➢ INTRODUCTION TO STABILITY

Stability is the natural tendency of an aircraft to return to its former equilibrium or trimmed
position (i.e. straight and level flight) following a disturbance without any pilot assistance.

The stability of an aircraft is static and dynamic in nature.

The actual stability characteristics of an aircraft are not only governed by its design, but are
also dependent on crew workload.

Thus, a close relationship exists between stability and controllability.

 Atmospheric Flight Mechanics

➢ Performance

– Performance characteristics (range, endurance, rate of climb, takeoff and landing

distances, flight path optimization)

➢ Flight Dynamics

– Motion of the aircraft due to disturbances

– Stability and Control

➢ Aeroelasticity

– Static and Dynamic Aeroelastic phenomena

(control reversal, wing divergence, flutter,
aeroelastic response)

The aerodynamic forces and moment

as well as the trust and weight
have to be accurately determined

2
➢ Flight Mechanics ➢ Lateral Motion
– Atmospheric flight mechanics – Pure rolling motion
– Aerodynamic nomenclature – Pure yawing motion
– Reference frames – Lateral EOM
– Spiral, roll, and Dutch roll approximations
➢ Static Stability and Control – Lateral flying qualities
– Longitudinal static stability – Aeroelastic effects
– Pitch control
– Lateral / directional static stability ➢ Introduction to Modern Control Theory
– Roll & yaw control – State-space modeling; Solution of state
– Stick forces equations
– Controllability and observability
➢ Aircraft Equations of Motion – State feedback design
– Nonlinear formulation
– Linearized equations of motion ➢ Aircraft Autopilot Design Using Modern
– Dynamic stability Control Theory
– Longitudinal stability augmentation
➢ Longitudinal Motion – Lateral stability augmentation
– Pure pitching motion
– Longitudinal EOM
– Phugoid and short-period modes
– Longitudinal flying qualities
3
Types of Stability
Static Stability

Static stability of a body is an initial tendency

of that body to return to its equilibrium state
after a disturbance.

Static longitudinal instability:

In this case there is no tendency to return to

equilibrium

Any disturbance from equilibrium leads to a

larger disturbance, the motion is said to be
divergent E

Artificial damping is needed → Stability Augmentation System

(SAS)
Neutral static stability is the boundary
between stability and instability, there is still
no tendency to return to equilibrium, the
motion is therefore not stable
But, the motion does not diverge
Dynamic Stability

DYNAMIC STABILITY characterizes the time history of motion after a disturbance from
equilibrium

An aircraft is said to be dynamically stable if, after a disturbance, it eventually returns to

its equilibrium state and remains there

ABSOLUTE dynamic stability is not concerned with how long this return takes

RELATIVE dynamic stability examines how long it takes and what the behavior of that
return motion is

To be dynamically stable, a system must first be statically stable

A system can be dynamically unstable and be statically stable -- but not vice versa
➢ CONTROLLABILITY

This is the ability of the pilot to alter the position or attitude of an aircraft using the fiying
control surfaces.
High stability makes an aircraft resistant to change and reduces its controllability (I.e. good
stability makes it harder for the pilot to control and manoeuvre an aircraft).

Thus, the upper limits of stability are determined by the lower limits of controllability.

No aircraft is completely stable, but all must possess desirable stability and handling
characteristics.

Stability naturally occurs whenever

an aircraft is rotated about anyone,
or a combination of its axes.
These axes act at right angles to each other and all pass through the aircraft's centre of
gravity.

Stability about the lateral axis (pitch) is known as “longitudinal stability”.

Stability about the longitudinal axis (roll) is known as “lateral stability”.

“Directional stability” is the term for stability about the normal axis (yaw).

Lateral and directional stability are not entirely independent of each other, and tend to act
together to produce certain undesirable motions.

In fact, an aircraft can be unstable

about two of its axes,
but stable about the third or vice versa.
The “degree of stability” also differs between types of aircraft, with transport category
aircraft being generally more stable than light aircraft.

Equilibrium of an aircraft in flight is more commonly referred to as the trimmed condition

and occurs when no net moments act to displace it from this condition (i.e. its moments in
pitch, roll, and yaw are zero).

Trimming of an aircraft is normally attributed to trimming devices such as tabs, but in

terms of stability simply means that no net moments exist.

Stability falls into two main categories; static stability and dynamic stability.

Furthermore, displacing an aircraft from its normal trimmed position causes the air loads
acting on it to oppose and damp out the subsequent motion.

This is known as “aerodynamic damping”, and it greatly affects an aircraft's degree of

dynamic stability.
➢ STATIC STABILITY

Static stability is the in initial tendency that an aircraft displays after being displaced from a
given equilibrium position.

If an aircraft tends to return to its former position , it is said to be statically stable.

A statically unstable aircraft continues to move in the direction of the displacement.

Finally, if an aircraft tends to remain in the disturbed position it has neutral static stability.

This type of stability can be demonstrated using ball bearings and a curved container.
➢ THE DEGREE OF STABILITY

The different degrees of stability are categorised by how quickly an aircraft tends to return
to its trimmed position following a disturbance.

To analyse this, consider the analogy of a ball in a curved container

In this case, the steeper the container the greater the static stability, but as stability
increases, controllability decreases.

The upper limits of stability are therefore set by the lower limits of controllability.
➢ DYNAMIC STABILITY

Dynamic stability is the movement of an aircraft with respect to time in response to its
static stability following a displacement from a given equilibrium position.

For example, consider a statically stable aircraft, which , following a disturbance, overshoots
its equilibrium position.

Its inbuilt stability attempts

to correct for this and an
oscillatory motion occurs
The time taken for the motion to subside is a measure of the aircraft's dynamic stability.

If the oscillations damp out with time, the aircraft is dynamically stable.

If the oscillations increase in magnitude, the aircraft is dynamically unstable.

Finally, if the oscillations persist without either increasing or decreasing in magnitude the
aircraft has neutral dynamic stability.

Overall, it is desirable for an

aircraft to be both statically
and dynamically stable.
➢ STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
This is the aircraft's natural or inbuilt tendency when disturbed in pitch, to return to its
former trimmed angle of attack without pilot input, and is desirable throughout the
aircraft's complete speed range.

Conversely, if the aircraft continues to diverge away from its trimmed angle of attack
following a disturbance, it is said to be statically longitudinally unstable.

If it remains at whatever angle of attack the disturbance causes, it is longitudinally

neutrally statically stable.

This type of stability is mainly provided by the horizontal tail.

For example, consider the effect of a gust that causes an aircraft to pitch nose-up.

Due to its inertia, the aircraft momentarily continues to follow its original flight path and
present itself to the relative airflow at an increased angle of attack.

The subsequent increase in the angle of attack of the horizontal tail produces a small
aerodynamic force.

This force, multiplied by the distance from the centre of gravity, produces a strong
restoring pitching moment and pitches the aircraft back to its former equilibrium position.
The pitching moment is defined
in a coefficient form (Cm).
➢ MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

An aircraft is trimmed longitudinally when any residual out-of-balance couples between the
four main forces are balanced by a download (LT) acting on the tailplane.

For this to occur, the angle of incidence

of the horizontal tail is usually less than
that of the wing.
The angle between the chord line of the tailplane and the chord line of the mainplane is
known as the longitudinal dihedral angle, and is a practical aspect in most types of
aircraft.

