f (z) = z n , n ∈ Z.

iii) Polynomial function: f (z) = a0 z n + a1 z n−1 + ... + an .

az + b
iv) Linear fractional function: f (z) = .
cz + d

3.2. Transcendental function

∞
z z z2 X zn
i) Exponential function: e = 1 + + + ... = .
1! 2! n=0
n!
∞
z z3 z5 X z 2n+1
ii) Sin function: sin z = − + − ... = (−1)n .
1! 3! 5! n=0
(2n + 1)!
∞
z2 z4 X z 2n
iii) Cosine function: cos z = 1 − + − ... = (−1)n .
2! 4! n=0
(2n)!
∞
z z3 z5 X z 2n+1
iv) Sin hyperbolic function: sh z = + + + ... = .
1! 3! 5! n=0
(2n + 1)!
∞
z2 z4 X z 2n
v) Cosine hyperbolic function: ch z = 1 + + + ... = .
2! 4! n=0
(2n)!

The series identifying those transcendental functions have the same radius of convergence,
which is +∞, so those functions are identified and continuous on the plane. According to
Maclaurin expansions of real functions, narrowing those functions on R to get the corre-
sponding real functions that we have known.

3.3. Continuity of elementary functions

Theorem 3.1. The basic elementary functions are continuous at all points in their domains.

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Functions of one complex variable

3.4. Properties of exponential function ez

Theorem 3.2. ez eω = ez+ω for all z, ω ∈ C.
∞ ∞
X zn X ωn
Proof: since the series và are absolutely convergent, so according to the
n!
n=0 n=0
n!
series multiplication formula and the theorem we have:
∞
! ∞ ! ∞ X n
n X ωn
z ω
X z X z k ω n−k
ee = =
n=0
n! n=0
n! n=0 k=0
k!(n − k)!
n n
! ∞
X 1 X k k n−k X (z + ω)n
= Cn z ω =
n=0
n! k=0 n=0
n!
= ez+ω .

Remark 3.1. For all z ∈ C we have ez e−z = e0 = 1 nên ez ̸= 0 for all z ∈ C.

3.5. The relationships between the transcendental functions

Theorem 3.3. The functions sin z, cos z, sinh z, cosh z can be expressed using exponential
functions by the formulas:
eiz − e−iz
i) sin z = ;
2i
eiz + e−iz
ii) cos z = ;
2
ez − e−z
iii) sh z = = −i sin iz;
2
ez + e−z
iv) ch z = = cos iz.
2
Proof: Note that
® n
n (−1) 2 if n is even
i = n−1
i(−1) 2 if n is odd

and the absolute convergent series is commutative, we have

∞ n ∞ ∞
z
X
nz z 2n
X X
n z 2n+1
e = i = (−1) +i (−1)n .
n=0
n! n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n + 1)!

So, for all z ∈ C

eiz = cos z + i sin z. (2.1)

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Functions of one complex variable

As −iz = i(−z) then

e−iz = cos z − i sin z. (2.2)

From these equations (1) and (2) we have (i) and (ii).
By the definition of the transcendental functions and the commutative property of the
absolute convergent series we get:

ez = ch z + sh z,

and then
e−z = ch z − sh z.

From these equations we have (iii) and (iv).

Theorem 3.4. For all z = x + iy ∈ C we have

ez = ex (cos y + i sin y). (2.3)

Proof:: By Theorem 1 and the fromula (1) we have

ez = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y).

Remark 3.2. From the formula (3) with x = 0, y = ϕ we have the Euler formula

eiϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ. (2.4)

Note that in Chapter I, we consider this as a symbol.

Theorem 3.5. The function ez is periodic with period being multiples of 2πi.

Proof:: Firstly, we have

ez+2πi = ez e2πi = ez .

On the other hands, if ω = a+ib moreover ez+ω = ez then eω = 1. So, ea (cos b+i sin b) = 1
or ea = 1, cos b = 1, sin b = 0. From that a = 0, b = 2kπ, which means ω = 2kπi, k ∈
Z.Therefore, the function ez is periodic with period being multiples of 2πi. Using this and
the Theorem 3, we have the circulation and the period of cos z và sin z.

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Functions of one complex variable

4. Elementary transformations
4.1. Linear function
Definition 4.1. (Linear function) A linear function is a function having the form w =
w(z) = az + b, where a, b ∈ C and a ̸= 0.
dw
Remark 4.1. (i) Since = a ̸= 0, w is (analytic and) conformal on C.
dz
w−b
(ii) We have w = az + b ⇐⇒ z = , hence w is a bijection from C to C. If we consider
a
w(∞) = ∞, then w is a bijection from C to C.

(iii) If |a| = 1, b = 0 then a = eiα then w = az = eiα |z|ei arg z = |z|ei(arg z+α) is the rotation
R0,α .
̸ 0, b = 0, then w = az = |a||z|ei(arg z+α) is the composition of the rotation R0,α
If |a| =
and the dilation D0,|a| .
In general, w = az + b = |a||z|ei(arg z+α) + b is the composition of the rotation R0,α , the
dilation D0,|a| , and the translation Tb .

Proposition 4.1. A linear transformation turns circles into circles, turns lines into lines.

Remark 4.2. A linear function is uniquely determined by either two distinct points and
dw
their images, or a point along with its image and = a.
dz
w − w1 z − z1
Indeed, if w1 = w(z1 ) and w2 = w(z2 ), then = is the desired linear function.
w2 − w1 z2 − z1
dw
If w(z0 ) = w0 and = a, then w − w0 = a(z − z0 ) is the desired linear function.
dz
Example 4.1. Find all linear transformations that turn B(z0 , r1 ) into B(w0 , r2 ).

Solution.
After the translation T−z0 : B(z0 , r1 ) 7→ B(0, r1 ).
After the dilation D0, rr2 : B(0, r1 ) 7→ B(0, r2 ).
1

After the rotation R0,α : B(0, r2 ) 7→ B(0, r2 ).

After the translation Tw0 : B(0, r2 ) 7→ B(w0 , r2 ).
In short:
D0, r2
T−z0 r2 r R0,α r2 Tw0 r2
z 7−→ z − z0 7−→1 (z − z0 ) 7−→ eiα (z − z0 ) 7−→ eiα (z − z0 ) + w0 .
r1 r1 r1
r2
Therefore, the general linear transformation is w = eiα (z − z0 ) + w0 . □
r1

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Functions of one complex variable

4.2. Linear fractional function

Definition 4.2. (Linear fractional function) A linear fractional function is a function
az + b
having the form w = w(z) = , where a, b, c, d ∈ C, ad − bc ̸= 0.
cz + d
Remark 4.3. (i) If c = 0 then w is a linear function.
ad − bc −d
™ ß
dw
(ii) Since = ̸= 0, w is (analytic and) conformal on C \ .
dz (cz + d)2 c
b − wd −d
ß ™
az + b nao
(iii) We have w = ⇔z= , hence w is a bijection from C\ to C\ .
cz + d cw − a Å ã c c
az + b a az + b −d a
Note that lim = , lim = ∞. Therefore, if w = ∞, w(∞) = ,
z→∞ cz + d c z→ −d cz + d c c
c

then w is a continuous bijection from C to C.

(iv) The set of all linear fractional functions is a multiplicative group.

a da
c
(cz + d) + b − c a bc − ad 1
(v) If c ̸= 0, we have w = = + · .
cz + d c c cz + d
Proposition 4.2. A linear fractional transformation turns circles into circles.

Proof.
Let us consider a circle (S) having equation

A(x2 + y 2 ) + Bx + Cy + D = 0.

