PHYS 56 - CDKL4

table of contents:
01 Introduction to Nuclear Reactors Nuclear Reactors
The nuclear reactor are a modern day devices
02 Components of a Nuclear Reactor extensively used for power generation as the

nuclear 03 Fueling a Nuclear Reactor

traditional fossil fuels like coal and oil are at the
breach of extension

04 Main Types of Nuclear Reactors

power 05 Power Rating of a Reactor
Nuclear reactor is the source of intense heat
which is in turn used for generation of power in
nuclear power station
Nuclear Reactors
06 Lifetime of Reactor It’s mechanism is similar to that of furnace in a
steam generator, the steam is used to drive the
07 Advantages and Disadvantages turbines of the electric generator system.
March 2024 Nuclear Reactor

Nuclear reactor components of components of

Nuclear reaction Nuclear reaction
The first natural reactor is known as the Oklo FUEL
reactor. located in Oklo, Gabon, in West Africa. -nuclear fuel contains fissile material; usually CONTROL RODS
uranium or plutonium that undergoes fission when it -made of materials that absorbs neutrons (such as
It was discovered in 1972, a phenomenon absorbs neutrons. The fuel typically formed into boron, silver, indium, and cadmium), it can be
occurred about 2 billion years ago. pallets and loaded into fuel rods. inserted or withdrawn from the reactor core to
FUEL RODS control the rate of the nuclear reaction.
The Oklo natural nuclear reactor formed when a -these are long cylindrical tubes that contain the
rich deposit of uranium ore, contains a proportion nuclear fuel pallets. They are grouped together to
of the fissile isotope Uranium-235, came in form a fuel assembly
contact with ground water. FUEL ASSEMBLIES
-multiple fuel rods are bundled together.
First natural reactor: Oklo Reactor

components of components of components of

Nuclear reaction Nuclear reaction Nuclear reaction
MODERATOR
-material in the core which slows down the
COOLANT PRESSURE VESSEL
neutrons released from fission. It is usually
-A substance that flows through the reactor -a robust steel vessel that contains the
water, graphite or heavy water.
to remove the heat produced by fission. reactor core (fuel assemblies, control rods,
If graphite or heavy water is used as
Coolants can be water, heavy water, liquid moderator and coolants)
moderator, it is possible to run a power
metal (sodium/lead) or gas (CO2 and He).
reactor on natural instead of enriched
uranium.
components of components of
Nuclear reaction Nuclear reaction
FUELING A
STEAM GENERATOR CONTAINMENT
Part of cooling system of pressurized water
reactors (PWR) where high-pressure primary
-The structure around the reactor and
associated steam generators which is
NUCLEAR
coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used designed to protect those outside from the
to make steam turbine. Essentially a heat
exchanger like a moter car radiation.
effects of radiation in case of any serious
malfunction inside. It is typically metre-thick
concrete and steel structure.
REACTOR
CHRISTINE L. RIVERA | PHYS 56 - CDKL4

Nuclear fuel Shutting down Lifting the head

After everything has been cooled to well below
The most common forms of nuclear fuels are Most reactors need to be shut down for boiling, and the RCS has been drained slightly (just
radioactive metals including Uranium - 235 and refueling, so that the reactor vessel can below the head), the reactor head is loosened, and
Plutonium - 239. be opened up. lifted.
The U-235 is separated from uranium ore or from Intervals are at 12, 18 or 24 months, The control rods (used to stop the nuclear reaction)
a slurry to produce uranium concentrate. are detached from it to remain with the fuel.
when a quarter to a third of the fuel
U-235 is only 0.7% of natural uranium, and assemblies are replaced with fresh ones.
enrichment increases it to 3%-5%. Shutting down the plant is the job of Refueling
It is processed into small ceramic pellets and Nuclear Power Operators. Fuel rod is lifted using a crane and transferred to the
stacked together into sealed metal tubes called Once power gets down to low level, the Spent Fuel Pool, where it is stored.
fuel rods. generator is taken “offline”. This means Only one-third of the core is refueled during each
The fuel pellets (usually about 1 cm diameter and that the generator is no longer outage.
1.5 cm long) are typically arranged in a long generating electrical power for the grid. New fuel is shipped to the site and placed in the
zirconium alloy (zircaloy) tube. Once offline, the plant is tripped. Spent Fuel Pool before the outage. It is then loaded
One Nuclear Fuel Pellet
into the core using the same refueling crane.