The actual degree of longitudinal stability is determined by the interaction between an

aircraft's centre of gravity (cg), its centre of pressure (cp), and the position of its tailplane.

cp
➢ FACTORS AFFECTING STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

The degree of longitudinal static stability normally varies depending on the:

❖ Position of the Centre of Gravity

Variations in the position of the centre of gravity greatly affect the static longitudinal
stability of an aircraft. Generally, the further forward the centre of gravity the
greater the stability.
Its forward position is limited by the fact that high stability results in poor controllability.

This is because stability tends to resist movement away from the aircraft's trimmed
attitude, which is reflected in the amount of stick force necessary to displace an aircraft
from this position.

It follows that the further forward the centre of gravity, the greater the stick force and the
greater the effort required to manoeuvre the aircraft.

Positioning the centre of gravity too far forward results in excessive stick forces, making
the aircraft extremely tiring to fly.
The forward position of the centre of gravity is also limited because if it is too far forward,
the aircraft becomes uncontrollably nose heavy at low airspeeds.

This is particularly important in the landing phase when elevator deflection may be
insufficient to allow the pilot to flare the aircraft on landing, unless the airspeed is
increased to give greater elevator authority.
Conversely, moving the centre of gravity progressively aft steadily decreases the degree of
stability, as well as the stick forces, and the aircraft returns less quickly to trimmed flight.

Eventually, a position is reached where the aircraft has no tendency to return to a trimmed
condition following a disturbance and instead remains in its disturbed position.

This is the aircraft's neutral point, and is the centre of gravity position giving statically
neutral stability.
Any movement aft of this point makes an aircraft statically longitudinally unstable.

Most aircraft are designed to be statically longitudinally stable, so the centre of gravity is
normally positioned ahead of the neutral point.

The distance between the centre of gravity and the neutral point is called the static margin.
❖ Position of the Wing's Centre of Pressure

The position of the centre of pressure is a function of its angle of attack, and moves
toward the wing's leading edge with increasing angles of attack and vice versa.

In general, the amount of movement of the centre of pressure varies depending on the
aerofoil section used.

A greater camber produces a greater range of movement.

A centre of pressure positioned behind the centre of gravity has a stabilising effect on the
aircraft.
Conversely, if the centre of pressure moves ahead of the centre of gravity, a nose-up
moment is applied to an aircraft in response to a pitch-up disturbance, and has a
destabilising effect.
❖ Design of the Tailplane

The overall function of the tailplane is to provide a force to counteract any residual, out-
of- balance couples existing between the four main forces.

The degree of longitudinal stability is determined by the interaction between the aircraft's
centre of gravity, tailplane area, and tailplane position.

The tailplane's position relative to the centre of gravity is of most importance, since it has
the greatest stabilising effect on the aircraft.

This is because the greater the moment arm, the greater the stability.

If downwash from the wing acts on the tail plane, it also affects the aircraft's degree of
stability, by affecting its angle of attack.

Furthermore, the tailplane is usually of symmetrical section and the position of its centre
of pressure does not vary much in flight.
 kanat
: aşağı
Gövde sapma
referans açısı
çizgisi
ht

kuyruk

lt

kanat
ön akımı
kanat

kuyruk

kanat
arka akımı
❖ Wing Downwash

Any disturbance in pitch alters the wing's angle of attack and thus the amount of
downwash from the wing.

This also alters the angle of attack of the tailplane (e.g. if the aircraft pitches nose-up,
the downwash angle increases and the effective angle of attack of the tail plane
decreases).

The aerodynamic force produced by the tailplane thus decreases, as does the restoring
moment.

To compensate for this, the CG is moved forward to increase the moment arm.
➢ GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

Consider a graph of pitching moment plotted against angle of attack (or coefficient of lift)
with the elevator fixed in its neutral position.
 Uçağın B denge noktasında uçtuğunu varsayalım.
(B: trim noktası)
(+)
burun
yukarı B
• Bozuntu sonucunda: 
A
C ‘A’ noktasına gelinir.
(-)
burun
aşağı
1. uçak: negatif cm Burun aşağı moment


Bozuntuyu artıtırıcı etki

Cm  0 3. uçak: pozitif cm Burun yukarı moment


Bozuntuyu azaltıcı etki
22
The graph shows that if the angle of attack increases (e.g. due to a disturbance) a
nose-down (-) pitching moment is created, tending to rotate the aircraft back to its original
trimmed position.

Conversely, decreasing the angle of attack creates a nose-up (+) pitching moment.

Thus for an aircraft to be statically longitudinally stable, the pitching moment must
decrease with increasing angle of attack (i.e. have a negative slope). It is the steepness of
the slope, which actually determines the aircraft's degree of stability

Cm0  0

Cm0  0
1

Cm0  0
2
Figure shows the static longitudinal stability characteristics of four different aircraft. Aircraft
A and B both have negative slopes, and are thus longitudinally stable, although aircraft A is
most stable because it has a more negative slope.

Conversely, aircraft C is longitudinally unstable because the pitching moment increases with
increasing angle of attack and has a positive slope.

Aircraft D is different than the other aircraft because the pitching moment remains constant
regardless of changes in angle of attack, and the aircraft has no tendency to return its
former trimmed position following a disturbance.

Aircraft D therefore exhibits static

neutral stability, and alternatively
takes up a new trimmed position .

Any aft movement of the CG

reduces the degree of static
longitudinal stability and
produces a less negative slope.
The following conditions also influence the slope of the graph:

❖ Stick-Fixed Static Longitudinal Stability

This involves the response of an aircraft to a disturbance in pitch if the flying control
surfaces are held in set position.

When the disturbance takes place, the aircraft has a natural tendency to return its
former equilibrium or trimmed position.

The amount of control deflection required to maintain any new equilibrium position
is a measure of the aircraft's stick-fixed static longitudinal stability

❖ Stick-Free Static Longitudinal Stability

This involves the response of an aircraft to a disturbance in pitch when the control
surfaces are free to find their own position depending on the aerodynamic forces
acting on them (i.e. with manual flying controls the stick forces have been reduced
to zero by way of the trim tab system prior to the disturbance).

This only applies to manual flying controls because in power-operated flying control
systems, the surfaces are not free to float and there is no difference between stick-
fixed and stick-free static longitudinal stability.
Longitudinal Stability – Element Effects:

:
Downwash
FRL angle
Fuselage
Reference
Line

cmcg = cmcg + cmcgt + cmcg f + cmcg p

w Ö-7
 xcg xac
cm0 = cmacw + cL0w ( − ) +VH cLt ( 0 + iw − it ) + cm0 f
c c
VH
with proper selection cm0  0 can be supplied
it

xcg xac d
cm = cLw ( − ) −VH cLt (1 − ) + cm f
c c d

with change of c.g. cm  0 can be supplied

Ö-8
STICK FIXED NUETRAL POINT (NP):

Cm = 0
xNP xac cLt d cm f
= + VH (1 − )−
xcg = xNP c c cLw d cLw
c.g. of the aircraft

STICK FREE LONGITUDINAL STATIC MARGIN

xNP xcg
Hn = − = −cm
c c
must be positive for static stability.

a.c. NP Ö-9
STICK FREE CONDITION

Control Surface Angle Control Symbol Moment

Aleron  a La>0
Elevator  e Me>0
Rudder  r Nr>0

Longitudinal Control: Elevator

Elevator effect on pitching moment

cm = cme  e cme = −VH

dcL
Elevator power
de
Flap effectiveness
Elevator effect on lift coefficient
St dcLt
cL = cLe  e cLe =  
Elevator effectiveness
S d e Ö-10
Factors affecting the design of a control surface are:

1) Control Effectiveness
2) Hinge moments
3) Aerodynamic and mass balancing

1) Control Effectiveness

➢ Is a measure of how effective the control deflection is in producing the desired control
moment

➢ Function of the size of the elevator and tail volume ratio

2) Hinge Moment

➢ The aerodynamic moment that must be overcome to rotate the control surface

3) Aerodynamic and Mass balancing

➢ To have the control stick force within an acceptable range

Elevator Effectiveness
e  0

e  0
cL
e = 0 
c ce e


Deflecting the elevator:

➢ Change in Lift
Elevator Effect. Deriv.
cL dcL cL = cLe  e
0.4
cLe =
0.2 d e
ce
= 0.15
c

150
e c L = cL  + cLe  e
➢ Change in Pitching Moment

cm = cme  e e  0

cm = cm0 + cm  + cme  e

e  0
e = 0
dcm
cme =
d e
Elevator
control power
How to find cLe

L = Lt  cLqwS = cLt qt St

St St dcLt
cL = cLt =  e
S S d e
Elevator effectiveness
dcLt dcLt dt
= = cLt 
d e dt d e
Flap effectiveness parameter

cLe = cLt 
How to find cme

M = −lt Lt
lt St qt
cmqwSc = −cLt qt Stlt  cm = − cLt
Sc qw
cm = −VHcLt
dcL
cme = −VH
cm = cme  e de

cme = −VH cLt 

VH set from the static longitudinal stability requirements
Equilibrium Angles:

cme (cLeq − cL0 ) + cLe cm0 cm (cLeq − cL0 ) + cL cm0
eq = e = −
cL cme − cLe cm eq
cL cme − cLe cm

Hinge Moment:
elevator
1 2
trim tab He = che V Sece
2
hinge
line

 cL ch 
cLt = cLt ft f = 1 − e t 
 cL ch 
Ö-11
 t e 
Variation of δe trim with CL trim

➢ for a zero lift, there must have a positive

deflection of δe for a given CG (forward)
position, increasing lift requires less δe
deflection

➢ for a given trimmed lift, the more CG

forward (larger static margin), the less
elevator angle deflection δe requires

Variation of δe trim with the speed

➢ for a given CG (forward) position, increase

trim speed requires more elevator angle
deflection

➢ for a given trim speed, the more CG forward

(larger static margin), the less elevator angle
deflection requires
No compressibility effects,
no propulsive effects
 xcg xNP
cm  = 0 Neutral Point: = STICK FREE
NUETRAL POINT (NP):
c c
xNP xac cLt d cm f
= + VH (1 − )−
c c cLw d cLw
The difference between the “stick fixed” and “stick free” neutral points:

xNP xNP cLt d

− = (1 − f )VH (1 − )
c c cLw d

The value of the “f” parameter determines the position of the “stick fixed”
neutral point according to “stick free” neutral point.

Static Margin: distance between the neutral point and the actual center of gravity position.

xNP xcg xNP xcg

Stick fixed
K NP = − (5%) Stick free
 =
K NP −
static margin c c static margin c c
Stick fixed or stick free static neutral points represent an aft limit on the center of gravity
travel for the airplane
Ö-12
➢ THE EFFECT OF ELEVATOR DEFLECTION ON PITCHING MOMENTS

To maintain a different flight attitude, an equal and opposite moment from the elevators
must be applied (e.g. to maintain a nose-up pitch the elevators must be raised).

If the position of the CG is fixed, then the degree of static longitudinal stability remains
constant at any deflection angle (i.e. constant slope) but the change in pitching moment
alters the coefficient of lift at which equilibrium occurs.
This is because the angle of attack of the main plane has increased and the tail plane
produces a greater nose-up moment due to the change in effective camber.

If the aircraft is trimmed to maintain the new pitch attitude (i.e. zero stick forces) and the
elevators are allowed to float free, any change in the aircraft's angle of attack causes the
control surfaces to move away from their trimmed position in the direction of the relative
airflow.

For example, an increase in angle of attack causes the elevators to float upward, thus
reducing the lift force (upload) acting on the tailplane and reducing the aircraft's static
longitudinal stability compared to the stick fixed condition.
➢ CONTROL FORCE STABILITY

The coefficient of lift (CL) corresponds to a particular airspeed (dynamic pressure) in steady
straight-and-Ievel flight and thus, any variation in airspeed corresponds to a different value
of CL in the aircraft's trimmed, or equilibrium position.

An aircraft that demonstrates stick position stability requires moving the control column
forward to reduce the angle of attack and trim at a higher airspeed, and vice versa (i.e. with
increasing forward airspeed, an increasing forward stick force must be applied to maintain
steady straight and level flight).

Conversely, an aircraft exhibiting stick position instability requires moving the control
column aft to trim at a higher airspeed and vice versa.
STICK s F
FORCES
ls
e (-)

F = GHe
He (+)
1 2
F = Gche ( V )Sece G: Mechanical ratio of the control system
2
The dimesions of the aircraft, Needed
The velocity of the aircraft force

Trim condition: moment coefficient goes to the «0»

The movement characteristics of the movement surfaces are the function of
“stick force” and “hinge moment”.
• For “smaller” He values : sensitive for small disturbances .

• For “higher” He values : difficult to control.

cht , cht must be determined.

‘Aerodynamic balance’
Lt Le

ch (-)

Lt Le

ch (+)
Elevator, Tab and Their Hinge

1 2
Hinge
moment
He = che V Sece
2
In practice, it is often satisfactory to assume
Che is a linear function of

• surface (wing or tail) angle of attack αt,

• angle of elevator δe,

elevator
• angle of tab δt trim tab

che = ch0 + cht t + che  e + cht  t Hinge line

Residual moment (“0” for symmetrical profiles)

dch dch dch

cht = che = cht =
d t d e d t
Elevator Free (Control stick released)
Coeff. of elevator “free” moment
Stick-fixed condition is an ideal
approximation. The opposite extreme is che = 0 = cht t + che  e
also of interest: stick-free condition:
with the assumption of

ch0 = t = 0
cht
→  e free = − t
t  e → (−) t
che
The elevator will float upward as
the angle of attach is increased cht , che Generally negative

Lift coefficient for the tail “elevator free”:

cht
cLt = cLt t + cLe  e free = cLt t + cLe t
free che
  cL ch   cL ch 
→ cLt = cLt 1 − e t  t f = 1 − e t 
 cL ch   cL ch 
 t e   t e 

Coefficient of hinge ratio

cht , che The signs of the derivatives

cLt = cLt ft determine: “f > 1” or “f < 1”

“stick fixed” solution

xcg xac
cm0 = cmacw + cL0w ( − ) +VH cLt ( 0 + iw − it ) + cm0 f
c c
xcg xac d
cm = cLw ( − ) −VH cLt (1 − ) + cm f
c c d
cLt → cL t
stick fixed stick free
In a manually controlled aircraft the control stick forces are dependent on:

▪ Basic stick force stability, where the force is independent of airspeed

▪ The trim tab position, which varies with airspeed

F
(+)
push

(-)
pull
With increasing EAS less and less nose-up tab is required and if the aircraft is correctly
trimmed, (i.e. if positive stick force stability exists) a push force will be required to maintain
a new attitude with increasing airspeed and vice-versa.
If the position of the CG is varied whilst maintaining the same trim airspeed, its actual
position affects stick force stability.