As z + z = 2x, z − z = 2iy, zz = x2 + y 2 , we obtain:

B − iC
(S) : Azz + λz + λz + D = 0, where λ = .
2
az + b
Suppose that w = is a linear fractional transformation. If c = 0, w is a linear
cz + d
transformation, and we’re done (by Proposition 4.1). Therefore, assume that c ̸= 0. By
Remark 4.3(v):
w1 2 w 1 w3 a bc − ad 1
w : z 7−→ cz + d 7−→ 7−→ + · .
cz + d c c cz + d
1
Since w1 , w3 are linear functions, we just need to prove that w2 : z 7→ turns circles into
z
circles. We have:
1 1 1 1
w2 (S) : A · · +λ +λ +D =0
w w w w
⇔ Dww + λw + λw + A = 0.

The final equation is the equation of a circle. □

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Functions of one complex variable

−d −d
Remark 4.4. (i) If belongs to the circle (S), the image of (S) is a line. If doesn’t
c c
belong to the circle (S), the image of (S) is a circle.

(ii) If z1 , z2 are on opposite sides of (S), then w(z1 ), w(z2 ) are on opposite sides of w(S).
Consequently, if z1 , z2 are on the same side of (S), then w(z1 ), w(z2 ) are on the same
side of w(S).
Indeed, suppose by contradiction that z1 , z2 are on opposite sides of (S) and w(z1 ), w(z2 )
are on the same side of w(S). Observe that there exists a circle ∆ passing through
w(z1 ), w(z2 ) without intersecting w(S). It follows that w−1 (∆) is a circle passing through
z1 , z2 without intersecting (S). This is impossible as z1 , z2 are on opposite sides of (S).
The proof is complete.
2z + 1
Example 4.2. Let w = . In C, find:
z−1
a) The image of x2 + y 2 ≤ 1. c) The preimage of u2 + v 2 < 1.
b) The image of Imz > 2. d) The preimage of Rew = 2.

Solution.
2z + 1 w+1
a) For z ̸= 1, we have w ̸= ∞ and: w = ⇔z= . Setting w = u + vi gives:
z−1 w−2
ß ß
|z| ≤ 1 u + vi + 1 |u + vi + 1| ≤ |u + vi − 2|
⇔ ≤1⇔
z ̸= 1 u + vi − 2 (u, v) ̸= (2, 0)
1
⇔ |u + 1 + iv| ≤ |u − 2 + iv| ⇔ (u + 1)2 + v 2 ≤ (u − 2)2 + v 2 ⇔ u ≤ .
2
ß ™
1
Therefore, the image of x2 + y 2 ≤ 1 is w Rew ≤ ∪ {∞}.
2
b) For z ̸= 1, we have:
w+1 u + vi + 1 (u + 1 + vi)(u − 2 − vi) u2 − u − 2 + v 2 −3v
z= = = 2 = 2 + i.
w−2 u + vi − 2 (u − 2) + v 2 (u − 2) + v 2 (u − 2)2 + v 2
Note that 1 ∈
/ {z|Imz > 2}, so:
u2 − u − 2 + v 2
ß 2
u − u − 2 + v 2 > 2(u − 2)2 + 2v 2
Imz > 2 ⇔ > 2 ⇔
(u − 2)2 + v 2 (u, v) ̸= (2, 0)

7 2
Å ã
9
⇔ u− + v2 < .
2 4
ÅÅ ã ã
7 3
Therefore, the image of Imz > 2 is B ,0 , .
2 2
c) B((−1, 0), 1).
d) {∞} ∪ {z|z ̸= 1, Rez = 1}. □

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Functions of one complex variable

Definition 4.3. (Cross ratio) Given 4 distinct points z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 in C. The cross ratio
of these points is denoted by (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ).
If the points are not ∞, then
z1 − z3 z1 − z4
(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) := : . (4.1)
z2 − z3 z2 − z4
If zi = ∞ for some unique i, say i = 1, we define (∞, z2 , z3 , z4 ) = lim (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ).
z1 →∞
Particularly, this limit is obtained by replacing the two sums containing z1 in the equation
(4.1), which are z1 − z3 and z1 − z4 , with 1. Similar definitions apply to i = 2, 3, 4.
1−i 1 − (1 + i)
Example 4.3. a) (1, −1 + 2i, i, 1 + i) = : = 1 + 2i.
(−1 + 2i) − i (−1 + 2i) − (1 + i)
1 − i 1 − (1 + i)
b) (1, ∞, i, 1 + i) = : = 1 + i.
1 1
Proposition 4.3. A linear fractional function preserves the cross ratio. In other words, if
wi = w(zi ), i = 1, 4, then (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = (w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 ).

Proof.
We have:
azi + b azj + b ad(zi − zj ) − bc(zi − zj ) (zi − zj )(ad − bc)
wi − wj = − = = .
czi + d czj + d (czi + d)(czj + d) (czi + d)(czj + d)
Thus:
w1 − w3 w1 − w4
:
w2 − w3 w2 − w4
(z1 − z3 )(ad − bc) (cz2 + d)(cz3 + d) (z1 − z4 )(ad − bc) (cz2 + d)(cz4 + d)
= · : ·
(cz1 + d)(cz3 + d) (z2 − z3 )(ad − bc) (cz1 + d)(cz4 + d) (z2 − z4 )(ad − bc)
z1 − z3 z1 − z4
= : .
z2 − z3 z2 − z4
□

Proposition 4.4. A linear fractional function w is uniquely determined if z1 , z2 , z3 and their

images w1 = w(z1 ), w2 = w(z2 ), w3 = w(z3 ) are known. Moreover, w is given by
w1 − w3 w1 − w z1 − z3 z1 − z
: = : . (4.2)
w2 − w3 w2 − w z2 − z3 z2 − z
Proof.
The equation (4.2) defines a linear fractional function w such that wi = w(zi ), i = 1, 3.
On the other hand, if w is a linear fractional function w such that wi = w(zi ), i = 1, 3, then
w satisfies (4.2). Indeed, since the linear fractional function preserves the cross ratio, we have
(w1 , w2 , w3 , w) = (z1 , z2 , z3 , z), which is equivalent to (4.2).

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Functions of one complex variable

Remark 4.5. For a linear function, we know that ∞ 7→ ∞, so it is uniquely determined by

two distinct points and their images (Remark 4.2).

Example 4.4. Find the linear fractional function that maps 1, 0, i to ∞, 1, 1 + i respectively.

Solution.
Using (4.2) gives:

∞ − (1 + i) ∞ − w 1−i 1−z 1−w (i − 1)z (1 − i)z

: = : ⇔ = ⇔1−w =
1 − (1 + i) 1−w 0−i 0−z −i i(z − 1) z−1
iz − 1
⇔w= .
z−1
□

Example 4.5. Find the linear fractional function mapping 1, i, 1+2i to i, 1, 3−i respectively.

Solution.
We have:
w−i z−i −1 3i
Å ã
= · −
w − (3 − i) z − (1 + 2i) 5 5
5w − 5i z−i
= · (−1 − 3i)
w−3+i z − 1 − 2i
15 − 10i z−i
5+ = · (−1 − 3i)
w−3+i z − 1 − 2i
(15 − 10i)(z − 1 − 2i)
w−3+i =
(z − 1)(−1 − 3i) − 5(z − 1 − 2i)
z(15 − 10i) + (15 − 10i)(−1 − 2i)
w = +3−i
z(−1 − 3i) + 1 + 3i − 5z − 5(−1 − 2i)
z(−6 − 13i) − 4 + 13i
Hence, w = . □
z(−6 − 3i) + 6 + 13i
Definition 4.4. (Points symmetric with respect to a circle) Given a circle S(z0 , r).
We say the points z, z ∗ are symmetric with respect to S(z0 , r) if arg(z − z0 ) = arg(z ∗ − z0 )
and |z − z0 ||z ∗ − z0 | = r2 .