Pressurized water Boiling water reactor

reactor (pwr) (BWR)
Most common type. Second most used reactor.
Coolant & Moderator: Light Water Coolant & Moderator: Light Water

mAIN TYPES Nuclear Fuel: Enriched Uranium

Used to the generate electricity and
Nuclear Fuel: Enriched Uranium
Consist of a single loop where the

OF NUCLEAR propel nuclear submarines and naval

vessels.
Consists of two loops: Coolant loop
coolant that takes away heat from the
reactor is directly fed to the turbine.
Thus no heat exchanger is desired.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
rEACTORS takes away heat from reactor;
Working fluid loop drives the
Coolant is highly
available in nature.
Enriched uranium increases
the fuel cost.
Normal water (H20) serves all three
purposes - cooling, moderation, and
Advantages:
Coolant is highly
available in nature.
Disadvantages:
Negative power
demand coefficient.
turbine. Construction is easy. Produces radioactive gases. working fluid.
Reduced cost than PWR. Steam produced is
A heat exchanger (HE) is employed Investment is low. Final efficiency obtained is The very water that flows through
More stable than PWR. slightly radioactive.
to transfer heat from primary loop to Steam produced has less. the reactor core is the same one
Higher thermal ‘Burn out’ fuel is more.
the secondary loop no effects. May cause corrosion effects used to spin the turbines.
efficiency than PWR.
 Pressurized heavy Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR) Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR)
water reactor (PHWR)
Nuclear Fuel: Natural uranium (0.7% U-235) Coolant: Carbon dioxide gas
oxide Moderator: Graphite
Fuel: Enriched uranium
Advantages:
Coolant & Moderator: Heavy water (D2O).
The first and most widely used heavy water Higher thermal efficiency
reactor Lower risk of coolant leaks
Has been developed since the 1950s in Canada
as the CANDU, and from 1980s also in India. AGRs operate at higher temperatures
The moderator has horizontal pressure tubes. and pressures than earlier gas-cooled Disadvantages:
Its design means that the reactor can be reactors, which allows for greater
refueled progressively without shutting down
Disadvantages:
efficiency in electricity generation. More complex design and construction
Use of heavy water costs more.
Advantages:
More frequent refueling.
Higher capital costs
Can be operated without uranium enrichment
An increased rate in fuel movement. Limited availability of fuel fabrication facilities
facilities.
Generates less heat, allowing more compact
Does more efficiently than LWRs
storage.

Light Water Cooled, Graphite

Moderated Reactor (RBMK) Light Water Cooled, Graphite Moderated Fast Neutron Reactor (FNR)
Reactor (RBMK)
Coolant: Light water (ordinary Advantages: Coolant: sodium metal or liquid lead
Moderator: No moderator is used
water) Can use unenriched natural uranium fuel Fuel: enriched uranium, plutonium, or
Moderator: Graphite
Fuel: Enriched uranium or
Can be refueled online without needing to shut reprocessed nuclear waste

unenriched down the reactor

FNR utilizes fast neutrons to sustain the
fission chain reaction.
RBMK - a Soviet design used primarily
in Eastern Europe. Disadvantages: allow neutrons to travel at high
speeds.
no longer favored for new builds Less safe design promising design for the future.
Chernobyl reactor - unsafe
Prone to a specific kind of power surge that
can cause catastrophic failure.
No longer in widespread use

Fast Neutron Reactor (FNR) Power Rating of a Nuclear Reactor Lifetime of nuclear reactors
The amount of thermal energy it can produce.
Megawatts (MW) or Gigawatts (GW)
Advantages:
NUCLEAR POWER AND DESIGN LIFETIME
More efficient use of fuel The power rating of a reactor is Typical Power Ratings of Different
important for several reasons: Reactor Types:
Ability to “burn” nuclear waste from thermal
reactors PWR: 600-1200 MW (Most Common
It determines the amount of
Potential for breeding fissile material electricity that can be generated
Range) EXTENDING LIFESPAN
BWR: 700-1100 MW
by the reactor. PHWR: 600-800 MW
Disadvantages: It affects the size and design of AGR: 600-1300 MW
the reactor plant.
More complex design and technology RBMK: 1000 MW (Chernobyl reactors
It is a factor in the safety were this type) CHALLENGES AND CONSIDERATION OF
Higher risk of radioactive material releases analysis of the reactor. FNR: 300-600 MW (generally LIFETIME EXTENSION
smaller range)
 Nuclear Power and Design Lifetime Challenges and
Extending Reactor Lifetime consideration of
NUCLEAR POWER
A source of clean energy generation. It
UPGRADES AND INVESTMENTS: Lifetime Extension
Modern advancements allow for extending
produces and controls the release of reactor lifetimes beyond initial designs.
Two main challenges arise when extending reactor lifetimes:
energy from splitting the atoms of certain component wear and obsolescence.
elements.
THIS APPROACH OFFERS SEVERAL Over time, certain components, like Another challenge is posed by
BENEFITS: the expensive steam generators, can outdated systems, such as analogue
Continued operation ensures a reliable wear out, requiring replacement after instrument and control systems. These
source of clean energy. 30 years, even if the reactor itself has may need to be upgraded to digital
Decommissioning costs, which can be the potential to run for much longer. systems to ensure continued
INITIAL DESIGN LIFETIME significant, are deferred, providing
This decision is often driven by functionality and safety. Additionally,
economic advantages.
Most reactors were initially designed for economic considerations. Other less materials can degrade with age,
a 30-40 year operational lifespan. critical components can also be particularly when exposed to heat and
In the US nearly all of the almost 100 reactors have been granted operating
replaced as needed. neutron radiation.
licence extensions from 40 to 60 years. This justifies significant capital
expenditure in upgrading systems and components, including building in extra
Component wear Obsolescence
performance margins. Some will operate for 80 years or more.