For example, an aft movement of the CG reduces the negative slope of the graph, and thus
the degree of stick force stability.
This also means that smaller stick forces are required to displace the aircraft from its
original trimmed airspeed. In accordance with JAR 25.173 a minimum gradient for stick
force is required for an aircraft to be certified, with the following rules being applicable:

o A pull force must be present to obtain and maintain airspeeds below the specified trim
speed, and a push force must be present to obtain and maintain airspeeds above the
specified trim speed.

o The airspeed must return to with in 10% of the original trim speed during the climb,
approach, and landing conditions, and must return to within 7.5% of the original trim
speed during the cruise.

o The average gradient of the stable slope of the stick force versus speed curve may not
be less than 1 Ib for each 6 kt.
The degree of static longitudinal stability must also be such that a stable slope exists
between 85% and 115% of the airspeed at which the aircraft is trimmed, with:

o Flaps retracted

o Undercarriage retracted

o Maximum take-off weight

o 75% of maximum continuous power (piston), or maximum power or thrust Get

➢ MANOEUVRING STABILITY

Whenever an aircraft is manoeuvring, acceleralion forces act on it (e.g. if the aircraft is

pulling out of a dive, its flight path will be curved and the resultant pitching velocity
provides aerodynamic damping in pitch due to the downward movement of the
tailplane).

This acts with the inbuilt static longitudinal stability of the aircraft and tends to resist this
motion.

The tail plane provides the largest contribution toward damping in pitch, although other
aircraft components such as the wings do assist.

A graph of
«stick force versus load factor»
illustrates the
«manoeuvring stability»
of an aircraft
The gradient of the graph should be positive (i.e. with increasing load factor the stick force
must also increase).

This gradient must not be excessively high or the aircraft would be difficult and tiring to
manoeuvre.

Conversely, it should not be too low or the stick forces would be too light and the aircraft
could be over-stressed.
The manoeuvring stick force gradient, or
stick force per g for a transport category
aircraft is approximately 9 Ib/g.

Aircraft with high static longitudinal stability

possess high manoeuvre stability (i.e. low
controllability) and also have a high stick
force gradient.

Any aft movement of the CG reduces the

stick force gradient and the longitudinal
static stability of the aircraft.
With increasing altitude, the manoeuvre stick
force stability decreases.

This is because as the

density of the air decreases,

the TAS increases, and
the amount of pitch damping decreases.
➢ TAILORING THE CONTROL FORCES

Many devices can be added to the control system to modify or tailor the stick force stability
to desired levels:
The down-spring device is a preloaded spring that tends to rotate the elevators down
and increases the airspeed stick force stability without changing the aircraft static
longitudinal stability.

This contributes to an
increment of pull force
that is independent of
airspeed or control
deflection.

When the aircraft is retrimmed for its original airspeed, the airspeed stick force
gradient increases resulting in a stronger feel for airspeed.

The force increment due to the down spring is not affected by stick position or normal
acceleration, whilst manoeuvring stick force stability is unchanged.
The bob-weight is designed to improve the stick force stability.

It consists of an eccentric mass attached to the flying control system and, in unaccelerated
flight, acts like the down spring.

In accelerated flight during a manoeuvre, the bob-weight experiences the same forces as
the aircraft and provides an increment of stick force in direct proportion to the magnitude
of the manoeuvring acceleration, thus increasing the manoeuvring stick force stability.
➢ DIRECTIONAL STATIC STABILITY

The directional static stability of an aircraft is its natural or inbuilt tendency to recover
from a disturbance in yaw, and is mainly provided by the fin.

For example, consider a gust of wind that causes the aircraft to yaw to the left.

The yaw angle () is the displacement of the aircraft centre-line from some reference
azimuth.

Positive yaw angle occurs when the aircraft is displaced to the right of the reference
azimuth.

Due to its inertia, the aircraft momentarily continues along its original flight path and
begins to sideslip.
The sideslip angle () is the displacement aircraft centre-line from the relative airflow,
rather than some reference azimuth.

By convention it is positive when the relative airflow is displaced to the right of the aircraft
centre-line.

This sideslip gives the symmetrical fin an angle of attack equal to the sideslip angle.

This produces a small aerodynamic force, which , when multiplied by the distance from the
centre of gravity, produces a strong restoring moment, and yaws the aircraft back to its
original equilibrium position.

This type of stability is also referred

to as weather-cock stability.
➢ DIRECTIONAL STATIC STABILITY

Sapma açısı Yana kayma açısı


(+)

İstikamete ait kararlılık:

Uçak sapma momenti yönünde
bozuntuya uğradığında denge
konumuna dönme eğilimidir.

Uçak hava hızı doğrultusuna

yönleniyor

Yana doğru hareket

sırasında uçağın üstten Rüzgar gülü
görünüşü. “weather cock”
kararlılığı 84
 cn
1.cn  0
(+)
burun
sağa
2.cn = 0


(-)
burun
sola 3.cn  0

1. Uçak:

Bozuntu →   cn → (+)    Denge

noktasına İstikamete ait
dönüş statik

→   cn → (−)    eğilimi kararlılık

Bozuntu
cn  0
2. Uçak: statik olarak kararsız

86
➢ GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF STATIC DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

Static directional stability can be shown graphically by plotting a graph of yawing moment
coefficient (Cn) versus the sideslip angle, where the yawing moment coefficient is:
The slope of the graph is a measure of the aircraft's static directional stability.

If the aircraft experiences a positive sideslip angle and a positive yawing moment
coefficient exists, static directional stability is present.

For example, relative airflow coming from the right () creates a yawing moment to the
right (+Cn) and tends to weathercock the aircraft into wind.

A positive slope shows that the aircraft is directionally stable, with a steeper slope
indicating a greaterdegree of stability.

Conversely, if the slope is negative

it shows that the aircraft is
directionally unstable and that it
tends to diverge or move away
from the direction of the airflow.
Vertical tail contribution

Sidewash due to wing vortices

Vertical tail volume ratio

Dynamic pressure ratio

Moment produced by a side force

İSTİKAMETE AİT STATİK KARARLILIK ŞARTI cn  0
Sapma açısı Yana kayma
Mach sayısı ve Reynolds sayısı etkisi ihmal edilirse:
 açısı

d
cn = cnwb + VvvcLv (1 + )0 (+)

d
Kontrol:

cn = cn  + cnr  r

cnr = VvvcLv

0.8

kontrol yüzeyi alanı

0 tasima yüzeyi alanı
0.7
 Contribution to directional stability

Fuselage and engine nacelles (in general are destabilizing)

Reynolds number
correction factor
Wing-body interference factor
USAF Stability and Control Datcom:

Some comments
➢ The moment associated with yawing and rolling are cross-coupled, i.e., the angular
velocity in yaw produces rolling moments and vice versa. If a pilot steps on a rudder pedal
causing the aircraft to yaw one wing will advance and the other will retreat. The faster
moving wing produce more lift than the other which will cause a roll in the same direction
as the yaw. This will be exaggerated by wing dihedral.

➢ At a normal flight, i.e., steady rectilinear symmetric motion, all the lateral motion and
force variables are zeroes.

➢ There is no fundamental trimming problem: control surfaces (ailerons and rudder)

would normally undeflected.

➢ Lateral control provides secondary trimming functions in the case of asymmetry.

➢ Effects of CG movement are negligible on lateral and directional stability

➢ Due to cross-coupling effect, (e.g., the rolling motion will cause sideslip), we investigate
the directional and lateral effects of sideslip.
➢ THE FACTORS AFFECTING STATIC DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

The vertical fin is the primary source of static directional stability and is highly stabilising
up to the stall.

By incorporating fin sweepback, directional stability can be improved by reducing the

aspect ratio and increasing the stalling angle.

Also the centre of pressure moves rearward thereby increasing the tail yawing moment.