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Functions of one complex variable

Example 4.6. Find the point z ∗ symmetric to z = 1 + i with respect to B((0, 0), 2).

Solution.
Let z0 = 0. Since z ̸= z0 , arg(z − z0 ) = arg(z ∗ − z0 ) means there exists k > 0 such that
z ∗ − z0 = k(z − z0 ), or z ∗ = k + ki. Besides:
√ √
|z − z0 ||z ∗ − z0 | = 22 ⇔ 2( 2k) = 4 ⇔ k = 2.

Thus z ∗ = 2 + 2i. □

Proposition 4.5. z, z ∗ are symmetric with respect to S(z0 , r) iff any circle (S ∗ ) passing
through z, z ∗ is orthogonal to (S).

Proof.
(⇒) Assume that z, z ∗ are symmetric with respect to S(z0 , r) and S ∗ (w0 , R) is a circle passing
through z, z ∗ . Let P be an intersection of (S) and (S ∗ ).
We have: (P z0 )2 = r2 = |z0 − z| · |z0 − z ∗ | = (z0 w0 )2 − (P w0 )2 .
Thus, ∆z0 P w0 is right angled at P , and hence, (S) and (S ∗ ) are orthogonal.
(⇐) Suppose that every circle (S ∗ ) passing through z, z ∗ is orthogonal to (S). Particularly,
the line zz ∗ is orthogonal to (S), so z, z ∗ , z0 are collinear.
If z0 is between z and z ∗ , the circle with diameter zz ∗ is not orthogonal to (S), a contradiction.
Thus, arg(z − z0 ) = arg(z ∗ − z0 ).
Let (S ∗ ) be a circle passing through z, z ∗ , and let P be an intersection of (S) and (S ∗ ). Since
(S) and (S ∗ ) are orthogonal, ∆z0 P w0 is right angled at P . Hence:

|z0 − z| · |z0 − z ∗ | = (z0 w0 )2 − (P w0 )2 = (P z0 )2 = r2 .

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Functions of one complex variable

Proposition 4.6. A linear fractional transformation f preserves symmetry. Explicitly, if z

and z ∗ are symmetric with respect to the circle (S) and w = f (z), w∗ = f (z ∗ ), S ∗ = f (S),
then w and w∗ are symmetric with respect to the circle (S ∗ ).

Proof.
Take arbitrarily a circle (C ∗ ) passing through w and w∗ . Then, f −1 (C ∗ ) = C is also a circle.
Since (C) goes through z and z ∗ , then according to Proposition 4.5, (C) is orthogonal to
(S). Since f preserves angles, C ∗ = f (C) is orthogonal to S ∗ = f (S). By Proposition 4.5
again, w and w∗ are symmetric with respect to (S ∗ ). □

Example 4.7. Find all linear fractional transformations that map Imz > 0 to |w| < 1.

Solution.
Assume that w is a satisfactory transformation. Let z0 ∈ {z|Imz > 0} be such that w(z0 ) = 0.
Since z0 and z0 are symmetric with respect to Imz = 0, so w(z0 ) = ∞ by the symmetry
z − z0
preservation of w. It follows that w has the form w = A .
z − z0
Then |w(0)| = 1 (since Im0 = 0), which is equivalent to |A| = 1, so A = eiα with α ∈ R.
z − z0
Hence, w = eiα (Imz0 > 0, α ∈ R) is the general solution. □
z − z0

4.3. Joukowski function (see references)

4.4. Exponential function
The exponential function exp is given by

exp z = ez = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y).

Here are some properties of the function exp:

• exp is conformal on C and exp′ = exp. In other words, exp is analytic on C and (ez )′ =
ez ̸= 0 for all z ∈ C.
• exp is periodic with period 2πi: ez = ew ⇔ w = z + k2πi, k ∈ Z.
Therefore, for each k ∈ Z, exp |Gk is univalent (injective and analytic), where Gk is the strip
{k2π < Imz < (k + 1)2π}. We say the region Gk is a univalent region of the function exp.
Note that exp({k2π ≤ Imz < (k + 1)2π}) = C, exp Gk = C∗ \R+ .

Now, for each z ∈ C∗ , we denote by Logz the set {t ∈ C|et = z}. Suppose that t = α + iβ.
We have: ß
t α iβ i arg z α = ln |z|
e = z ⇔ e e = |z| e ⇔ .
β = arg z + k2π, k ∈ Z

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Functions of one complex variable

So Logz = {ln |z| + i(arg z + 2kπ)|k ∈ Z}.

For each k ∈ Z, set Logk z = ln |z| + i(arg z + 2kπ). Then, Logk : C∗ → C is a univalent
function.

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Chương 3

Integration

1. Integration of a complex function

1.1. Definition
Definition 1.1. Let γ : [a, b] −→ C be a piecewise smooth curve and f be a continuous
function on γ ≡ γ ([a, b]). Let τ = {t0 < t1 < ... < tn } be a partition of [a, b]. We denote
zk = γ(tk ) (k = 0, n), ∆zk = zk − zk−1 (k = 1, n), and by |τ | the diameter of τ , i.e,
max{∆zk : 1 ≤ k ≤ n}.
Mark the partition τ by taking ξk ∈ [tk−1 , tk ] arbitrarily, then let ck = γ(ξk ) (k = 1, n).
Consider the sum: n
X
στ (f ) = f (ck )∆zk .
k=1

Suppose that an I ∈ C exists with the property: For every ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such
that for every partition τ of [a, b] with |τ | < δ, one has |στ (f ) − I| < ϵ for every way to
mark τ . Then, we write lim στ (f ) = I and call I the (line) integral of f along γ, denoted
|τ |→0
Z
by f (z) dz:
γ Z
I = f (z) dz.
γ

We also say f is integrable on γ.

Remark 1.1. Assume that f (z) = u(z) + iv(z), ∆z = ∆x + i∆y. Then

n
X n
X
f (ck )∆zk = [u(ck ) + iv(ck )](∆xk + i∆yk )
k=1 k=1
n
X n
X
= [u(ck )∆xk − v(ck )∆yk ] + i [v(ck )∆xk + u(ck )∆yk ].
k=1 k=1

47
Functions of one complex variable

According to the definition of a line integral of a vector field, letting |τ | → 0 gives

Z Z Z
f (z) dz = udx − vdy + i vdx + udy.
γ γ γ

Hence:

(i) If γ is piecewise smooth and u, v are continuous (hence f is continuous), then f is

integrable on γ.

(ii) The integration of a complex function has the same properties as a line integral of a
vector field.

1.2. Reminder: Line integral of a vector field

1. Suppose that AB is a smooth curve with the parametrization x = x(t), y = y(t), t ∈
[a, b] and A = (x(α), y(α)), B = (x(β), y(β)) ({α, β} = {a, b}). Then:
Z Z β
P (x, y)dx + Q(x, y)dy = [P (x(t), y(t)).x′ (t) + Q(x(t), y(t)).y ′ (t)]dt.
AB α

2. Suppose that two-variable functions P, Q have continuous partial derivatives on a sim-

ply connected region D ⊂ R2 . Then the following statements are equivalent:
∂U ∂U
(i) P dx + Qdy is the total differential of some U (x, y), i.e., = P and = Q,
∂x ∂y
on D.
∂Q ∂P
(ii) = on D.
∂x ∂y
I
(iii) P dx + Qdy = 0 for any closed curve γ ⊂ D.
γ
Z
(iv) P dx + Qdy is independent of the path in D for any A, B.
AB
Z
Example 1.1. Calculate f (z)dz, where:
γ
a) γ(t) = t2 + i(t + 1), t ∈ [0, 1] and f (z) = (x2 + y 2 + xy) + i(x − y).
b) γ is the upper half of the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1 from (−1, 0) to (1, 0) and f (z) = y 2 − ix2 .