Periodic Safety Reviews: Ensure adherence to international safety standards

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF NUCLEAR ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF NUCLEAR ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF NUCLEAR
REATORS REATORS REATORS
ADVANTAGE ADVANTAGE disADVANTAGE
CLEAN AND EMISSION-FREE POWER GENERATION: HIGH CAPACITY FACTOR AND RELIABILITY: NUCLEAR WASTE:
Nuclear energy produces electricity without releasing greenhouse Nuclear power plants have a high capacity factor, meaning they can The radioactive waste generated by nuclear reactors remains
gases or pollutants into the atmosphere during operation. operate consistently for long periods and produce maximum power hazardous for thousands of years and requires safe, long-term
for most of the year. This makes them more reliable than wind and storage solutions.
FAST TRACK TO DECARBONIZATION solar energy sources.
Nuclear power is the second-largest source of low-carbon electricity RISK OF NUCLEAR WEAPON PROLIFERATION:
today. Nuclear can generate carbon-free electricity 24/7, it is the The technology used in nuclear reactors can also be used to develop
Nuclear energy tackles 3 of the greatest problems humanity has
ideal complement to wind power and solar energy in creating a nuclear weapons, raising concerns about proliferation, especially in
carbon-free energy future.
encountered in its struggle to get energy. countries with political instability.

SAFER THAN FOSSIL FUELS (PUBLIC HEALTH): Nuclear power plants don't require a lot of space. HIGH UPFRONT COSTS AND LONG CONSTRUCTION TIMES:
Nuclear power is a safe means of generating energy than fossil fuels lt doesn't pollute (it does, but in a very different way) Building new nuclear power plants is expensive and time-consuming
from a public health perspective, considering the health impacts from Nuclear energy is by far the most concentrated form of energy. compared to other energy sources.
air pollution caused by burning fossil fuels.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF NUCLEAR Serious nuclear power plant accidents Serious nuclear power plant accidents
REATORS Chernobyl (1986) Fukushima (2011)
Chernobyl plant was one of the largest and oldest a massive undersea earthquake—the largest ever
nuclear power plants in the world. In this incident, one recorded in Japan. The earthquake triggered a tsunami
DISADVANTAGE of the facility’s four reactors created a sudden power that struck the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant. During
surge, a large amount of radiation escaped from the the emergency, each of the three operational nuclear
ACCIDENT RISKS:
While rare, major nuclear accidents can have devastating reactor. Hundreds of thousands of people were reactors at the plant shut down successfully, but the
consequences, causing widespread radioactive contamination and exposed to the radiation. Several dozen died within a backup power and cooling systems failed. As a result,
long-term health problems. few days. The full human toll from the calamity is still residual heat caused fuel rods in all three reactors to
unknown, but experts believe that thousands of people partially melt down, prompting the government to
- One of the main disadvantages of nuclear energy is that nuclear
explosions produce radiation, this radiation harms the cells of the body died and as many as 70,000 suffered severe poisoning evacuate everyone.
which can make humans sick or even cause them death. Illness can induced by the radiation.
appear or strike people years after they were exposed to nuclear
radiation.
- A possible type of reactor disaster is known as a meltdown. In a
meltdown, the fission reaction of an atom goes out of control, which leads
to a nuclear explosion releasing great amounts of radiation.
 Serious nuclear power plant accidents
REFERENCES
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%20for%20each%20refueling%20outage.
The most infamous nuclear accident in U.S. history. It
began when a pressure valve in one of the reactors
failed to close, allowing cooling water—contaminated
with radiation—to drain into adjoining buildings.
Thank you for Igini, M. (2024, March 4). The advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy. Earth.Org. https://earth.org/the-
advantages-and-disadvantages-of-nuclear- energy/

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Nuclear Power Reactors | How does a nuclear reactor work? - World Nuclear Association. (n.d.). https://www.world-
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