The addition of a dorsal fin, as a forward extension of the fin, helps to delay the stall by
increasing the surface area that is located aft of the CG and by reducing the fin 's effective
aspect ratio, therefore increasing the stalling angle of attack.

Unlike dorsal fins, ventral fins are located on the underside of the tail.

They have no effect on static longitudinal stability.

They have a negative effect on static lateral stability

and a positive effect on static directional stability.
How a dorsal fin prevents «rudder lock».
 At high angles of attack, the fuselage may cause an overall decrease in static directional
stability.

This is due to an increase in the fuselage boundary layer at the vertical tail location and is
most significant for low aspect ratio aircraft with sweepback.

The fitting of strakes improves directional stability by re-energising the fuselage boundary
layer and stopping cross flow around the fuselage at high angles of attack that may stall
the fin due to the resulting disturbed a inflow.

The degree of stability

provided by the fin depends
on the:

o Position of the aircraft's CG

o Position of the fin 's C of P
o Area and angle of attack of
the fin
The contribution of the wing, particularly wing sweep back, has a small effect on the
degree of directional stability compared to other components.

The fuselage tends to have a destabilising effect, but at high sideslip angles, the degree of
instability reduces.

The contributions of the aircraft components to static directional stability appear.

LATERAL STATIC STABILITY

The static lateral stability of an aircraft is its natural, or inbuilt tendency to recover from a
disturbance in roll.

A disturbance in roll causes one wing to rise and the other to drop.

The wings naturally damp out the motion in roll and the aircraft assumes a banked attitude.
Disturbance in roll:
 cl
1.cl  0
(+)
wings level disturbance
right
>0 unstable
wing down
2.cl = 0

cl > 0
(-)
right
wing up 3.cl  0

Wings level disturbance stable

<0

cl < 0

Lateral
Static stability
cl  0
92
 cl  0
Lateral Static stability

cl = cl  + cla  a

cl = clwb + clv

clwb
zacv
clv = cnv
lv
Aileron power

dcl 2cLw y2
cla =
d a
=
Sb  c( y) ydy
y1
In this attitude, the lift force is tilted so that it no longer directly opposes weight.

The resultant of these two forces causes the aircraft to sideslip in the direction of the
dropped wing.

Due to inertia, the aircraft also continues in a forward direction.

The sideslip subjects the aircraft to a sideways component of relative airflow.

As in the case of directional stability, the aircraft's inbuilt design features produce a rolling
moment that restores the aircraft to its original wings-level attitude.

This is defined as the rolling coefficient (CL) in the following formula:

To provide the necessary stability characteristics, one or a combination of the following
design features may be utilised:

❖ Wing Dihedral
As the aircraft sideslips, the dihedral of the wing places the lower wing at an
increased angle of attack, whilst the upper wing has a reduced angle of attack.
The lower wing produces greater lift than the upper wing, and the difference in lift
between the two wings thus produces a rolling moment, which returns the aircraft to its
former equilibrium position.

The fuselage may also partially shield the upper wing, further reducing the amount of lift
it develops.

Vn = w cos  + v sin   w + v
w + v
right  arctan( )   + 
u
u Lright
 1
V
w
 1
V
w − v
left  arctan( )   − 
u
Lleft
❖ Wing Sweepback

As the aircraft sideslips, the lower wing presents more of its span (known as effective span)
to the airflow than the upper wing.

The effective chord of the lower

wing also decreases, whilst that
of the upper wing increases.

The aspect ratio of the lower

wing thus becomes greater than
that of the upper wing and it
produces greater lift.

The increased lift produces a

rolling moment and the aircraft
rolls back to its former
equilibrium position.
Sweepback Angle Effect

Lright

Lleft

It increases the dihedral effect.

❖ High Wing and Low Centre of Gravity

As an aircraft sideslips, the higher wing acts in a similar manner to the dihedral wing, with
the lower wing producing greater lift than the upper wing.

In this case, however, the displacement of the overall lift force outward toward the wing-tip
on the lower wing provides the necessary restoring moment
The position of the lift force produces a rolling moment about the aircraft's centre of gravity
and rolls the aircraft back to its former wings-level condition.

Thus, the lower the centre of gravity, the greater the lateral stability characteristics.

On some high-winged aircraft, the amount of stability is so large that low dihedral, or even
anhedral wings are fitted (i.e. to de-stabilise the aircraft).

This form of recovery is also known as the pendulous effect.

THE EFFECT OF WING POSITION ACCORDING TO FUSELAGE

decreasing lift
increasing lift

increasing lift

decreasing lift

Upper wing increases dihedral effect

Lright Lleft
96
❖ High Keel and Low Centre of Gravity

As an aircraft sideslips, its side surfaces (i.e. the fuselage and fin) are perpendicular to the
relative airflow.

It follows that the large surface area above the aircraft's centre of gravity produces a
restoring moment, and the aircraft rolls back to its former wings-level condition.

“The lower the centre of gravity,

the greater the degree of lateral stability”
➢ GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF STATIC LATERAL STABILITY

Static lateral stability is shown graphically by plotting a graph of rolling moment coefficient
( cl ) against sideslip angle ().

If the aircraft is subject to a

positive sideslip angle, it is
laterally stable if a negative
rolling moment is applied.

For example, relative airfow

coming momentarily from the
right ( + ) creates a negative
rolling moment ( -cl ) and the
aircraft rolls to the left,
returning it to its former
equilibrium position.

Static lateral stability only exists

if a negative gradient exists.
➢ FACTORS AFFECTING STATIC LATERAL STABILITY

High-lift devices and power have a destabilising effect on static lateral stability by
reducing the dihedral effect.

Flap deflection causes the inboard section of the wing to become more effective and the
C of P to move inboard closer to the aircraft's longitudinal axis, reducing the rolling
moment.
DYNAMIC STABILITY

x + a1 x + a0 x = 0 x(t ) = cet

2 + a1 + a0 = 0
1,2 =  − a1  a1 − 4a0 
1 2
Underdamped Damping ratio 2 
natural frequency
a 1t 2t
n = a0 = 1
x(t ) = c1e + c2e
2 a0

1,2 = −n  i 1−  n 2

 = −n
d = 1−  2n 1,2 =   id
Damped natural frequency
x0
y0

z0
Axis Transformation
Euler açıları:

Yaw

Pitch

Roll

:
 RIJID BODY DYNAMICS: Force and Moment Equations
Kinematic equations:
 x   cos cos cos sin  sin  − cos sin  cos sin  cos + sin  sin   u 
    
 
y = RIB v =  cos sin  cos cos + sin  sin  sin  − sin  cos + sin  cos sin   v 
 z   − sin  cos sin  cos cos  w 
    

    1 sin  tan  cos tan   p 

    

  = L w = 0 cos − sin   q 
IB
   0 sin  sec cos sec  r 
  

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑧 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 KM

N
mi Xi = Fi +  Fij
j =1

Hi = X i  mi X i
 RIJID BODY DYNAMICS: Force and Moment Equations
Non-Linear equations of motion:
Symmetry according to x-z plane
m(u + qw − rv) = X + Wx
m(v + ru − pw) = Y + Wy
m(w  + pv − qu) = Z + Wz
X ,Y , Z, L, M , N
I x p − I xz r + qr(I z − I y ) − I xz pq = L Parameters:

I y q + pr( I x − I z ) − I xz ( p 2 − r 2 ) = M ▪
▪
Velocity,
Angular velocity,
I z r − I xz p + pq(I y − I x ) + I xz qr = N ▪
▪
Altitude,
Control surface angles
WX = −mgSin WY = mgCosSin WZ = mgCosCos
 m(u + qw − rv) = X + Wx
m(v + ru − pw) = Y + Wy
m(w  + pv − qu) = Z + Wz
I x p − I xz r + qr(I z − I y ) − I xz pq = L
I y q + pr( I x − I z ) − I xz ( p 2 − r 2 ) = M
I z r − I xz p + pq(I y − I x ) + I xz qr = N

The small perturbation theory

0 = 0, 0 = 0, v0 = 0, w0 = 0, p
0 = 0, 0 = 0, v0 = 0, w0 = 0, p0 = 0, q0 = 0, r0 = 0
→ m(u + qw− rv) = X − mg sin

→ mu = X 0 + X − mg(sin 0 + cos0  )

0 = X 0 − mg sin 0

mu = X − mg cos0
L
O
N
G
I
T
U
D
I
N
A
L

E
Q
U
A
T
I
O
N
S
L
A
T
E
R
A
L
E
Q
U
A
T
I
O
N
S
 A

B
B

A
➢ DYNAMIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

Two types exist, with one form of oscillation being more serious than the other.

For each type, consider an aircraft initially in steady straight and level flight at a constant
airspeed:
❖ Long Period Oscillation (Phugoid)

This involves very long periods of oscillation (20 - 100 sec) with noticeable
variations in pitch attitude, altitude, and airspeed, whilst the angle of attack
remains nearly constant (i .e. if the aircraft experiences a horizontal gust, its
airspeed momentarily changes, but its angle of attack remains virtually constant).

Any change in airspeed is accompanied by a change in drag.

Change in potential and kinetic energy:

Altitude Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Velocity

   
   

w
 =
• Change in angle of attack: 00 u0
•T=D

•L=W
Minimum speed

Maximum speed
If the aircraft is statically stable and is operating at an airspeed in excess of VIMD, any
increase in airspeed not only increases the drag, but also increases the lift and the aircraft
momentarily gains height.

Some of the aircraft's kinetic energy is subsequently converted into potential energy and
the aircraft slows down.

As the airspeed drops below its original value, the aircraft momentum reduces and the
aircraft descends.

An oscillatory motion takes place as the aircraft successively gains and loses altitude.

If this motion damps out, the aircraft is dynamically longitudinally stable, although in
some instances the aircraft may be slightly unstable.

In either case, the pilot needs to take some form of corrective action, but since the
period of oscillation is usually long, any necessary action is easily applied.
❖ Short Period Oscillation

This involves very short periods of oscillation, typically 1-2 sec, when an aircraft is subjected
to a vertical gust.

The disturbance causes the aircraft to rotate about its lateral axis, and varies its angle of
attack, whilst the airspeed remains virtually constant.

The change in angle of attack also varies the lift, resulting in a pitching moment.

If the aircraft is statically longitudinally stable, any disturbance in pitch sets up an oscillatory
motion about the aircraft's lateral axis, where oscillation is dynamically stable or unstable.

Unlike the phugoid oscillation , the frequency of this oscillation is normally high and the
pilot cannot correct for it.

This form of oscillation must be quickly damped by an automatic stabiliser, which must be
included in the aircraft's flying control system.

It follows that an aircraft operating at airspeeds less than' the minimum drag speed will
show speed instability.

When a jet transport category aircraft flies at an airspeed less than the minimum drag
speed, for instance on landing, speed instability can prove extremely serious.
Because of sudden wing or stick forces
angle of attack changes:

Horizontal tail produces pitching moment to

decrease disturbance

bozuntular u, w, q
Flight altitude and velocity is approximatelly
constant.

❖ Aircraft pitchs around c.g.

zaman (sn)
PHUGOID MODU Sabit dümen hali için
 Xu − g
d  u    u 
 = 0   =  Zu  
dt     − 0   
w = 0  u0 

Zu Zu g Xu
q = − u n p = − p =−
u0 u0 2n p

KISA PERİOD MODU Sabit dümen hali için

 Z 
u = 0  1 
 
   u0   
 = 0   =
 q   M + M Z  q 
 M q + M 
 u0 
Z
M q + M +
Z u0
n  M q − M  sp  −
sp
u0 2nsp
“Roll Mode” r = Lp
❖ Spiral Instability

As previously established, the lateral stability of an aircraft depends on the forces that
tend to return it to a wings-level condition following a wing drop.

If an aircraft has a large fin, as the wing drops, a sideslip component acts on the keel
surface (including the fin) tending to yaw the aircraft in the direction of the lower wing.

If the aircraft's directional stability is greater than its roll stability the aircraft tries to
align itself into the sideslip.

This causes the higher outer wing to accelerate and produce more lift than the lower
inner wing.

This, in turn, sets up a rolling moment toward the inner wing, increasing the angle of
bank and resulting in further sideslip.

When this occurs, the aircraft exhibits spiral instability. If left unchecked, this condition
leads to a steep spiral dive.
This tendency may be minimised by reducing the total fin area, which effectively reduces
the aircraft‘s directional stability and its tendency to yaw in the direction of the dropped
wing.

Lateral stability is consequently more effective than directional stability, and the aircraft
becomes more spirally stable.

Another method of minimising spiral instability is to increase the dihedral effect, although
this leads to greater oscillatory instability.

Spiral instability is normally considered less objectionable than oscillatory instability, so

most aircraft are designed to be spirally unstable.

With this characteristic, when the aircraft is yawed, either by the prolonged application of
rudder or asymmetric power, a rolling moment in the direction of yaw occurs and the
aircraft quickly enters a spiral dive.

This can occur when flying at low airspeeds under asymmetric power conditions, when
excessive yaw due to too much power is coupled with insufficient rudder control to balance
it, and may quickly place an aircraft in a dangerous attitude.
“Spiral Mode” s =
(L N − L N )
r   r

+ (L N − L N )
u
− L 0
 p p 
g Ö-24
❖ Oscillatory Instability

Oscillatory instability is more serious than spiral instability and is commonly found to a
varying degree in combinations of high wing loading and sweepback, particularly
at low indicated airspeeds and high altitude.

It is characterised by a combined rolling and yawing movement, or wallowing motion.

The aircraft continually yaws and rolls from side to side until corrective action or natural
damping takes place.

The main forms of oscillatory instability are

➢ Dutch roll, where roll predominates yaw, and

➢ Snaking, where yaw predominates roll.

Depending on the design of the aircraft, both of these conditions may result.

The oscillation may not damp out without some form of assistance.

The resulting motion can be simply unpleasant, but in some cases may lead to the total loss
of the aircraft, particularly when flying under instrument conditions.

The main factors determining the degree of oscillatory instability are the:

➢ Amount of dihedral
➢ Amount of sweepback
➢ Keel surface area (including the fin and rudder)

In transport category aircraft, the most common form of oscillatory instability is Dutch roll.
➢ DUTCH ROLL

Consider an aircraft with sweepback

where the directional stability is less than
its lateral stability.

If the aircraft is yawed to the right, the left

wing advances (sideslip) and generates
more lift, whilst the right wing slows down
and produces less lift.

The result of the imbalance in lift is to roll

the aircraft in the direction of the initial
yaw.

The lift generated by the left wing will be

further increased by becoming less
sweptback, as it offers a greater span to
the airflow.

The right wing becomes more sweptback,

decreasing the effective span exposed to
the airflow.
This effect is similar to that of dihedral.

The advancing wing also produces greater

drag due to the larger areas exposed to the
airflow, which causes the aircraft to yaw in
the opposite direction (i.e. to the left).