Solution.
a) We have u(x, y) = x2 + y 2 + xy, v(x, y) = x − y. In addition, x = t2 and y = t + 1, so

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Functions of one complex variable

dx = 2tdt, dy = dt.
Hence:
Z Z Z
f (z)dz = udx − vdy + i vdx + udy
γ γ γ
Z 1
= {[t4 + (t + 1)2 + t2 (t + 1)]2t − [t2 − (t + 1)]}dt
0
Z 1
+i {[t2 − (t + 1)]2t + [t4 + (t + 1)2 + t2 (t + 1)]}dt
0
157 39
= +i .
30 20
b) A parametrization of γ is γ(t) = cos t + i sin t, t ∈ [0, π]. We have u(x, y) = y 2 , v(x, y) =
−x2 . In addition, x = cos t and y = sin t, so dx = − sin tdt, dy = cos tdt.
Hence:
Z Z Z
f (z)dz = udx − vdy + i vdx + udy
γ γ γ
Z 0
− sin3 t + cos3 t dt


=
Zπ 0
cos2 t sin t + sin2 t cos t dt


+i
π
4 2
= −i .
3 3
□

Example
Z 1.2. Let γ be a piecewise smooth curve from A = i + 1 to B = 2i − 3. Calculate
z 2 dz.
γ

Solution.
2 2 2 2
Z z = (x + iy) = x − y + i2xy.
Note that Z Z
Hence, z dz = I1 + iI2 , where I1 = (x − y )dx − 2xydy, I2 = 2xydx + (x2 − y 2 )dy.
2 2 2
γ γ γ
∂Q ∂P
Let P (x, y) = x2 − y 2 , Q(x, y) = −2xy. Since = = −2y on R2 , I1 is independent of
∂x ∂y
γ, and P dx + Qdy is the total differential of some U (x, y) on R2 . Moreover, U is given by:
Z x Z y
U (x, y) = P (x, y)dx + Q(0, y)dy + C
Z0 x 0
Z y
= (x2 − y 2 )dx + 0dy + C
0 0
Å 3
x3
ã
x 2
= − xy + 0 + C = − xy 2 + C.
3 3

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Functions of one complex variable

òB
x3
Z Å ã ï 3
2 x 2
Therefore, I1 = d − xy = − xy .
γ 3 3 A
òB
y3 y3
Z Å ã ï
2 2
Similarly, I2 = d x y − = x y− .
γ 3 3 A
So:
ï 3 ãò2i−3
y3
Z Å
2 x 2 2
z dz = − xy + i x y −
γ 3 3 i+1
1 3 2i−3
= x + 3x(iy)2 + 3x2 (iy) + (iy)3 i+1
3
1 2i−3
= (x + iy)3 i+1
3
ï 3 ò2i−3
z
=
3 i+1
11 44
= +i .
3 3
□

1.3. Properties
Let γ be a piecewise smooth curve and f, g be continuous functions on γ.
Z Z Z
(i) (αf (z) + βg(z))dz = α f (z)dz + β g(z)dz, where α, β ∈ C.
γ γ γ

(ii) Suppose that γ : [a, b] → C. The reversed

Z curve ofZ γ, denoted by γ − , is defined by
γ − (t) = γ(a + b − t), t ∈ [a, b]. Then f (z)dz = − f (z)dz.
γ γ−

(iii) Suppose that γ1 : [a, c] → C and γ2 : [c, b] → C are piecewise smooth curves with
γ1 (c) = γ2 (c) (a < c < b). Let γ0 : [a, b] → C be such that γ0 |[a,c] = γ1 , γ0 |[c,b] = γ2 .
Then
Z Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz + f (z)dz.
γ0 γ1 γ2

(iv) Suppose that γ(t) = α(t) + iβ(t), t ∈ [a, b]. Then

Z Z b
f (z)dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t)dt.
γ a

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Functions of one complex variable

Indeed, suppose that f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). We have:

Z Z Z
f (z)dz = udx − vdy + i vdx + udy
γ γ γ
Z b
= [u(α(t), β(t)).α′ (t) − v(α(t), β(t)).β ′ (t)]dt
a
Z b
+i {[v(α(t), β(t)).α′ (t) + u(α(t), β(t)).β ′ (t)]dt
a
Z b
= [u(α(t), β(t)) + iv(α(t), β(t))]α′ (t)
a
+ i[u(α(t), β(t)) + iv(α(t), β(t))]β ′ (t)}dt
Z b Z b
′ ′
= [u(α(t), β(t)) + iv(α(t), β(t))][α (t) + iβ (t)]dt = f (γ(t)).γ ′ (t).
a a

(v) We have
Z Z Z
f (z)dz ≤ |f (z)||dz| = |f (z)|ds,
γ γ γ

where ds is the differential of arc length.

Indeed, suppose that γ(t) = x(t) + iy(t). Then dz = (x′ (t) + iy ′ (t))dt, so |dz| =
p
x′2 (t) + y ′2 (t)dt = ds. The conclusion follows from
Z n
X n
X n
X
|f (z)||dz| = |f (ck )||∆zk | and f (ck )∆zk ≤ |f (ck )||∆zk |.
γ k=1 k=1 k=1

(vi) It is immediate from (v) that if |f (z)| ≤ M on γ and lγ is the length of γ, then:
Z Z Z Z
f (z)dz ≤ |f (z)||dz| = M |dz| = M ds = M lγ .
γ γ γ γ

(vii) If γ1 , γ2 are two equivalent piecewise smooth curves, then

Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz.
γ1 γ2

∞
X
(viii) Suppose that fn is a series of continuous functions on the region D and converges
n=0
uniformly to the function f , γ ⊂ D. Then:
∞ Z
X ∞
Z X Z
fn (z)dz = fn (z)dz = f (z)dz.
n=1 γ γ n=1 γ

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Functions of one complex variable

Indeed, take any ϵ > 0. Let lγ > 0 be the length of γ. By the uniform convergence of
X∞
fn :
n=0
n
X ϵ
∃n0 : n > n0 =⇒ fi (z) − f (z) < , ∀z ∈ D.
i=1
lγ
Then, for all n > n0 , we have:
n Z Z Z n
!
X X ϵ
fi (z)dz − f (z)dz = fi (z) − f (z) dz ≤ · lγ (by (vi)) = ϵ.
i=1 γ γ γ i=1
lγ

Z
Example 1.3. Calculate I = zdz, where
γ
a) γ(t) = t2 + it, t ∈ [0, 1].
b) γ is the upper half of the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1 from (−1, 0) to (1, 0).

Solution.
a) Using (iv) gives:
Z 1
I = t2 + it · (t2 + it)′ dt
Z0 1
= (t2 − it)(2t + i)dt
Z0 1
= [(2t3 + t) − it2 ]dt
Z0 1 Z 1
3 1
= (2t + t)dt − i t2 dt = 1 − i.
0 0 3
b) A parametrization of γ is γ(t) = eit , t ∈ [0, π]. Using (iv) gives:
Z 0 Z 0
I= it it
e ie dt = e−it ieit dt = −iπ.
π π

1.4. Primitive. The Newton - Leibniz formula

Definition 1.2. (Primitive) Let D ⊂ C and f, F : D → C be functions. We say that F is
a primitive (function) of f on D if F ′ = f .

Proposition 1.1. If F is a primitive of f on the region D, the set of all primitives of f on

D is {F + c : c ∈ C}.

