Viruses

Definition: Obligate intracellular parasite composed of: Nucleic acid - either DNA or
RNA & Protein coat.
Characteristics of viruses
Viruses are the most primitive cellular and non-cytoplasmic infectious agents. Russian
botanist D.J. Iwanowski (1892) first discovered virus in an infected tobacco plant.
However, M.W. Beijerink (1898) coined the term virus. Then American chemist W.M.
Stanley (1935) isolated pure crystal of Tobacco Mosaic Viruses (TMV) and concluded that
viruses are made of nucleoproteins.
General Characteristics of Viruses:
(i) Viruses are a cellular, non-cytoplasmic infectious agents.

(ii) They are smaller than bacteria, and this can pass through bacteriological filter.

(iii) Viruses are transmissible from disease to healthy organisms.

(iv) All viruses are obligate parasites and can multiply only within the living host cells.

(v) Viruses contain only a single type of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA.

(vi) Viruses are host specific that they infect only a single species and definite cells of the
host organisms.

(vii)Viruses are effective in very small doses. They are highly resistant to germicides and
extremes of physical conditions.
Generalised Structure of Viruses:
(i) Shape and size:
The shape varies considerable. They may be spherical or golf ball-like, rod-shaped,
tadpole-like, helical or polyhedral. Plant viruses are smaller than bacteria.
(ii) Chemical structure and function:
Viruses have a very simple structure. The core of the viruses is made upon of nucleic acid,
which is surrounded by a protein coat called capsid. The nucleic acid always contains only
a single kind of nucleic acid i.e. either DNA or RNA. The infectious property of a virus is
due to its nucleic acid.
Capsid or the protein coats:
It is made up of many identical protein sub-units called capsomeres. The capsomeres are
composed of either one or several type of proteins. Capsomeres are arranged in a very

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symmetrical manner and give a specific shape to a particular virus. The host specificity of
virus is due to proteins of the capsid.
Biological position of viruses:
Viruses lack a cytoplasmic membrane and they do not have the basic component of a cell.
They can only replicate inside the host cell. Outside the host cell, they are non-living. Thus,
viruses show characters of both living and non-living.
(I) Non-living Characters of Viruses:
Following characters of viruses assign them as non-living:

(a) They can be crystallized.

(b) Outside the cell, they behave like inert chemicals.

(c) They do not show growth, development, nutrition, reproduction, etc.

(d) They can be precipitated.

(b) They possess genetic material, either DNA or RNA.

(c) There are definite races or strains.

(d) They exhibit mutations.

Because of the above reasons, viruses form unique bridge between living and non-living
things.

Viral Structure
Virions are complete, fully developed viral particles composed of nucleic acid
surrounded by a protein coat. Some viruses have an envelope composed of a phospholipid
bilayer with viral glycoproteins.
1. Nucleic acid
Viral genomes are either DNA or RNA (not both).
Nucleic acid may be single- or double-stranded
Nucleic acid may be circular or linear or separate molecules.
Nucleic acid:protein ranges from about 1% - 50%.
2. Capsid
Capsid - protein coat. Capsomeres are subunits of the capsid Protomeres are
capsomere subunits.
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3. Envelope – the outer covering of some viruses, the envelope is derived from the host
cell plasma membrane when the virus buds out. Some enveloped viruses have spikes,
which are viral glycoproteins that project from the envelope.
Influenzavirus has two kinds of spikes, H (hemagglutinin) and N (neuraminidase). The
H spike allows the virus to attach to host cells (and red blood cells), the N spike is an
enzyme that allows the mature viral particles to escape from the host cell Non-enveloped
or naked viruses are protected by their capsid alone.

Structure
Because most viruses are extremely well adapted to their host organism, virus structure
varies greatly. However, there are some general structural characteristics that all viruses
share.
All viruses have a capsid or head region that contains its genetic material. The capsid is
made of proteins and glycoproteins. Capsid contruction varies greatly among viruses,
with most being specialized for a particular virus's host organism. Some viruses, mostly
of the type infecting animals, have a membranous envelope surrounding their capsid. This
allows viruses to penetrate host cells through membrane fusion. The virus's genetical
material rests inside the capsid; that material can be either DNA, RNA, or even in some
cases a limited number of enzymes.

In addition to the head region, some viruses, mostly those that infect bacteria, have a tail
region. The tail is an often elaborate protein structure. It aids in binding to the surface of
the host cell and in the introduction of virus genetic material to the host cell.
Generalized Replication of Viruses
Replication and Multiplication of Virus, Though the details of virus infection and
replication vary greatly with host type, all viruses share 6 basic steps in their replication
cycles. These are:
1) attachment
2) penetration
3) uncoating
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 4) replication
5) assembly

6) release

• The virus must first attach itself to the host cell. This is usually accomplished
through special glycoprotiens on the exterior of the capsid, envelope or tail.
• Next, penetration occurs, either of the whole virus or just the contents of the
capsid. If the entire capsid enters, the genetic material must be uncoated to make it
available to the cell's replication machinery.
• Replication of genetic material takes place, as well as the production of capsid and
tail proteins.
• all of the necessary parts have been replicated, individual virus particles are
assembled and released. Release often takes place in a destructive manner,
bursting and killing the host cell.
• Some viruses have a slightly more complicated replication cycle involving lytic
and lysogenic phases.
• The lytic phase is similar to that described above, with virus particles infecting
and being replicated.
• In the lysogenic phase, however, viral genetic material that has entered the host
cell becomes incorportated in the cell and lies dormant. It is passed on to the
progeny of the infected cells.
• Eventually, the lytic phase will start again, and cells that were never infected
themselves, but carry the viral genetic material will begin to produce new virus
particles.

Lysogeny is a cycle in which the phage DNA recombines with the bacterial chromosome.
The incorporated viral DNA is now a prophage.
The prophage genes are regulated by a repressor coded for by the prophage, the prophage
is replicated each time the host DNA is replicated.
Exposure to mutagens can lead to excision of the prophage and initiation of the lytic
cycle.

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Outcomes of lysogeny
Bacterium can't be reinfected by the same kind of phage.
Host cell may exhibit new properties due to viral genes carried on the prophage
Specialized transduction - host cell may gain new bacterial genes packaged with the
phage