This results in the right wing producing

more lift than the left wing, reversing the
direction of the roll.

The final result is an undulating, or

corkscrew motion, where the rolling and
yawing oscillations have the same
frequency, but are out of phase with each
other.
 Tail
correction

Disturbance

Initial
condition
1  Y 
“Dutch Roll Mode”  dr = −  + N r 
2n dr  u0 

n dr =
1
u0
(Y N r − N  Yr ) + N 
This unstable motion continues until the pilot applies corrective action or the motion
naturally damps out.

This motion is primarily due to excessive lateral stability.

One method of curing this problem is to reduce the amount of wing dihedral, or to set the
wings at a slight anhedral.

If the aircraft has anhedral wings, the angle of attack of the advancing wing decreases,
whilst that of the retreating wing increases.

This effectively reduces the aircraft's lateral stability, and thus its tendency to Dutch roll, but
does tend to increase an aircraft's spiral instability.

The Dutch roll tendency may also be reduced by increasing the size of the fin/rudder, but
this adversely affects handling characteristics.

This is because the pilot must first fight the weather-cocking tendency of the fin before the
aircraft can be turned (i.e. it increases an aircraft's spiral instability).
Conversely, if the fin/rudder is too small, the aircraft becomes oscillatory unstable (i.e.
lateral stability exceeds directional stability, and the amplitude of the oscillatory motions in
Dutch roll quickly increase).

Therefore, aircraft are usually designed with a small degree of spiral instability, in order to
help alleviate the less pleasant Dutch roll tendency.

Aircraft with straight wings are less susceptible to Dutch roll because any movements in
yaw quickly damp out.

Aircraft with sweptback wings have more problems with Dutch roll because sweepback
tends to worsen the aircraft's roll and sideslip tendencies.

All transport category aircraft are generally prone to Dutch roll and require artificial
damping in the form of a yaw damper system.

This is because the magnitude of the oscillatory motion is normally comparatively small
and is therefore extremely difficult for a pilot to co-ordinate reactions in phase with the
Dutch roll. Any manual input may result in over-correction, intensifying the resulting
oscillatory motion.
Investigations on stability and control characteristics of a CS-VLA certified
aircraft using wind tunnel test data
Nhu Van Nguyen, Maxim Tyan, Jae-Woo Lee and Sangho Kim
 Bonanza V35

Cessna 182

H-101

DHC-6
F-4 Phantom
➢ PILOT INDUCED OSCILLATIONS
Oscillatory longitudinal motion of an aircraft can occur due to inadvertent movement of
the flying controls by the pilot.

Short period longitudinal motion of the aircraft can have the most damaging effect,
where any delay in the pilot's control system response (response lag) can quickly produce
an unstable oscillation.

This can produce damaging flight loads and even lead to a loss of control of the aircraft.

When normal response lag and control system lag are added to the actual aircraft
motion, any inadvertent control inputs by the pilot may have a negative effect on the
oscillatory motion leading to dynamic instability.

Since short period motion is of relatively high frequency, the amplitude of the pitching
oscillation can quickly reach a dangerous level in a very short time.

If pilot induced oscillation is encountered, the most effective solution is to immediately

release the controls, since any attempt to forcibly damp out the oscillations just worsens
the situation, increasing the amplitude of motion.

Releasing the controls removes the unstable excitation and allows recovery to naturally
occur through the dynamic stability characteristics of the aircraft.
➢ INTERACTION BETWEEN LATERAL AND DIRECTIONAL STATIC STABILITY

Until now, lateral and directional stability have been considered as completely separate
items.

However, the effects of lateral and directional stability are so closely interlinked that it is
impossible to separate them.

A disturbance which initially only involves lateral stability will, when the aircraft reacts,
also involve directional stability at the same time.

The main combinations of these types of stability are spiral instability and oscillatory
instability.
Stability Force and Moment Derivatives
Longitudinal
X - derivatives Z - derivatives M - derivatives

Lateral and Directional

Y - derivatives L - derivatives N - derivatives
Stability Force and Moment Coefficient Derivatives

Longitudinal

X - derivatives Z - derivatives M - derivatives

Stability Force and Moment Coefficient Derivatives

Lateral and Directional

SV lV d SV
cYr = 2cLV V cY = −cLV (1 + )V
Sb d S
lV zacV
cn = 2cL VVV cl = cn
r V
b V V
lV
zacV  lV 
clr = −  2cLV V VV   d 
lV  b cn = cn + cLV 1 + VVV
wf
 d 

cYp  0
An autopilot is a mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without
assistance from a human being.

In the early days of aviation, aircraft required the continuous attention of a pilot in order
to fly safely.

As aircraft range increased allowing flights of many hours, the constant attention led to
serious fatigue.

An autopilot is designed to perform some of the tasks of the pilot.

«The first autopilot was developed by Sperry Corporation: It slaved a gyroscopic artificial
horizon and magnetic compass to hydraulically operated rudder, elevator, and ailerons.

It permitted the aircraft to fly straight and level on a compass course without a pilot's
attention, thus covering more than 80% of the pilot's total work load on a typical flight.»

The “straight-and-level autopilot” is still the most common, least expensive and most
trusted type of autopilot.

It also has the lowest pilot error, because it has the simplest controls.
Modern autopilots generally divide a flight into

taxi,
take-off,
ascent,
level,
descent,
approach,
landing, Autopilots exist that automate all of
and taxi phases. these flight phases except the taxiing.
➢ An aircraft flies in various steady state flight modes, and the pilot-actuated
maneuvers are performed only during change of flight modes.

➢ In any steady flight, all accelerations (translational and rotational alike) of the aircraft are
supposed to be zero. This condition is maintained by various automatic control designs which
are collectively called as the autopilots.

• Autopilots of an aircraft designed to hold the vehicle in various steady state flight
modes.

• Each autopilot being designed to perform a particular function.

➢ There are also control designs to improve the stability of an aircraft. These control designs
of an A/C are called the stability argumentation systems (SAS).
➢ Design strategies of aircraft autopilots and SAS:

• Provide the aircraft with an acceptable level of stability.

• Provide the aircraft with the specified command-response relationships.
• Enable the aircraft to maintain the designated flight modes, suppress the effects of
disturbances and variations of aircraft component.
• Provide adequate maneuverability for steering the aircraft between flight modes.
• Modify or, if possible, eliminate vehicle cross-coupling.
--- By vehicle cross-coupling we mean interactions between the longitudinal
and the lateral dynamics of an aircraft. In general, this coupling destabilizes
the aircraft, and occurs when the vehicle excites a fast rolling motion.

➢ Classifications on autopilots and SAS:

• Normally, the six degrees-of-freedom of an aircraft are separated into two

uncorrelated groups of motion: the longitudinal motions and the lateral motions.
• As a result, autopilots for the longitudinal motions, the longitudinal autopilots, and
autopilots for the lateral motions, the lateral autopilots, are designed separately.

➢ Basic features of autopilot designs:

• Feedback control strategies are fully employed.

• Classical control methodologies are still the main design tool.
• Multi-loop feedback structures are common place.
Modern autopilots use computer software to control the aircraft.

The software reads the aircraft's current position, and controls a fly-by-wire system to
guide the aircraft.
The autopilot reads its position and the aircraft's attitude from an inertial guidance system.
Inertial guidance systems accumulate errors over time. These errors are corrected by using
satellite navigation systems and altimeters.