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Functions of one complex variable

Proof.
Suppose that F is a primitive of f on D. It is easy to see that for each c ∈ C, F + c is also
a primitive of f .
Let G be a primitive of f on D. Set G(z) − F (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). We have (G − F )′ =
G′ − F ′ = f − f = 0. On the other hand:

(G − F )′ = u′x + ivx′ = vy′ − iu′y .

This implies u′x = u′y = vx′ = vy′ = 0, hence u = C1 , v = C2 .

Therefore, G = F + C1 + iC2 ∈ {F + c : c ∈ C}. □

Theorem 1.1. (The Newton - Leibniz formula) Suppose f has a primitive F on the
region D and z1 , z2 ∈ D. Then, for any piecewise smooth curve γ ⊂ D from z1 to z2 , we
have: Z z2
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ) = F (z) .
γ z1

Proof.
Let γ = γ(t), t ∈ [a, b], γ(a) = z1 , γ(b) = z2 . We have:
Z Z b Z b
′
f (z) dz = f (γ(t)) · γ (t) dt = [F (γ(t))]′ dt.
γ a a

Suppose F (γ(t)) = U (t) + iV (t), then [F (γ(t))]′ = U ′ (t) + iV ′ (t). Thus:

Z Z b Z b
′
f (z) dz = U (t) dt + i V ′ (t) dt = [U (b) − U (a)] + i[V (b) − V (a)]
γ a a

= F (γ(t)) − F (γ(a)) = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).

□
Z
Example 1.4. Calculate I = ez dz, where γ is a piecewise smooth curve from i to 1 + i.
γ

Solution.
Applying the Newton - Leibniz formula yields
1+i
I = ez = e1+i − ei = ei (e − 1).
i

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Functions of one complex variable

1.5. The index of a closed curve (see references)

I
Note that if γ is a closed, piecewise smooth curve, we usually write f (z)dz instead of
Z γ

f (z)dz.
γ

Definition 1.3. Let γ be a closed, piecewise smooth curve. For z0 ∈

/ γ,
I
1 dz
j(γ, z0 ) =
2πi γ z − z0

is called the index of γ with respect to the point z0 . It is also sometimes called the winding
number of γ around z0 .

Example 1.5. Find the index of the curve γ with respect to the point z0 , where

γ(t) = z0 + reint , t ∈ [0, 2π], n ∈ Z.

Solution. Z
2π Z 2π Z 2π
1 (z0 + reint )′ 1 inreint 1
j(γ, z0 ) = dt = dt = in dt = n. □
2πi 0 (z0 + reint ) − z0 2πi 0 reint 2πi 0

2. Cauchy theorem
2.1. Cauchy’s integral formula
Theorem 2.1. Assume that f is holomorphoic on G. The, every simply domain D such
that D ⊂ G, we have Z
f (z)dz.
∂D

Proof:
Step 1: Assume that D is a triangular domain, consider l equals perimeter D.
Z
Let’s consider f (z)dz = M .
∂D
Dividing D into 4 triangles by centers of their edges
Let’s consider γi , i = 1, 4 is a boundary of 4 small triangles we have:
Z 4 Z
X 4
X Z
M= f (z)dz = f (z)dz ≤ f (z)dz .
∂D i=1 γi i=1 γi

Then, there exists a small triangle D1 with the boundary γi0 such that
Z
M
f (z)dz ≥
∂D1 4

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Functions of one complex variable

l
in which the perimeter D1 = .
2
Dividing D1 into 4 triangles by centers of their edges, similarly, there exists triangle D2
such that Z
M
f (z)dz ≥
∂D2 42
l
in which the perimeter D2 = .
22 Z
M
By continuing that process Dn such that Dn+1 ⊂ Dn , f (z)dz ≥ , the perimeter
∂Dn 4n
l
Dn = n .
2
The sequence {Dn } thắt dần so there exists z0 ∈ Dn for all n.
As f is holomorphic z0 , then

f (z) = f (z0 ) + f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ) + ϵ(z)(z − z0 )

Z Z
Since f (z)dz = 0, f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 )dz = 0, then
∂Dn ∂Dn
Z Z
M
f (z)dz = ϵ(z)(z − z0 )dz ≥ .
∂Dn ∂Dn 4n

As ϵ(z) is small z → z0 for all ϵ0 , there exists δ such that |ϵ(z)| < ϵ0 , ∀z ∈ B(z0 , δ).
With n is large enough, we have Dn ⊂ B(z0 , δ). Then,

ϵl2
Z
M
≤ ϵ(z)(z − z0 )dz ≤ |ϵ(z)| max |z−z0 |. chu vi Dn < ϵ. chu vi Dn . chu vi Dn = .
4n ∂Dn z∈∂Dn 4n

Hence M < ϵl2 approaches 0 so ϵ approaches 0.

Step 2: D is a polygon, dividing D into the boundary triangles γi
Z n Z
X
f (z)dz = f (z)dz = 0.
∂D i=1 γi

Step 3: With an arbitrary D , for all ϵ > 0, choose a polygon Dϵ with the vertices ∂D
such that Z Z
f (z)dz − f (z)dz < ϵ. (∗)
∂D ∂Dϵ
Z Z
As f (z)dz = 0 so f (z)dz < ϵ. Given ϵ → 0 we get the proof.
∂Dϵ ∂Dϵ
We need to show that with ϵ > 0, there exists Dϵ such that (∗). As f is continuous on D
so it is uniformly continuous D. Then, with ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that |z − z ′ | < δ,
so |f (z) − f (z ′ )| < ϵ.

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Functions of one complex variable

>
Z zi ∈ ∂D, i = 1, n such that l(zi , zi+1 ) < δ.
Choose Dϵ with the vertices
Note: zn+1 = z1 , set l = ds is a perimeter of domain D.
∂D
Z ∞
X
We have known: f (z)dz = lim f (ck )∆zk .
n→+∞
γ k=1

Z Z Z n
X Z
f (z)dz − f (z)dz = f (z)dz − f (z)dz
∂D ∂Dε ∂D i=1
[zi ;zi+1 ]
Z n
X Z n
X Z
= f (z)dz − f (z1 ) dz + [f (z1 ) − f (z)] dz
∂D i=1 i=1
[zi ;zi+1 ] [zi ;zi+1 ]
Z n
X Z n
X Z
≤ f (z)dz − f (zi ) dz + [f (z1 ) − f (z)] dz
∂D i=1 > i=1
zi zi+1 [zi ;zi+1 ]

n
Z X
P
≤ [f (z) − f (zi )] dz +
i=1
>
zi zi+1
[zi ;zi+1 ](f (zi )−f (z))dz
 
Xn Z Z
≤ |f (z) − f (zi )| |dz| + |f (zi ) − f (z)| |dz|


i=1 >
zi zi+1 [zi ;zi+1 ]
n 
ε > ε 
l (zzi+1 ) + l (>
X
≤ zi zi+1 )
i=1
2l 2l
ε
= 2l = ε
2l
with l is the length ∂D.

2.2. Cauchy theorem for multiply domain

Z Assume that f is holomorphic on G, D is a multiply domain sao cho D ⊂ G. Then,

f (z)dz = 0.
∂D

2.3. The existence of antiderivative

Theorem 2.2. The function f is holomorphic on the multiply domain D and z0 ∈ D is a
fixed point Z
F (z) = f (η)dη (∗)
z0

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Functions of one complex variable

is an integral taking through the arbitrary curve γ ⊂ D connecting z0 and z, defining an

antiderivative off .

Proof: Firstly, we prove: f is a function. Assume that γ1 , γ2 are the two curves D con-
necting z0 và z.
Let’s consider γ = γ1 ∪ γ2 . Then, γ is a closed curve on D.
By applying the Cauchy theorem Dγ (a domain limited by γ) we have:
Z Z Z Z Z
0 = f (z)dz = f (z)dz + f (z)dz = f (z)dz − f (z)dz
γ γ1 γ2 γ1 γ2

Take ∆z is small enough z, z + ∆z ∈ D. we have:

z+∆z
F (z + ∆z) − F (z)
Z
1
= f (η)dη
∆z ∆z z
Z z+∆z
Note: f (z)dη = f (z)η |z+∆z
z = f (z).∆z.
z
Z z+∆z
F (z + ∆z) − F (z) 1
Hence − f (z) = f (η)dη .
∆z ∆z z
Z z+∆z
1
= (f (η) − f (z)) dη
∆z z
1
≤ Max |f (η) − f (z)| . |∆z| → 0 khi δ → 0
∆z
Note:

i) The theorem is still right if replacing the assumption f is a holomorphic D by f is

continuous and the integral of f on all curves is0

3. Cauchy’s integral formula

3.1. Theorem
Given f is holomorphic on the domain G, where the domain D has a boundary consisting
of a finite number of closed curves, D ⊂ G. Then:
Z
1 f (η)
f (z) = dη, ∀z ∈ D.
2πi ∂D η − z
This means we can compute the value of f within D if we know the value of f on ∂D∪ .
Proof:
Let r be small enough such that B(z, r) ⊂ D. Applying Cauchy’s theorem to the multiply

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Functions of one complex variable

f (η)
connected domain D \ B(z, r) : . We get:
η−z
Z Z Z
f (η) f (η) f (η)
0= dη = dη − dη
η−z η−z η−z
∂D∪ ∂D ∂Br

Therefore, Z Z
f (η) f (η)
dη = dη
η−z η−z
∂D ∂Br

Notice Z
f (η)
dη = 2πi
η−z
∂Br

Therefore,

f (η) − f (z) 1 Maxη∈Br |f (η) − f (z)|

Z Z
1 f (η) 1
dη − f (z) = dη ≤ . .chuviBr
2πi η−z 2πi η−z 2πi |η − z|
∂Br ∂Br

1
= . Maxη∈Br |f (η) − f (z)| .2πr −→ 0 khi r ⇒ 0
2πr
Example 3.1. Compute the integral
ez
Z
I= dz
√
z2 + 2
|z−i 2|=1

we have
ez eη
Z √ Z √
z + i√2 η+i 2
dz = √ dη
√
z−i 2 √
η−i 2
|z−i 2|=1 |η−i 2|=1
Applying Cauchy’s integral domain, we have
√
√ ei 2
I = f (i 2).2πi = √ .2πi
2i 2
Example 3.2. Comupute Z
z+2
I= dz
z2 + 1
|z|=2

Let r be small enough B(i; r) ⊂ B(O; 2), B(−i; r) ⊂ B(O; 2), B(i; r) ∩ B(−i; r) = ∅
z+2
f (z) = 2 which is holomorphic on the multi-domain Dand B(O; 2)\(B(i; r)∪B(−i; r)) =
z +1

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Functions of one complex variable

D
Applying the Cauchy’s theorem on the domain D, we have:
Z Z Z Z
0 = f d(z) = f d(z) − f d(z) − f d(z)
∂D ∂ ∂1 ∂2

So, Z Z Z
f d(z) = f d(z) − f d(z)
∂ ∂1 ∂2

With
Z Z z+2
z+2 z + i d(z) = 2πi.g(i) = 2πi. i + 2
dz =
z2 + 1 z−i 2i
∂1 |z−i|=r

z+2
z − i d(z) = 2πi.h(−i) = 2πi. −i + 2
Z Z
z+2
dz =
z2 + 1 z+i −2i
∂2 |z−i|=r

3.2. The Cauchy Integral

Let γ be a piece-wise smooth curve, and let f be a continuous function on γ.We define:

F : C \ γ −→ C
Z
1 f (η)
z 7→ . dη
2πi η−z
γ

Proposition 3.1. The function F defined above has derivatives of all orders, and:
Z
(n) n! f (η)
F (z) = . dη
2πi (η − z)n+1
γ

Proof : Let’s consider γ = γ(t), t ∈ [a; b], we have:

b b
f (γ(t)).γ ′ (t)
Z Z Z
1 f (η) 1
F (z) = dη = dt = g(t, z)dt
2πi η−z 2πi a γ(t) − z a
γ

Let g(t, z) = u(t, x, y) + iv(t, x, y). As gz′ exists, then u, v have partial derivatives with respec
to x, y and satisfying C − R.
Suppose that F (z) = U(x, y) + iV(x, y) then
Z b Z b
U(x, y) = u(t, x, y)dt, V(x, y) = v(t, x, y)dt
a a

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Functions of one complex variable

and Z b Z b
U′x (x, y) = u′x (t, x, y)dt, U′y (x, y) = u′y (t, x, y)dt
a a
Z b Z b
Vx′ (x, y) = vx′ (t, x, y)dt, Vy′ (x, y) = vy′ (t, x, y)dt
a a
Then U, V satisfy the C − R condition so F is differentiable
Z b
′ ′ ′
F (z) = Ux + Vy = (u′x (t, x, y) + ivx′ (t, x, y)) dt
a

b b
f (γ(t)).γ ′ (t)
Z Z Z
1 1 f (η)
= gz′ (t, z)dt = 2
dt = dη
a 2πi a (γ(t) − z) 2πi (η − z)2
γ

3.3. Cauchy integral formula for derivatives

Example 3.3. Assume that f is holomorphic on domain D. Then

1. f is infinitely differentiable on D.

2. If the boundary of D consists of a finite number of closed curves then

Z
(n) n! f (η)
f (z) = dη, ∀z ∈ D.
2πi ∂D (η − z)n+1

Proof: 2)
1 R f (η)
Đặt F (z) = dz. According to the Cauchy integral formula, we have F = f
2πi ηD η − z
n! R f (η)
According to Cauchy integral classification formula, we have F (n) (z) = f (n) (z) = dη.
2πi ηD (η − z)n+1

R ez
Example 3.4. Compute the integral I = 3
dz.
1 z(z − 1)
|z−1|=
2
ez 1
Consider f (z) = holomorphic on|z − 1| ≤ . So,
z 2
ez
Z z Z
e 2πi 2! z 2πi ′′
dz = . dz = f (z).
z(z − 1)3 2! 2πi (z − 1)3 2!
1 1
|z−1|= |z−1|=
2 2

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Functions of one complex variable

4. 4. Some corollaries of Cauchy integral formula

4.1. Theorem Morera
I
Theorem 4.1. If f is continuous on domain D and f (z)dz = 0, for all ∂ ⊂ D, then f is
holomorphic on D.

Proof:: Take fixed z0 ∈ D. Then

Z z
F (z) = f (η)dη
z0

Take integral along an arbitrary arc γ ⊂ D connecting z0 and z. Then F is an antiderivative

of f on D, F ′ = f on D.
Hence, f is holomorphic on D and F is infinitely differentiable on D. Thus, f is infinitely
differentiable and f is holomorphic on D.

4.2. Cauchy inequality for derivatives

Theorem 4.2. Assume that f is holomorphic on domain D, z ∈ D và R > 0 sao cho
B(z, R) ⊂ D. When:
M.n!
f (n) (z0 ) ≤
Rn
with M = max {|f (z)| : |z − z0 | = R} .

Applying the Cauchy integral formula for derivatives

Z M ax |f (η)|
(n) n! f (η) n! |η−z0 |=R M.n!
f (z0 ) = . dη ≤ . − 2πR =
2πi (η − z0 )n+1 2π Rn+1 Rn
|η−z0 |=R

4.3. Liouville’s Theorem

Theorem 4.3. If f is holomorphic C and f bounded on C then f is constant on C.

Indeed, with z ∈ C for all R > 0.

M
|f ′ (z)| ≤ with M such that |f (z)| ≤ M, ∀z ∈ C.
R
Given R ⇒ ∞, we have f ′ (z) = 0 for all z ∈ C.
Then, f = const.

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Functions of one complex variable

4.4. Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Theorem 4.4. All algebraic equations

Pn (z) = a0 z n + a1 z n−1 + . . . + an−1 z + an = 0

ai ∈ C, a0 ̸= 0 has at least one root.

Proof: Let’s consider Pn (z) ̸= 0, ∀z ∈ C

It can be seen that M > 0, there exists R > 0 such that |Pn (z)| ≥ M for all |z| ≥ R.
1
Let f (z) = is holomorphic C.
Pn (z)
1
|z| > R ⇒ |Pn (z)| ≥ M ⇒ |f (z)| ≤
M
|z| ≤ R ⇒ f is continuous on a compact set, there exists K > 0, |f (z)| ≤ K.
1
So, |f (z)| ≤ L + , ∀z ∈ C.
M
By Liouville’s Theorem f is constant on C (contradiction a0 ̸= 0).

4.5. Mean Value Theorem

Theorem 4.5. Let’s consider f is holomorphic on D, z0 ∈ D.
Khi đó, với R > 0 such that B (z0 , R) ⊂ D, we have:

Z2π
1
f z0 + Reit dt.


f (z0 ) =
2π
0

Proof : Applying the Cauchy’s Integral formulam for f on D = B(z0 , R)

Z2π Z2π
f (z0 + Reit )
Z
1 f (z) 1
f z0 + Reit dt.


f (z0 ) = dz = dt =
2πi z − z0 Reit 2π
|z−z0 |=R 0 0

4.6. Principle of maximum modulus

Theorem 4.6. Suppose that D is a bounded domain, f is differentiable on D, and continuous
on D. Then either f is a constant function in D or the modulus of f is maximal on ∂D.

Proof : Suppose that there exist z0 ∈ D such that |f (z)| = max{|f (z)| : z ∈ D}. Indeed,
then f is a constants function o D.

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Functions of one complex variable

Choose R > 0 such that B(z0 , R) ⊂ D. According to the Mean Value Theorem:
Z 2π Z 2π
1 it 1
|f (z0 )| = f (z0 + Re )dt ≤ f (z0 + Reit ) dt.
2π 0 2π 0

1 2π
Z
We also have |f (z0 )| = |f (z0 )|dt.
Z 2π π 0
1
We deduce 0 ≤ ( f (z0 + Reit ) − |f (z0 )|)dt.
2π 0
Hence, |f (z0 + Reit )| = |f (z0 )| = M for all t ∈ [0; 2π].
Let R → 0, we get |f (z0 )| = M for all z ∈ B ∗ (z ′ , r). Thus A is open.
Take (zn ) ⊂ A, zn → z. We have |f (zn )| = M and f is continuous, so |f (z)| = M .
In conclusion, A = D.

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Functions of one complex variable

5. Harmonic function
5.1. Harmonic function
The function of 2 real variables u(x, y) in domain D is called harmonic function (or
potential functions) if its second partial derivatives are continuous and satisfy the Laplace
equation
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
∆u = + =0 (3.1)
∂x2 ∂y 2
for all (x, y) ∈ D.
Harmonic functions have many applications in mechanics and physics. Here we will es-
tablish some relationships between differential functions and harmonic functions, which show
the applicability of differentiable functions and of complex analysis in general.

Theorem 5.1. The real and imaginary parts of differentiable functions are harmonic func-
tions.

Proof. Let’s consider f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). As f is holomorphic then, by Cauchy -
Riemann
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− (3.2)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Differentiating both sides of the first equality w.r.t x, and the second one w.r.t y and taking
the sum give we have:
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
∆u = + =0
∂x2 ∂y 2
∂ 2v ∂ 2v
Similarly, we have ∆v = + = 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2
The harmonic function v is called harmonic conjugate with u if it satisfies equations.
The following theorem is obvious.

Theorem 5.2. The harmonic functions u and v form a differentiable function f = u + iv

iff v is harmonically conjugate with u.

5.2. Determining the holomorphic function knowing the real or

imaginary part.
Let’s consider D as a simply connected domain, u = u(x, y) is a harmonic function. We
will find a function u = v(x, y) such that f = u + iv is a simply connected domain.

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Functions of one complex variable

With a fixed point (x0 , y0 ) ∈ D, set

(x,y)
Z
∂u ∂u
v(x, y) = − dx + dy (3.3)
∂y ∂x
(x0 ,y0 )
Å ã Å ã
∂ ∂u ∂ ∂u
Since u is harmonic = − , then the integral (3) does not depend on
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
the curve connecting (x0 , y0 ) with (x, y).
As
∂u ∂u
dv = − dx + dy nên
∂y ∂x
∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u
=− , =
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Therefore, the function f = u + iv is holomorphic by Theorem 2, and v is defined by (3) as
the finding function
Similarly, if we know the imaginary part, then the real part is defined as:
(x,y)
Z
∂v ∂v
v(x, y) = dx − dy (3.4)
∂y ∂x
(x0 ,y0 )

In the case (x0 , y0 ) can be joined with (x, y) by the parallel lines and the Cartesian coordinate
system, then the derivative of (3) or (4) can be formed as a defined derivative:
Zx Zy
∂u (t, y0 ) ∂u (x0 , t)
v(x, y) = − dt + dt, (3’)
∂y ∂x
x0 y0
Zx Zy
∂v (t, y0 ) ∂v (x0 , t)
u(x, y) = dt − dt. (4’)
∂y ∂x
x0 y0

Since (x0 , y0 ) is arbitrary, the founded function

Example 5.1. Find the holomorphic function f on a plane, knowing the real part of f is
u = xy.

Let’s consider (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0). By the formula (3’).

Zx Zy
y 2 x2
v(x, y) = tdt + tdt = − .
2 2
0 0

y 2 x2
Å ã
Therefore, the holomorphic function is f (z) = xy + i − + ic, c ∈ R
2 2

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Functions of one complex variable

5.3. SCHWARTZ AND POISSON’S THEOREM

Theorem 5.3. (The Schwartz’s Theorem) Let’s consider f = u + iv, f is holomorphic in D
and a circle B(0, R) ⋐ D. Then, we have
Z2π
1
Reit + z
f (z) = u Reit dt + iv(0) (3.5)
2π Reit − z
0

Reit + z
The function is called Schwartz’s kernel
Reit − z
Proof. For all z ∈ B(0, R) by the Cauchy’s integral formula, one has:
Z2π
Reit
Z
1 f (η) 1
f Reit


f (z) = dη = dt, (3.6)
2πi η−z 2π Reit − z
SR 0

Especially
Z Z2π
1 f (η) 1
f Reit dt.


f (0) = dη = (3.7)
2πi η 2π
SR 0

Since |z| = |z| < R, R|z| < R2 , therefore, from Cauchy’s theorem
Z2π
z̄eit
Z
1 f (η) 1
f Reit


0= 2 dη = dt (3.8)
2πi R 2π z̄eit − R
SR η− 0
z̄
From (6) and (7), it implies
Z2π
1 1
1 Reit + z
f (z) − f (0) = f Reit . . it dt. (3.9)
2 2π 2 Re − z
0

From (7) and (8), we have:

Z2π
1 1
1 Re−it + z̄
f (0) = f Reit . . −it dt
2 2π 2 Re − z̄
0

and then
Z2π
1 1 1 Reit + z
f (0) = f (Reit ). . it dt. (3.10)
2 2π 2 Re − z
0

f (z) = u(z) + iv(z), the sum of (9) + (10), we get:

Z2π
1
Reit + z
f (z) = u Reit . it dt + iv(0).
2π Re − z
0

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Functions of one complex variable

Note . The Schwartz formula can be used to define the holomorphic f in a circle B(0, R) wehn
we know the value of the real parts on the circumference SR and the value of the imaginary
part at 0.
Knowing the function f , then u = Ref . So, the harmonic function u in B(0, R) is defined
when we know the value of it on the circumference SR . In specific, we have:

Theorem 5.4. ( Poisson’s Theorem). With the hypothesis in Theorem 3, we have:

Z2π
1
R2 − |z|2
u(z) = u Reit dt. (3.11)
2π |Reit − z|2
0

R2 − |z|2
The function Poissonend’s kernel
|Reit − z|2
Proof Since
Reit + z (Reit + z) (Re−it − z̄)
=
Reit − z |Reit − z|2
R2 − |z|2 2R (Imz.e−it )
= + i (3.12)
|Reit − z|2 |Reit − z|2
From the Schwartz’s Theorem, we have:

Z2π
1
R2 − |z|2
u(z) = Ref (z) = u Reit dt
2π |Reit − z|2
0

Note From (12) we see that the Poisson’s kernel is the real part of Schwartz’s kernerl.

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Chương 4

Series and Residue

1. Taylor series
1.1. Taylor series of holomorphic
Theorem 1.1. (Taylor). Assume f is a holomorphic function on domain D. Then at every
point z0 ∈ D, the function f can be expanded into a Taylor series.
∞
X
f (z) = cn (z − z0 )n . (4.1)
n=0

The series (1) converges and its sum is equal to f (z) at all z ∈ B (z0 , R), here R = d (z0 , ∂D)
and the coefficients cn of the series are uniquely determined by the formula:

f (n) (z0 )
cn = .
n!
Proof: Let r be an arbitrary number such that 0 < r < R, By the Cauchy integral
formula, for any z ∈ B (z0 , r)
Z
1 f (η)
f (z) = dη. (4.2)
2πi η−z
Sz ,x0

1
Since |z − z0 | < |η − z0 | so , one has:
η−z
1 1 1 1
= = .
η−z η − z0 − (z − z0 ) η − z0 1 − − z0
z
η − z0
∞
X (z − z0 )n
= (4.3)
n=0
(η − z0 )n+1

68
Functions of one complex variable

For fixed z and z0 , the series (3) is uniformly convergent for η ∈ Sr as

z − z0 |z − z0 | f (η) (z − z0 )n
< 1. From there, by the Theorem 3 3, §2, Ch.II, chuỗi ∞
P
= n=0
η − z0 r (η − z)n+1
is uniformly convergent for η ∈ Sr . By substituting (3) into (2) one obtains that 8, §1 Ch.III
Ñ é
∞ Z
X 1 f (η)
f (z) = n+1 dη (z − z0 )n .
n=0
2πi (η − z0 )
Sr

By Cauchy’s integral formula for derivatives

f (n) (z0 )
Z
1 f (η)
cn = dη =
2πi (η − z0 )n+1 n!
Sr

do đó ta được
∞ ∞
X n
X f (n) (z0 )
f (z) = cn (z − z0 ) = (z − z0 )n (4.4)
n=0 n=0
n!
Since the series (4) converges on every B(z0 , r) with r < R so the series (4) is convergent on
B(z0 , R).We have to check the uniqueness of the coefficients cn . Suppose
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n
n=0

is another expansion. Taking the nth derivative of both sides of this equation and substituting
z = z0 we have:
f (n) (z0 ) = n!an
f (n) (z0 )
Then, an = .
n!
Note Theorem 1 is not valid in the case of real differentiability. For instance, a real
function 1
e− x2
®
nếu x ̸= 0
φ(x) =
0 nếu x = 0
may be infinitely differentiable at 0, φ(n) (0) = 0 for all n. This means that
∞
X
φ(n) (0)xn = 0
n=0

However, φ is not identically zero in any neighborhood of the point x = 0

1
Example 1.1. Find the Taylor expansion of the function f (z) = in the neighborhood
z−3
of the point z0 = 1.

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Functions of one complex variable

we have:
∞ Å
1X z−1 k
ã
1 1 1 1
=− =− . =−
z−3 2 − (z − 1) 2 z−1 2 k=0 2
1−
2
So,
∞ Å ã
1 X 1
= − k+1 (z − 1)k
z − 3 k=0 2
The convergence disk of the series is B(1, 2).

1.2. Uniqueness of Holomorphic Functions

We know that a polynomial is uniquely determined when its values at n + 1 points are
given. According to theorem 1, each holomorphic function is a "countable polynomial" and
therefore has similar properties.

Theorem 1.2. Suppose f is a holomorphic function on domain D and zn is a sequence

of distinct points convergent to z0 ∈ D. Then the function f is uniquely determined by its
values at the points zn , n ∈ N. In other words, if g is another holomorphic function on D
such that g(z0 ) = f (zn ) for every n ∈ N then g = f on D.

Theorem is a direct consequence of the following lemma:

Lemma 1.1. Let {zn } be as in theorem 2, and φ a holomorphic function on D such that
φ(zn ) = 0 for every n ∈ N. Then φ ≡ 0 on D.

Proof: Since zn → z0 and φ are continuous φ(z0 ) = lim φ (zn ) = 0. Consider the Taylor
n→∞
expansion of φ in the neighborhood z0
∞
X
φ(z) = cn (z − z0 )n ,
n=0

where the radius of convergence of the series is R = d(z0 , ∂D).

First, we will prove φ(z) = 0 for all z ∈ B(z0 , R) by showing cn = 0 for all n ∈ N.
Indeed, φ(z0 ) = c0 nên c0 = 0. Otherwise, suppose cn ̸= 0. Let k ≥ 1 be the smallest
index for which ck ̸= 0. Set
φ(z) = (z − z0 )k φ1 (z).
|ck |
As φ1 is continuous and φ1 (z0 ) = ck ̸= 0 so there exists ε > 0 such that |φ1 (z)| > >0
2
for all z ∈ B(z0 , ε). Choose p such that zp ̸= z0 and |zp − z0 | < ε, which is a contradiction as

0 = φ(zp ) = (zp − z0 )k φ1 (zp ) ̸= 0.

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Functions of one complex variable

Let’s consider ωn ⊂ B and ωn ⇒ ω0 ∈ D. We will show that ω ∈ B. We can consider there

points ωn are pairwise distinct. As φ(ωn ) = 0 for all n, by the first part of the Proof: φ(z) = 0
′ ′ ′
for all z ∈ B(ω0 , R ), here R = d(ω0 , ∂D). So, B(ω0 , R ) ⊂ A and ω0 ∈ B.
From Lemma 1 we have:

Theorem 1.3. (Non-isolated points Principle).Suppose f is a non-zero holomorphic function

on D and f (z0 ) = 0 where z0 ∈ D. Then there exists r > 0 such that f (z) ̸= 0 for all z
satisfying 0 < |z − z0 | < r.

Note: Theorem 2 implies that an identity holding between holomorphic functions for real
values also holds for complex values. For instance, the Å
identity
ã sin2 z +cos2 z = 1 is equivalent
1 1
to f (z) = sin2 z + cos2 z − 1 = 0. As ⇒ 0 and f = 0 for all n so f (z) ≡ 0 on C,
n n
which means sin2 z + cos2 z = 1 for all z ∈ C

———Good luck and never see u again———

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