The disagreements between the two are resolved with digital signal processing, most often a
six-dimensional Kalman filter. The six dimensions are usually roll, pitch, yaw, altitude,
latitude and longitude.
In such a system, besides classic flight controls, many autopilots will control throttles
to optimize the air-speed, and move fuel to different tanks to balance the aircraft in
an optimal attitude in the air.
Heading control

Wings Level: enable this to keep your plane horizontal- usually used at Go-Arounds.

Velocity control

Speed with Throttle: speed will be

regulated to the selected speed by
controlling throttle.

Speed with Pitch: your plane will be

pushed down or up to reach the
selected speed. This can not be used
during takeoff, landing or low altitude
flights. Doing so could cause a crash.
Pitch/Altitude control

Vertical Speed: set the speed of vertical

climb. Usually used as "feet per
minute"

AoA Hold: The Angle of Attack

describes the angle of the wings to
direction of the circumfluent air. Very
important then the lift of the wing
depends on the AoA. A too high AoA let
the aircraft stall.

Altitude Hold: the desired altitude of

your plane in feet (FL1=100 ft,
FL25=2500 ft etc.).

NAV1 Glideslope: The vertical slope

which led the aircraft from the
interception point down to Runway
level-used only with ILS.
Let's consider the example of a pilot who has activated a single-axis autopilot: “wing level”.
The pilot sets a control mode to maintain the wings in a level position.

However, even in the smoothest air, a wing will eventually dip.

Position sensors on the wing detect this deflection and send a signal to the autopilot computer.

The autopilot computer processes the input data and determines that the wings are no longer
level.

The autopilot computer sends a signal to the servos that control the aircraft's ailerons. The
signal is a very specific command telling the servo to make a precise adjustment.

Each servo has a small electric motor fitted with a slip clutch that, through a bridle cable, grips
the aileron cable. When the cable moves, the control surfaces move accordingly.
As the ailerons are adjusted based on the input data, the wings move back toward level.

The autopilot computer removes the command when the position sensor on the wing
detects that the wings are once again level.

The servos cease to apply pressure on the aileron cables.

This loop works continuously, many times a second, much more quickly and smoothly than a
human pilot could.

Two- and three-axis autopilots obey the same principles, employing multiple processors that
control multiple surfaces.

Some airplanes even have auto-thrust computers to control engine thrust.

Autopilot and autothrust systems can work together to perform very complex maneuvers.
The Root Locus
The Root Locus Plot

The root locus plot is a graphical representation of the dependence of the closed-loop
poles on the gain, for a given choice of controller H(s). (The system, G(s), is already
specified and is outside the designer’s influence.) More specifically, it consists of a set of
loci, each of which is the path taken by a given pole as K varies from zero to infinity.

A useful, and simple, example system is the mass-spring-damper arrangement shown in

Figure. This has equation of motion

On taking Laplace transforms, we find the transfer function

The open-loop poles of the system are thus at

with the real part corresponding to damping, and the

imaginary to the resonance frequency. We now consider
Mass-spring-damper system
two possible control strategies.
Stiffness augmentation
If we wish to increase the effective stiffness of the system, then we need to apply an
additional force proportional to the displacement, x. This can be achieved by the feedback
control system shown in Figure.

H(s) = 1.

The root locus plot for this arrangement, with

m = 1kg, l = 2 Ns/m and k = 10N/m, is shown in
Figure.

There are two poles, which take the open-loop

values (equation) when K = 0, since then the
control is effectively disconnected.

As K is increased, the poles follow vertical loci,

as one would expect from the form of
(equation) (imagine k increasing).
Damping augmentation
To increase the effective damping of the system, we need to feed back a force proportional
to the velocity of the mass, and this is achieved by the feedback control system illustrated in
Figure.

The corresponding root locus plot

(parameters as previously) is shown in
Figure. The pole loci still start at the
open-loop values, but now follow
completely different paths. The form of
these paths can, however, still be
anticipated from equation (imagine l
increasing). So, given a system, G(s), and
a chosen controller, H(s), we can use the
root locus plot to choose an appropriate
gain, K.
Example :
Stability augmentation systems make the aircraft more stable. There are SASs for both the
dynamic stability (whether the eigenmotions don’t diverge) and the static stability
(whether the equilibrium position itself is stable).

: Acquiring dynamic stability

When an aircraft has a low speed at a high altitude, the Dutch roll properties of the
aircraft deteriorate. → to prevent this, a yaw damper is used.
The yaw damper gets its input (feedback) from the yaw rate gyro. It then sends a signal
to the rudder servo. The rudder is then moved in such a way that the Dutch roll is
damped much more quickly than usual.
➢ YAW DAMPER SYSTEMS

Yaw damper systems detect infinitesimal yaw variations from the desired flight path.

Variations are sensed by the rate gyros, and the system corrects for them by mechanically
deflecting the rudder by an amount proportional to the rate of yaw:

(i.e. applying maximum rudder deflection when the rate of yaw is maximum)
By using this method, it is possible to
stop the Dutch roll before the effects
are felt.

Most transport category aircraft have

at least two yaw damper systems,
which operate continually, and in their
basic operation act independently of
the autopilot system.

On some aircraft, however, the yaw

dampers additionally co-ordinate turns
made by the pilot or autopilot from
information sensed in the aileron
control circuit

Each system has its own yaw damper

controller, which provides signals to
operate a yaw damper actuator, which
in turn generates rudder control inputs.

The inputs normally operate in series

with the pilot input and do not result in
rudder pedal movement.
The yaw damper stabilises
the yawing motion of the
aircraft by feeding back a
yaw rate signal to the
rudder.

For the transport aircraft

sample rudder to yaw rate
transfer function is
and the addition of a rudder servo transfer function, here 4/(s+4), gives us the transfer
function between pilot rudder input and yaw rate.
The open-loop response of the yaw rate to an impulse in pilot rudder input is plotted:

Rudder command to yaw rate

The underdamped Dutch roll, impulse response
which only showed up slightly in
the roll angle response to the
ailerons, now dominates the
impulse response.

The influence of the spiral

mode is clear too, in the slow
return to equilibrium after the
Dutch roll has died away.
To design the control system, we again consider the root locus plot:

As the loop gain is increased, the Dutch roll poles move firstly into the left hand half-plane,
then back towards the open-loop zeros with small real parts, while both the spiral mode and
the roll subsidence poles move leftwards.

In the latter case, for higher gains, an oscillatory mode is formed with the rudder servo pole.

Clearly there is an optimum

gain for maximising the
Dutch roll damping, and this
is around 0.2.

Happily, this gain is low

enough to avoid creating the
new oscillatory mode, and
we can now go ahead and
consider the closed-loop
system characteristics.
Root locus plot for the
yaw damper
The increase in Dutch roll and spiral mode damping is clearly apparent in the closed-loop
impulse response (Figure), which shows far less oscillation than before, and settles back very
quickly to equilibrium.

We might thus conclude that this design is successful as it stands.

However, it turns out

that an aircraft with Closed-loop rudder command to yaw
this SAS would be very rate impulse response
difficult to fly.

The reason lies in the

stabilisation of the
spiral mode.
From the impulse response, we can see that an almost constant yaw rate can be achieved
with a rudder input impulse, thanks to the slow decay of the spiral mode, and pilots use this
to advantage when turning the aircraft.

In the closed-loop system, a continual rudder input is required to produce a constant yaw
rate, and the plane therefore does not behave in the expected way.

This problem can Closed-loop rudder command to yaw

be solved using a rate impulse response
high-pass, or
‘wash-out’, filter in
the feedback loop,
as described in the
next example.
Reference: Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics