UNIT 3 - BASIC CONCEPTS

STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Society
3.2.1 Meaning and Nature of Society
3.2.2 Characteristics of Society
3.3.3 Types of Societies:
3.3.4 Functions of Societies
3.3 Culture
3.3.1 Meaning and Definition of Culture
3.3.2 Characteristics of Culture
3.3.3 Elements of Culture
3.3.4 Functions of Culture
3.4 Social Structure
3.4.1 Meaning and Definition of Social Structure
3.4.2 Characteristics of Social Structure
3.4.3 Levels of Social Structure
3.4.4 Functions of Social Structure
3.5 Social System
3.5.1 Meaning of Social System:
3.5.2 Elements of Social System:
3.5.3 Characteristics of Social System:
3.5.4 Types of Social System:
3.5.5 Functions of Social System:
3.6 Community
3.6.1 Meaning and Definitions of Community:
3.6.2 Types of Community:
3.6.3 Characteristics of Community:

66
3.6.4 Functions of Community
3.7 Association
3.7.1 Meaning and Definition of an Association
3.7.2 Essential Elements of an Association:
3.7.3 Main characteristics of an Association
3.7.4 Functions of an Association
3.8 Social Organization
3.8.1 Meaning and Definition of Social Organization
3.8.2 Characteristics of Social Organization
3.8.3 Types of Social Organization
3.8.4 Functions of Social Organization
3.9 Let’s Sum it up
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.12 Some useful books
3.13 Terminal Questions

3.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to;

 Define the concepts of society and culture

 Explain different types of social structures
 Elaborate the various social systems
 Explain the concept of community
 Define and describe association
 Define and explain social organization

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The society in which we live determines everything from the food we eat to the choices we
make. The word society comes from the Latin root socius, meaning “companion” or “being
with others.” A society consists of people who share a territory, who interact with each other,

67
and who share a culture. Some societies are, in fact, groups of people united by friendship or
common interests. Our respective societies teach us how to behave, what to believe, and how
we’ll be punished if we don’t follow the laws or customs in place.
Sociologists study the way people learn about their own society’s cultures and how they
discover their place within those cultures.
They also examine the ways in which people from differing cultures interact and sometimes
clash—and how mutual understanding and respect might be reached.

3.2 SOCIETY

In everyday life the term, society is used for various kinds of social units or social aggregates
as if it exists ‘out there’ and beyond the individual subject such as Indian Society, French
Society, American Society, Capitalist Society, etc. At many times, we associate this term for
secondary associations—Indian Sociological Society, The Theosophical Society, Society for
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals or to Children.
Likewise, in everyday speech, there is probably little distinction being made between society
and nation, whereas in sociology such distinction would be significant. Not only this, the
word ‘society” is interchangeably used for the community also.
Such a usage has its problems. Because of these problems Wallerstein argued that the concept
of ‘society’ should be dropped from social analysis. Some symbolic interactionist says that
there is no such thing as society. It is a useful covering term for things we do not know about
or understand properly. Others, such as Emile Durkheim, treat society as a reality in its own
right.
As against its common-sense usage, sociologists use this term in a specific sense and in a
precise way. In social sciences for nineteenth century there is a long debate about the use of
the concept ‘society’. It was taken to mean as tissues of manners and customs that hold a
group of people together. In some sense, ‘society represented something more enduring and
deeper than the ‘state’, less manipu-lative and certainly more elusive.

68
Fig 3.1 Society

3.2.1 Meaning and Nature of Society

The term society is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’ which means ‘association,
companionship, togetherness. Thus, society refers to a group of people living together with
shared cultures, having social interactions and inter-relationships.Society has been viewed as
a system, made up of inter-related and inter-dependent parts that function together to
maintain the system as a whole.
In sociology, the term society refers not to a group of people but to the complete pattern of
the norms of interaction that arise among them. It is a process rather than a thing, motion
rather than structure. The important aspect of society is the system of relationships, the
patterns of norms of interaction by which the members of society maintain themselves.
Some sociologists say that society exists only when the members know each other and
possess common interests or objects. Thus, if two persons are traveling in a bus, their
relationship of co-existence in the same compartment, of being same time in the same place
does not constitute society but as soon as possible they come to know each other, the element
of society is created. This idea of reciprocal awareness is implied in Giddings’s definition of
society as “a number of like-minded individuals, who know and enjoy their like-mindedness
and are therefore able to work together for common ends.”
Different scholars have defined society in various ways:
To Anthony Giddings, ‘Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal
relations in which associating individuals are bound together.
To Talcott Parson ‘Society may be defined as the total complex of human relationships in so
far as they grow out of action in terms of mean-end relationships intrinsic or symbolic.’

69
To R.T. LaPierre ‘Society refers not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of norms
of interaction that arise among and between them’.
According to sociologists, a Society is a group of people with common territory, interaction,
and culture. Social Groups consist of two or more people who interact and identify with one
another.
Territory
Most countries have formal boundaries and territory that the world recognizes as theirs.
However, a society’s boundaries don’t have to be geopolitical borders, such as the one
between the United States and Canada. Instead, members of a society, as well as non-
members, must recognize particular land as belonging to that society.
Example: The society of the Yanomamo has fluid but definable land boundaries. Located in a
South American rain forest, Yanamamo territory extends along the border of Brazil and
Venezuela. While outsiders would have a hard time determining where Yanomamo land
begins and ends, the Yanomamo and their neighbours have no trouble discerning which land
is theirs and which is not.
Interaction
Members of a society must come in contact with one another. If a group of people within a
country has no regular contact with another group, those groups cannot be considered part of
the same society. Geographic distance and language barriers can separate societies within a
country.
Example: Although Islam was practiced in both parts of the country, the residents of East
Pakistan spoke Bengali, while the residents of West Pakistan spoke Urdu. Geographic
distance, language differences, and other factors proved insurmountable. In 1971, the nation
split into two countries, with West Pakistan assuming the name Pakistan and East Pakistan
becoming Bangladesh. Within each newly formed society, people had a common culture,
history, and language, and distance was no longer a factor.

Culture
People of the same society share aspects of their culture, such as language or beliefs. Culture
refers to the language, values, beliefs, behaviour, and material objects that constitute a
people’s way of life. It is a defining element of society.
Example: Some features of American culture are the English language, a democratic system
of government, cuisine (such as hamburgers and corn on the cob), and a belief in
individualism and freedom.
70
Pluralism
The United States is a society composed of many groups of people, some of whom originally
belonged to other societies. Sociologists consider the United States a Pluralistic Society,
meaning it is built of many groups. As societies modernize, they attract people from countries
where there may be economic hardship, political unrest, or religious persecution. Since the
industrialized countries of the West were the first to modernize, these countries tend to be
more pluralistic than countries in other parts of the world.
Many people came to the United States between the mid-nineteenth and mid-twentieth
centuries. Fleeing poverty and religious persecution, these immigrants arrived in waves from
Europe and Asia and helped create the pluralism that makes the United States unique.
Both cities and regions reflect pluralism in the United States. Most major American cities
have areas in which people from particular backgrounds are concentrated, such as Little Italy
in New York, Chinatown in San Francisco, and Little Havana in Miami. Regionally, people
of Mexican descent tend to live in those states that border Mexico. Individuals of Cuban
descent are concentrated in Florida. Spanish-speaking people from other Caribbean islands,
such as Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, are more likely to live in the Northeast.
Assimilation
Some practices that are common in other societies will inevitably offend or contradict the
values and beliefs of the new society. Groups seeking to become part of a pluralistic society
often have to give up many of their original traditions in order to fit in—a process known as
Assimilation.
Example: When people arrive in the United States from other countries, they most likely
speak a foreign language. As they live here, they generally learn at least some English, and
many become fluent. Their children are most likely bilingual, speaking English as well as the
language of their parents. By the third generation, the language originally spoken by their
grandparents is often lost.
In pluralistic societies, groups do not have to give up all of their former beliefs and practices.
Many groups within a pluralistic society retain their ethnic traditions.
Example: Although Chinese immigrants started arriving in the United States 150 years ago,
Chinese-American communities still follow some traditions, such as celebrating the Lunar
New Year.
Equality
In a truly pluralistic society, no one group is officially considered more influential than
another. In keeping with this belief, the United States does not, for example, put a legal quota
71
on how many Italian Americans can vote in national elections, how many African Americans
may run for public office, or how many Vietnamese Americans can live on a certain street.
However, powerful informal mechanisms, such as prejudice and discrimination, work to keep
many groups out of the political process or out of certain neighbourhoods.

3.2.2 Characteristics of Society

A comprehensive understanding of society requires a thorough analysis of its characteristics.

But the term society could be understood both from a narrower and broader sense. In a
narrowersense society refers to a group of people but in a broader sense it refers to the whole
human society. However, society has the following characteristics:
1. Society is abstract:
If society is viewed as web of social relationships, it is distinct from physical entity which we
can see andperceive through senses. As written earlier, Maclver argued, “we may see the
people but cannot see society orsocial structure, but only its only external aspects”. Social
relationships are invisible and abstract. We can justrealize them but cannot see or touch them.
Therefore, society is abstract. Reuter wrote: “Just as life is not a thing but a process of living,
so society is not a thing but a process of associating”.
2. Likeness and difference in society:
Society involves both likeness and difference. If people are all exactly alike, merely alike,
their relationshipswould be limited. There would be little give-and- take and little reciprocity.
If all men thought alike, felt alike,and acted alike, if they had the same standards and same
interests, if they all accepted the same customs andechoed the same opinions without
questioning and without variation, civilization could never have advancedand culture would
have remained rudimentary. Thus, society needs difference also for its existence
andcontinuance.
We can illustrate this point through the most familiar example of family. The family rests
upon the biologicaldifferences between the sexes. There are natural differences of aptitude, of
capacity, of interest. For they allinvolve relationships in which differences complement one
another, in which exchange take place.
Likeness and difference are logical opposites but for understanding likeness, comprehension
of its relation tothe other is necessary. Society exists among those who have some degree of
likeness in mind and in body.
Giddings called this quality of society as “consciousness of kind” (a sense of likeness).
Though likeness anddifference both are necessary for the society to exist, but difference is

72
always subordinated to likeness insociety. Likeness has a predominant share in the
constitution of society.
3. Cooperation and conflict in society:
Cooperation and conflict are universal elements in human life. Society is based on
cooperation but because ofinternal differences, there is conflict also among its members. This
is why, Maclver and Page observed that“society is cooperation crossed by conflict”. We
know from our own experience that a person would behandicapped, showed down, and feels
frustrated if he is expected to do everything alone, without the aid ofothers. “Cooperation is
most elementary process of social life without which society is impossible” (Gisbert,1957).
4. Society is a process and not a product:
“Society exists only as a time sequence. It is becoming, not a being; a process and not a
product” (Maclver andPage, 1956). In other words, as soon as the process ceases, the product
disappears. The product of a machineendures after the machine has been scrapped. To some
extent the same is true not only of material relics ofman’s past culture but even of his
immaterial cultural achievements.
5. Society as a system of stratification:
Society provides a system of stratification of statuses and classes that each individual has a
relatively stable andrecognizable position in the social structure.

3.3.3 Types of Societies:

We can classify societies based on their functions as well how different societies have
emerged over the history. The following diagram show a gist of all the different types of
societies that we may commonly come across.

73
 Based on the historical
Based on functions
timeline

1.Hunting and
Political societies
gathering societies

Charitable societies 1.Pastoral societies

Economic cooperative 1.Horticultural

societies societies

Religious and cultural 1.Agricultural

societies societies

1.Industrial societies

1.Post-industrial
societies

Fig :3.2Types of Societies

Based on functions of the societies, we can divide them into the flow
flowing
ing four categories:

1. Political societies
2. Charitable societies
3. Economic cooperative societies
4. Religious and cultural societies

Let us see each of them in detail:

1. Professional Societies:
These societies are promoted by the professionals to enhance their profession andbring out a
common code of conduct. These societies are also termed as associations
associations.. They also include
information societies, knowledge societies, academic societies and scientific societies,
viz.,Indian Management Association, Indian Society of Chartered Accountants, Association
of Indian Universities,Indian
ndian Medical Association, etc.
2. Charitable Societies:

74
These are non-profit organizations to help the needy persons of the societies.Sometimes, they
are also known as Non-Government Organizations, financially supported by corporate
andother philanthropists.
3. Economic Cooperative Societies:
Many societies like housing, agroprocessing, credit, marketing etc., help their members in the
particular trade, either through their own resources or from the Government. Examples are
cooperative housing societies, cooperative banks, district marketing co-operative societies,
each helping in marketing specific product like tea, coffee, jute, plantation, etc.
4. Religious and Cultural Societies:
These societies are formed to revive and maintain specific cultures,traditions and religious
foundations. Examples are ISKON, Swaminarayan Temple Trust, Church associations,etc.
Human beings have created and lived in several types of societies throughout history.
Sociologists have classified the different types of societies into six categories, each of which
possesses their own unique characteristics:

1. Hunting and gathering societies

2. Pastoral societies
3. Horticultural societies
4. Agricultural societies
5. Industrial societies
6. Post-industrial societies

Let us discuss them in detail:

Hunting and gathering societies
The simplest type of society that is in existence today and that may be regarded as the oldest
is that whose economic organization is based on hunting and gathering. This society depends
on hunting and gathering for its survival.
Hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate the strongest dependence on the environment of the
various types of preindustrial societies. As the basic structure of human society until about
10,000–12,000 years ago, these groups were based around kinship or tribes. Hunter-gatherers
relied on their surroundings for survival—they hunted wild animals and foraged for
uncultivated plants for food. When resources became scarce, the group moved to a new area
to find sustenance, meaning they were nomadic.

75
These societies were common until several hundred years ago, but today only a few hundred
remain in existence, such as indigenous Australian tribes sometimes referred to as
“aborigines,” or the Bambuti, a group of pygmy hunter-gatherers residing in the Democratic
Republic of Congo. Hunter-gatherer groups are quickly disappearing as the world’s
population explodes.
Pastoral societies
Pastoral societies are those whose livelihood is based on pasturing of animals, such as cattle,
camels, sheep, and goats.
Changing conditions and adaptations led some societies to rely on the domestication of
animals where circumstances permitted. Roughly 7,500 years ago, human societies began to
recognize their ability to tame and breed animals and to grow and cultivate their own plants.
Pastoral societies, such as the Maasai villagers, rely on the domestication of animals as a
resource for survival.
Unlike earlier hunter-gatherers who depended entirely on existing resources to stay alive,
pastoral groups were able to breed livestock for food, clothing, and transportation, and they
created a surplus of goods. Herding, or pastoral, societies remained nomadic because they
were forced to follow their animals to fresh feeding grounds. Around the time that pastoral
societies emerged, specialized occupations began to develop, and societies commenced
trading with local groups.
Horticultural societies
Horticultural societies are those whose economy is based on cultivating plants by the use of
simple tools, such as digging sticks, hoes, axes, etc.
Around the same time that pastoral societies were on the rise, another type of society
developed, based on the newly developed capacity for people to grow and cultivate plants.
Previously, the depletion of a region’s crops or water supply forced pastoral societies to
relocate in search of food sources for their livestock.
Horticultural societies formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed them to
grow stable crops. They were similar to hunter-gatherers in that they largely depended on the
environment for survival, but since they didn’t have to abandon their location to follow
resources, they were able to start permanent settlements. This created more stability and more
material goods and became the basis for the first revolution in human survival.
Agricultural or Agrarian societies
This society, which still is dominant in most parts of the world, is based on large-scale
agriculture, which largely depends on ploughs using animal labour.
76
While pastoral and horticultural societies used small, temporary tools such as digging sticks
or hoes, agricultural societies relied on permanent tools for survival. Around 3000 B.C.E., an
explosion of new technology known as the Agricultural Revolution made farming possible—
and profitable.
Farmers learned to rotate the types of crops grown on their fields and to reuse waste products
such as manure as fertilizer, which led to better harvests and bigger surpluses of food. New
tools for digging and harvesting were made of metal, and this made them more effective and
longer lasting. Human settlements grew into towns and cities, and particularly bountiful
regions became centres of trade and commerce.
This is also the age in which people had the time and comfort to engage in more
contemplative and thoughtful activities, such as music, poetry, and philosophy. This period
became referred to as the “dawn of civilization” by some because of the development of
leisure and humanities. Craftspeople were able to support themselves through the production
of creative, decorative, or thought-provoking aesthetic objects and writings.
As resources became more plentiful, social classes became more divisive. Those who had
more resources could afford better living and developed into a class of nobility. Difference in
social standing between men and women increased. As cities expanded, ownership and
preservation of resources became a pressing concern.
Industrial or Modern or Technological Society
The Industrial Revolution which began in Great Britain during the 18th century gave rise to
the emergence of industrial society. Industrial society is one in which goods are produced by
machines powered by fuels instead of by animal and human energy.
In the eighteenth century, Europe experienced a dramatic rise in technological invention,
ushering in an era known as the Industrial Revolution. What made this period remarkable was
the number of new inventions that influenced people’s daily lives. Within a generation, tasks
that had until this point required months of labour became achievable in a matter of days.
Before the Industrial Revolution, work was largely person- or animal-based, and relied on
human workers or horses to power mills and drive pumps. In 1782, James Watt and Matthew
Boulton created a steam engine that could do the work of twelve horses by itself.
Steam power began appearing everywhere. Instead of paying artisans to painstakingly spin
wool and weave it into cloth, people turned to textile mills that produced fabric quickly at a
better price and often with better quality.
Rather than planting and harvesting fields by hand, farmers were able to purchase mechanical
seeders and threshing machines that caused agricultural productivity to soar. Products such as
77
paper and glass became available to the average person, and the quality and accessibility of
education and health care soared. Gas lights allowed increased visibility in the dark, and
towns and cities developed a nightlife.
One of the results of increased productivity and technology was the rise of urban centres.
Workers flocked to factories for jobs, and the populations of cities became increasingly
diverse. The new generation became less preoccupied with maintaining family land and
traditions and more focused on acquiring wealth and achieving upward mobility for
themselves and their families. People wanted their children and their children’s children to
continue to rise to the top, and as capitalism increased, so did social mobility.
It was during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries of the Industrial Revolution that
sociology was born. Life was changing quickly and the long-established traditions of the
agricultural eras did not apply to life in the larger cities. Masses of people were moving to
new environments and often found themselves faced with horrendous conditions of filth,
overcrowding, and poverty. Social scientists emerged to study the relationship between the
individual members of society and society as a whole.
It was during this time that power moved from the hands of the aristocracy and “old money”
to business-savvy newcomers who amassed fortunes in their lifetimes. Families such as the
Rockefellers and the Vanderbilts became the new power players and used their influence in
business to control aspects of government as well. Eventually, concerns over the exploitation
of workers led to the formation of labor unions and laws that set mandatory conditions for
employees. Although the introduction of new technology at the end of the nineteenth century
ended the industrial age, much of our social structure and social ideas—like family,
childhood, and time standardization—have a basis in industrial society.
Post-industrial Society
Sociologists also have come up with a fifth emerging type of society called post-industrial
society. This is a society based on information, services, and high technology, rather than on
raw materials and manufacturing. The highly industrialized which have now entered the post-
industrial level include the USA, Canada, Japan, and Western Europe.
Information societies, sometimes known as post-industrial or digital societies, are a recent
development. Unlike industrial societies that are rooted in the production of material goods,
information societies are based on the production of information and services.
Digital technology is the steam engine of information societies, and computer moguls such as
Steve Jobs and Bill Gates are its John D. Rockefellers and Cornelius Vanderbilts. Since the

78
economy of information societies is driven by knowledge and not material goods, power lies
with those in charge of storing and distributing information.
Members of a post-industrial society are likely to be employed as sellers of services—
software programmers or business consultants, for example—instead of producers of goods.
Social classes are divided by access to education, since without technical skills, people in an
information society lack the means for success.
Pre-Industrial Industrial
Social structure is comparatively Social structure is complex.
simple.Simpledivision of labour, Complexdivision of labour which
which is mostly based on age is basedon personal talents,
and sex. E.g., such as men- abilities, efficiency,experience
hunting and fishingand women and preferences than age and sex.
raising children or gathering food.
Fewer statuses and roles. A vast number of statuses and
rolesemerges.
Social institutions other than Social institutions such as
family and kinship,are either non- marriage, familyand kinship,
existent or in a developing stage. economy, polity, education, etc.
aremuch developed.
Social life occurs domination of Social life occurs in the context of
primary groupssuch as family, secondarygroups and large
kinship groups, small anonymous urban communities.
communities,etc. So, social So, social relationships are non-
relationships are intimate and intimate, impersonal, andwith
emotional. little or no emotional
involvement.
Statuses are normally ascribed. Many statuses are achieved.
There is social mobility to move
up anddown the status based on
personal talents,capacities,
efficiencies, etc.
Homogeneous culture is the ways Heterogeneous culture as there is
of thinking,behaving, dressing, a diversityand pluralism of values,

79
conversing, believing, outlooks, opinions,and beliefs.
etc.resemble among the members.
Unity anduniformity in social life
are largely visible.
Social control i.e., behaviour of Social control i.e., behaviour of
the people isregulated by informal the people isregulated by more
means such as socialcustoms, formal or institutionalizedmeans
traditions, folkways, mores. like laws, legislations, written
contractswith specific penalties
and procedures for dealing
with offenders.
The rate of social change is Rapid social change becomes a
usually very slowas people are normalstate of attires as people’s
normally not ready for the sudden identity changeas progress
change. towards a better life.
Table :3.1

3.3.4 Functions of Societies

The functions of society are aimed at ensuring the survival and progress of individuals. Some
of the most important are meeting basic needs, preserving order or education. In that sense,
society is a form of organization in which people agree and order their way of life and the
way in which they manage their resources.
To this end, institutions such as the set of rules or organizations that coordinate the behaviour
of people in relation to an area of their lives have emerged. The state, the church or the
security corps, are examples of such institutions. Society is the object of study of sociologists
and has been the concern of many philosophers throughout history.
Among the main functions of society are:
1. Satisfaction of basic needs
It is the primary function of society; organize people and their actions in such a way that they
are guaranteed food, shelter and vital protection.Here also enters the public health that,
although usually falls in the State, is a primary necessity of the organized people; ensure
sanitation to prevent the spread of disease and medical care should it be required.
2. Preservation of order

80
It is the function that involves the different security bodies, formal and informal, created to
protect the life and assets of individuals.They become a social institution because their role is
to meet a fundamental need of people.The order also refers to the rules, norms or laws that
guide the behaviour of people in the different stages and situations of their life from birth to
death.Some philosophers have proposed that this is the main function of man's organization
in society: to control his wild and irrational impulses.
3. Management of education
Within society, individuals acquire the knowledge necessary to interact with their peers, in
the first instance. But then, they are also trained to make the most of their abilities, talents and
interests.
Living in community, allows the human being to be social by nature, to discover and develop
his own personality by putting it into action in front of another human being.This community
should provide the conditions necessary for each individual to have the opportunity to learn
from the language, history and culture of that group, to how to use their own abilities for their
growth and progress within the group.
4. Management of the economy
The distribution of goods and services is another concern within a social group.The society,
as a system, generates and distributes the material goods and services that will be dedicated to
satisfy the basic and secondary needs of the human beings that comprise it.This distribution is
according to the social and political philosophy that society assumes as its own.
5. Power management
Just as the distribution of goods and services is a crucial concern within society, the shaping
of figures and / or power groups also occupies much of society life.The administration of
power from the institutions is what has led the human being to face in wars and disputes
throughout its history.
Depending on the socio-political doctrine that prevails in a particular social group, that power
will be centralized in the State or distributed among the different institutions that make up
that group.In this function appears that human dimension according to which the roles of
dominion or submission are adopted and the most primitive tensions of the desire to possess
are resolved.
In fact, the delimitation of a territory of dominion, enters into this function since the
territorial limits will end up being the jurisdictional limits.This also means that power
management must take place within the social group but also in relation to other groups.
6. Division of labour
81
The organization in society also allows defining the roles in the work that each individual
will fulfil given the needs to be met.Raising constructions, providing security and food,
educating, establishing communication channels, developing technologies are all tasks that
involve the conjunction of different roles and the application of different levels of strength
and intelligence.
Living in society makes clear this reality and guides people towards a distribution of the
workforce that allows all tasks are fulfilled to provide well-being to individuals.
7. Communication management
For the human being is inherent the need for expression and communication, so in society the
conditions are created for this need to be fulfilled.This includes from language to
communication channels (streets, bridges, etc.) between different members of the social
group, as well as between these and other social groups.
If oral or artistic expressions such as dance or paintings were the most used forms of
communication in primitive societies, today are the technologies of communication and
information (ICTs), which facilitate this task.Members of society are concerned with using
the communication tools that are available and developing increasingly sophisticated ones, in
order to ensure the continuity of the culture of that group in the next generations.
8. Preservation and transmission of culture
Each society develops common forms of behaviour that are transmitted between its members
and the following generations.
This is a necessary function for the distinction of social groups and for the preservation of
diversity.
Culture is influenced by the conditions or characteristics that surround the social group,
whether geographic, historical or political. The way of doing things to survive, is learned in
the relationship with others that is propitiated in society.
9. Leisure
The fun of the members of a social group it is also something that must be considered, since
the human being also requires moments of relaxation.Living in society facilitates the
necessary infrastructure and technology so that people can take advantage of their free time
as they prefer.
Regardless of the diverse opinions that may be generated in the face of this or that form of
experiencing leisure, social groups generate these spaces and with it contribute to satisfy
another human need that, in the end, affects the health of people.
10. Religiosity
82
The human being throughout its history and regardless of its location, has manifested the
imperative need to experience their religiosity. That expression of a relationship with
transcendence.Man seems to have the need to believe that there is something superior to him,
an origin of All. Based on this need, different answers have been elaborated, which then
materialize in different religious expressions.
To live in society allows to share with others the experience of a religion, of a communion
with another entity that seems to give meaning to life.Religiousness also functions as a social
atomizer, as a form of organization in which very specific rules, codes and forms of
communication of the believers are developed in the same dogma.
All these functions are interdependent and progressive in their complexity since the more
mature a society, the more refined the ways in which those functions must be fulfilled.

Check your progress 1

Q 1 Define society.

...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................

Q 2 What are some of the types of societies?

......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
..................

3.3 CULTURE

Humans are social creatures. According to Smithsonian Institution research, humans have
been forming groups for almost 3 million years in order to survive. Living together, people

83
formed common habits and behaviours, from specific methods of childrearing to preferred
techniques for obtaining food.
Most people want to live their daily lives confident that their behaviours will not be
challenged or disrupted. But even an action as seemingly simple as commuting to work
evidences a great deal of cultural propriety, that is, there are a lot of expected behaviours.
And many interpretations of them.

3.3.1 Meaning and Definition of Culture

Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language, marriage,
music and is different all over the world.Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a
particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and
arts.
The word "culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin "colere,"
which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture, according to Arthur
Asa Berger.
Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate") generally
refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities
significance and importance. Cultures can be "understood as systems of symbols and
meanings that even their creators contest, that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in
flux, and that interact and compete with one another."
Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a
population that are passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been called "the
way of life for an entire society." As such, it includes codes of manners, dress, language,
religion, rituals, art. norms of behaviour, such as law and morality, and systems of belief.

3.3.2 Characteristics of Culture

Some of the important characteristics of a culture are as follows:

1. Culture is a social phenomenon. It is shared by the members of a society. It is a means of
dealing with the problems of life, i.e., human needs.
2. Culture is learned as well as acquired from the ancestors. It is not inborn and instinctive
like racial characteristics which are genetically trans-mitted. A human infant is quite helpless
at the time of birth. He is taught to eat, drink, speak, and walk and to perform all overt
actions.

84
3. Culture is transferable or trans missive. It is transmitted from generation to generation
through the process of communication and interaction or historically derived.
4. Culture is material or concrete (objects like building, machinery, tools, implements,
ornaments, etc.) and non-material or abstract (things such as ideas, customs, beliefs, values,
superstitions, etc.). Saluting a flag, kissing, voting and pra3dng are examples of non-material
culture.
5. Culture is both super-individual and super-organic. Super-individual simply means that
any culture more than any individual. Its origin, development, continuity and refinement do
not depend on individual’s existence.
6. Culture is symbolic. A symbol is something that is used to represent something else. These
may be physical objects like flags, crosses or may be signs at the road crossings, or acts like
shaking hands, kisses or something else such as words, numbers or sequence of sounds, etc.
All symbols have some or the other meanings bestowed upon them by those who use them.
All human behaviour originated in the use of symbols. Thus, all civiliza-tions have been
generated and perpetuated only by the use of symbols.
7. Culture is dynamic and adaptive both. It is constantly changing. It is cumulative and
progressive. Noted American sociologist Kimball Young wrote that ‘culture is expanding and
persisting accumulation of ways of doing and thinking which one generation hands down to
the next’.
8. Culture is composed of ethos (formal appearance of culture) and eidos (cognitive process
of culture) both. Ethos deals with the qualities that pervade the whole culture, while eidos
refers to the general principles which give coherence to a system of belief.
9. Culture is basically the solution to man’s basic needs such as food, shelter, reproduction
and hygiene. It also creates needs. It is both rewarding and frustrating. Its origin is grounded
in the needs of human beings.

3.3.3 Elements of Culture

Culture can be material or nonmaterial. Metro passes and bus tokens are part of material
culture, as are the buses, subway cars, and the physical structures of the bus stop. Think of
material culture as items you can touch-they are tangible. Nonmaterial culture, in contrast,
consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. These are things you cannot touch.
They are intangible. You may believe that a line should be formed to enter the subway car or
that other passengers should not stand so close to you. Those beliefs are intangible because
they do not have physical properties and can be touched.

85
Material and nonmaterial aspects of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize
cultural ideas. A metro pass is a material object, but it represents a form of nonmaterial
culture, namely, capitalism, and the acceptance of paying for transportation. Clothing,
hairstyles, and jewellery are part of material culture, but the appropriateness of wearing
certain clothing for specific events reflects nonmaterial culture. A school building belongs to
material culture symbolizing education, but the teaching methods and educational standards
are part of education’s nonmaterial culture.

3.3.4 Functions of Culture

1. Culture Defines Situations:

Each culture has many subtle cues which define each situation. It reveals whether one should
prepare to fight, run, laugh or make love. For example, suppose someone approaches you
with right hand outstretched at waist level. What does this mean? That he wishes to shake
hands in friendly greeting is perfectly obvious – obvious, that is to anyone familiar with our
culture.
But in another place or time the outstretched hand might mean hostility or warning. One does
not know what to do in a situation until he has defined the situation. Each society has its
insults and fighting words. The cues (hints) which define situations appear in infinite variety.
A person who moves from one society into another will spend many years misreading the
cues. For example, laughing at the wrong places.
2. Culture defines Attitudes, Values and Goals:
Each person learns in his culture what is good, true, and beautiful. Attitudes, values and goals
are defined by the culture. While the individual normally learns them as unconsciously as he
learns the language. Attitude are tendencies to feel and act in certain ways. Values are
measures of goodness or desirability, for example, we value private property, (representative)
Government and many other things and experience.
Goals are those attainments which our values define as worthy, (e.g.) winning the race,
gaining the affections of a particular girl, or becoming president of the firm. By approving
certain goals and ridiculing others, the culture channels individual ambitions. In these ways
culture determines the goals of life.
3. Culture defines Myths, Legends, and the Supernatural:
Myths and legends are important part of every culture. They may inspire, reinforce effort and
sacrifice and bring comfort in bereavement. Whether they are true is sociologically
unimportant. Ghosts are real to people who believe in them and who act upon this belief. We

86
cannot understand the behaviour of any group without knowing something of the myths,
legends, and supernatural beliefs they hold. Myths and legends are powerful forces in a
group’s behaviour.
Culture also provides the individual with a ready-made view of the universe. The nature of
divine power and the important moral issues are defined by the culture. The individual does
not have to select, but is trained in a Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim or some other
religious tradition. This tradition gives answers for the major (things imponderable) of life,
and fortuities the individual to meet life’s crises.
4. Culture provides Behaviour Patterns:
The individual need not go through painful trial and error learning to know what foods can be
eaten (without poisoning himself), or how to live among people without fear. He finds a
ready-made set of patterns awaiting him which he needs only to learn and follow. The culture
maps out the path to matrimony. The individual does not have to wonder how one secures a
mate; he knows the procedure defined by his culture.
If men use culture to advance their purposes, it seems clear also that a culture imposes limits
on human and activities. The need for order calls forth another function of culture that of so
directing behaviour that disorderly behaviour is restricted and orderly behaviour is promoted.
A society without rules or norms to define right and wrong behaviour would be very much
like a heavily travelled street without traffic signs or any understood rules for meeting and
passing vehicles. Chaos would be the result in either case.
Social order cannot rest on the assumption that men will spontaneously behave in ways
conducive to social harmony.

Check your progress 2

Q 1. Define culture
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
..................
Q 2. What are the main elements of culture?
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
..................
87
3.4 SOCIAL STRUCTURE

In every society there is a structural system, the society wishes to preserve it and is not
interested in changing that unless there are sound reasons for the same. Social structure is one
of the key concepts of sociology. But sociologists are not in complete agreement about its
definitions. Briefly speaking, a good structure is one in which there is a regularity and a kind
of permanency.

3.4.1 Meaning and Definition of Social Structure

The term structure refers to some sort of orderly arrangement of parts or components. For
example, a building has a structure which includes various parts such as roof, walls, doors
and windows etc. In the same way, society has a structure.
Social structure is the organized set of social institutions and patterns of institutionalized
relationships that together compose society. Social structure is both a product of social
interaction and directly determines it. Social structures are not immediately visible to the
untrained observer; however, they are always present and affect all dimensions of human
experience in society.
Some sociologists use the concept of ‘social structure’ to denote those kinds of groups by the
presence of a particular social bond. According to Moris Ginsberg, social structure is
concerned with the principal form of social organization, i.e., types of groups, associations
and institutions and the complex of these which constitute societies. Social structure thus
refers to the pattern and arrangement of institutional agencies and organizations.
There are others who say that social structure refers to the’ system of relations within the
society as whole, the system are social groups (collectives) or categories (collections) of
individuals. Raymond Firth says that social structure is “concerned with the ordered relations
of parts to a whole; with the arrangement in which the elements of social life are linked
together”.
Talcott Parsons applies it “to the particular arrangement of the inter-related institutions,
agencies and social patterns, as well as the statuses and roles which each person assumes in
the group”. The principal form of social organization such as the “types of groups,
associations and institutions and the complex of these are concern of social structure”.
According to H. M. Johnson, “The structure of anything consists of the relatively stable
interrelationship among its parts, moreover the term ‘part’ itself implies a certain degree of

88
stability. Since a social system is composed of interrelated acts of the people, its structure
must be sought in some degree of regularity of recurrence in these acts.

3.4.2 Characteristics of Social Structure

both sociologists and social anthropologists define social structure in terms of the
interrelations between the individuals and functioning of these ordered interrelationships in
the maintenance of the society.
The definitions given by various social anthropologists help us to bring out certain
characteristics of social structure. We enumerate these as under:
(i) Abstraction of empirical reality:
Empirical reality has a large number of details about the functioning of society. The
construction of social structure removes unnecessary details and brings out abstractions. For
instance, there are innumerable caste and tribal groups in India. Each caste has its locus and
functioning.
The tribes also have their own identity. In the formation of social structure, we delete the
names and specialities of each caste and tribal group. Instead, we use the terms ‘caste’ and
‘tribe’. These are abstractions.
(ii) Exists independently of the individuals:
In a social structure, individuals do not matter; they come and go. In our country we had
Gandhi, Nehru and Vinoba Bhave. They have left this world. Social structure is independent
of any individual-big or small.
It is concerned with the interactions between statuses: The family or the university is a social
structure notwithstanding the persons who are members of these structures. Radcliffe-Brown,
as mentioned earlier, very rightly says that Jack and Jill come and go but the structures
continue.
(iii) Persistent social group:
Milton Singer and Bernard Cohn edited a book on India entitled, Structure and Change in
Indian Society (1968). The contributors to this rather big volume discuss caste, joint family
and language as components of social structure in India.
The editors argue that the specialty of the Indian social structure is not only its change but
also its continuity. Thus, when we talk of social structure, we mean persistent social
interactions of varying statuses.
(iv) Retains continuity:

89
Throughout their discussions Radcliffe-Brown, Firth and Nadel insist that there may be a
change in social structure but there is an “ordered arrangements of parts” which are relatively
invariant. Interestingly, the parts themselves are variable but the nature of the social structure
is invariable.
This invariability of the parts of ordered arrangements gives continuity to social structure.
The members of a society are free to have social interactions as they like. There are a wide
range of choices. But the established institutionalized norms change little. They are invariant.
(v) Matrix (Origin) of society:
Erickson has defined social structure rather elaborately. He says that social structure is the
origin of society. It is the matrix of society. It is the sum total of all the statuses of society.
It contains norms, values, social control, polity, etc. There is difference in social structure and
social organization. Social organization is the society in function, it is an ongoing life. Social
structure is the abstraction of society. Man may come and go but the structure remains the
same.
(vi) Not concerned with the particular or unique:
One very important aspect of social structure is that it does not relate to the unusual or
unique. The mythological story of Mahabharata says that Kansa, who was Krishna’s mother’s
brother, killed his own sister’s children.
But, the general status of mother’s brother is not that of Kansa. Social structure is concerned,
therefore, with the usual or general and not specific or particular.
(vii) Having spatial dimensions:
Social structure is invariant and continuous. But it has its spatial aspects also; it is related to
place. Social structure is not the same all over the world. The kind of social structure that we
find in India is different from that in the US.
Each space has its particularity, its own history, and its own experiences. Therefore, the
nature of social structure varies from one locality to another.
(viii) Connected with social personality:
Radcliffe-Brown mentions the connections of social structure with social personality. “Every
human being living in society is two things: he is an individual and also a person.
As an individual, he is a biological organism, a collection of a vast number of molecules
organized in a complex structure, within which as long as it persists, there occur
physiological and psychological actions and reactions, processes and changes. Human beings
as individuals are objects of study for physiologists and psychologists. The human being as a
person is a complex of social relationships.
90
As a person, the human being is the object of study for the social anthropologists. We cannot
study persons except in terms of social structure, nor can we study social structure, except in
terms of the persons who are the units of which it is composed.” In other words, there is a
close nexus between individual and social structure.

3.4.3 Levels of Social Structure

It is helpful to think about social structure as operating on three levels within a given society:
the macro, meso, and micro levels.
1. Social Interaction: Social Structure at the Micro Level of Everyday Life
Social structure manifests at the micro level in the everyday interactions we have with each
other in the forms of norms and customs. We can see it present in the way patterned
institutionalized relationships shape our interactions within certain institutions like family and
education, and it is present in the way institutionalized ideas about race, gender, and sexuality
shape what we expect from others, how we expect to be seen by them, and how we interact
together.
2. Social Networks: The Meso Level Manifestation of Social Structure
Sociologists see social structure present at the "meso" level — between the macro and the
micro levels — in the social networks that are organized by the social institutions and
institutionalized social relationships described above. For example, systemic racism fosters
segregation within U.S. society, which results in some racially homogenous networks.
The majority of white people in the U.S. today have entirely white social networks.
Our social networks are also a manifestation of social stratification, whereby social relations
between people are structured by class differences, differences in educational attainment, and
differences in levels of wealth.
In turn, social networks act as structuring forces by shaping the kinds of opportunities that
may or may not be available to us, and by fostering particular behavioural and interactional
norms that work to determine our life course and outcomes.
3. Social Structure: The Macro Level of Society
When sociologists use the term "social structure" they are typically referring to macro-level
social forces including social institutions and patterns of institutionalized relationships. The
major social institutions recognized by sociologists include family, religion, education,
media, law, politics, and economy. These are understood as distinct institutions that are
interrelated and interdependent and together help compose the overarching social structure of
a society.

91
These institutions organize our social relationships to others and create patterns of social
relations when viewed on a large scale. For example, the institution of family organizes
people into distinct social relationships and roles, including mother, father, son, daughter,
husband, wife, etc., and there is typically a hierarchy to these relationships, which results in a
power differential. The same goes for religion, education, law, and politics.

3.4.4 Functions of Social Structure

The concept of social structure implies that it is made of numerous parts and these parts are in
systematic arrangement. It is the arrangement that gives distinction to the society.
Social structure, therefore, is an orderly arrangement of social interactions which are
meaningful and functional. Social structure and social system are interconnected. The
functional aspect of structure is the social system. The social system pre-supposes a social
structure consisting of different parts which are interrelated in such a way as to perform its
functions.
The functions can also be divided into manifest and latent functions. In the words of H.M.
Johnson,” Manifest function are those that are intended and recognised: Latent functions are
unrecognised and unintended”

Check your progress 3

Q 1 Define social structure.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
..................

3.5 SOCIAL SYSTEM

The term ‘system’ implies an orderly arrangement, an interrelationship of parts. In the

arrangement, every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The parts are bound by
interaction. To understand the functioning of a system, for example the human body, one has
to analyse and identify the sub-systems (e.g., circulatory, nervous, digestive, excretory
systems etc.) and understand how these various subsystems enter into specific relations in the
fulfilment of the organic function of the body.

92
Likewise, society may be viewed as a system of interrelated mutually dependent parts which
cooperate to preserve a recognisable whole and to satisfy some purposes or goal. Social
system may be described as an arrangement of social interactions based on shared norms and
values. Individuals constitute it and each has place and function to perform within it.

3.5.1 Meaning of Social System:

It is Talcott Parsons who has given the concept of ‘system’ current in modern sociology.
Social system refers to’ an orderly arrangement, an inter relationships of parts. In the
arrangement, every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The parts are bound by
interaction. System signifies, thus, patterned relationship among constituent parts of a
structure which is based on functional relations and which makes these parts active and binds
them into reality.
Society is a system of usages, authority and mutuality based on “We” felling and likeness.
Differences within the society are not excluded. These are, however, subordinated to likeness.
Inter-dependence and cooperation are its basis. It is bound by reciprocal awareness. It is
essentially a pattern for imparting the social behaviour.
It consists in mutual inter action and interrelation of individuals and of the structure formed
by their relations. It is not time bound. It is different from an aggregate of people and
community. According to Lapiere, “The term society refers not to group of people, but to the
complex pattern of the norms of inter action that arises among and between them.”
A social system may be defined, after Parsons, a plurality of social actors who are engaged in
more or less stable interaction “according to shared cultural norms and meanings” Individuals
constitute the basic interaction units. But the interacting units may be groups or organisation
of individuals within the system.
The social system, according to Charles P. Loomis, is composed of the patterned interaction
of visual actors whose’ relation to each other is mutually oriented through the definition of
the mediation of pattern of structured and shared symbols and expectations.

3.5.2 Elements of Social System:

The elements of social system are described as under:

1. Faiths and Knowledge:
The faiths and knowledge bring about the uniformity in the behaviour. They act as
controlling agency of different types of human societies. The faiths or the faith is the result of

93
the prevalent customs and beliefs. They enjoy the force of the individual are guided towards a
particular direction.
2. Sentiment:
Man does not live by reason alone. Sentiments – filial, social, notional etc. have played
immense role in investing society with continuity. It is directly linked with the culture of the
people.
3. End Goal or object:
Man is born social and dependent. He has to meet his requirements and fulfil his obligations.
Man, and society exist between needs and satisfactions, end and goal. These determine the
nature of social system. They provided the pathway of progress, and the receding horizons.
4. Ideals and Norms:
The society lays down certain norms and ideals for keeping the social system intact and for
determining the various functions of different units. These norms prescribe the rules and
regulations on the basis of which individuals or persons may acquire their cultural goals and
aims.
In other words, ideals and norms are responsible for an ideal structure or system of the
society. Due to them the human behaviour does not become deviant and they act according to
the norms of the society. This leads to organization and stability. These norms and ideals
include folkways, customs, traditions, fashions, morality, religion, etc.
5. Status-Role:
Every individual in society is functional. He goes by status-role relation. It may come to the
individual by virtue of his birth, sex, caste, or age. One may achieve it on the basis of service
rendered.
6. Role:
Like the status, society has prescribed different roles to different individuals. Sometimes we
find that there is a role attached to every status. Role is the external expression of the status.
While discharging certain jobs or doing certain things, every individual keeps in his mind his
status. This thing leads to social integration, organization and unity in the social system. In
fact, statuses and roles go together. It is not possible to separate them completely from one
another.
7. Power:
Conflict is a part of social system, and order is its aim. It is implicit, therefore, that some
should be invested with the power to punish the guilty and reward those who set an example.

94
The authority exercising power will differ from group to group; while the authority of father
may be supreme in the family, in the state it is that of the ruler.
8. Sanction:
It implies confirmation by the superior in authority, of the acts done be the subordinate or the
imposition of penalty for the infringement of the command. The acts done or not done
according to norms may bring reward and punishment.

3.5.3 Characteristics of Social System:

Social system has certain characteristics. These characteristics are as follows:

1. System is connected with the plurality of Individual actors:
It means that a system or social system cannot be borne as a result of the activity of one
individual. It is the result of the activities of various individuals. For system, or social system,
interaction of several individuals has to be there.
2. Aim and Object:
Human interactions or activities of the individual actors should not be aimless or without
object. These activities have to be according to certain aims and objects. The expression of
different social relations borne as a result of human interaction.
3. Order and Pattern amongst various Constituent Units:
Mere coming together of various constituent units that from social system does not
necessarily create a social system. It has to be according to a pattern, arrangement and order.
The underlined unity amongst various constituent units brings about ‘social system’.
4. Functional Relationship is the Basis of Unity:
We have already seen different constituent units have a unity in order to form a system. This
unity is based on functional relations. As a result of functional relationships between different
constituent units an integrated whole is created and this is known as social system.
5. Physical or Environmental Aspect of Social System:
It means that every social system is connected with a definite geographical area or place,
time, society etc. In other words, it means that social system is not the same at different
times, at different place and under different circumstances. This characteristic of the social
system again points out towards its dynamic or changeable nature.
6. Linked with Cultural System:
Social system is also linked with cultural system. It means that cultural system brings about
unity amongst different members of the society on the basis of cultures, traditions, religions
etc.

95
7. Expressed and implied Aims and Objects:
Social system is also linked with expressed and implied aims. In other words, it means that
social system is the coming together of different individual actors who are motivated by their
aims and objectives and their needs.
8. Characteristics of Adjustment:
Social system has the characteristic of adjustment. It is a dynamic phenomenon which is
influenced by the changes caused in the social form. We have also seen that the social system
is influenced by the aims, objects and the needs of the society. It means that the social system
shall be relevant only if it changes itself according to the changed objects and needs. It has
been seen that change takes place in the social system due to human needs, environment and
historical conditions and phenomena.
9. Order, Pattern and Balance:
Social system has the characteristics of pattern, order and balance. Social system is not an
integrated whole but putting together of different units. This coming together does not take
place in a random and haphazard manner. There is an order am’ balance.
It is so because different units of the society do not work as independent units but they do not
exist in a vacuum but in a socio-cultural pattern. In the pattern different units have different
functions and roles. It means that there is a pattern and order in the social system.

3.5.4 Types of Social System:

Parsons presents a classification of four major types in terms of pattern variable. These are as
follows:
1. The Particularistic Ascriptive Type:
According to Parsons, this type of social system tends to be organized around kinship and
sociality. The normative patterns of such a system are traditional and thoroughly dominated
by the elements of ascription. This type of system is mostly represented by preliterate
societies in which needs are limited to biological survival.
2. The Particularistic Achievement Type:
There is a significant role of religious ideas as differentiating element in social life. When
these religious ideas are rationally systematized that possibility of new religious concepts
emerge.

96
As a result of this nature of prophecy and secondly it may depend on non-empirical realm to
which the porphyry is connected.
3. The Universalistic Achievement Type:
When ethical prophecy and non-empirical conceptions are combined, a new set of ethical
norms arise. It is because the traditional order is challenged by the ethical prophet in the
name of supernatural. Such norms are derived from the existing relations of social member;
therefore, they are universalistic in nature. Besides, they are related with empirical or non-
empirical goals, therefore they are achievement oriented.
4. The Universalistic Ascription Type:
Under this social type, elements of value orientation are dominated by the elements of
ascription. Therefore, emphasis is placed on status of the actor, rather than his performance.
In such a system, actor’s achievements are almost values to a collective goal. Therefore, such
a system becomes politicized and aggressive. An authoritarian State example of this types.

3.5.5 Functions of Social System:

Social system is a functional arrangement. It would not exist if it were not so. Its functional
character ensures social stability and continuity. The functional character of society, Parsons
has discussed in depth. Other sociologists such as Robert F. Bales too have discussed it.
This paradigm posits that every social system must continually confront and solve the four
sets of organisational problems indicated below. In abbreviated form, the four-function
paradigm is referred to as AGIL.
1. Adaptation:
The problems of adapting the social system to its physical and social environments. The most
important problems in this respect are procuring resources needed for its activities, providing
for protection against physical and social threats, and developing information relating to
these.
2. Goal Attainment:
The organisational problem of effecting co-ordination in any collective tasks directed outside
the system itself.
3. Integration:
The internal problem of maintaining satisfying relations among the interacting, members and
avoiding disrupting conflicts. For small groups, this concerns inter-personal relations. For
larger organisation, it concerns inter-group relations.
4. Latent Pattern Maintenance:

97
The internal organisational problem of ordering activity patterns of the system, and also of
adjusting the role demands on members, so that these are compatible with their other role
commitments.

Check your progress 4

Q 1 Define social system.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
..................

3.6 COMMUNITY

The word "community" derives from the Old French comuneté, which comes from the Latin
community as"community", "public spirit"
A community is a small or large social unit (a group of people) who have something in
common, such asnorms, religion, values, or identity. Communities often share a sense of
place that is situated in a given geographical area (e.g., a country, village, town, or
neighbourhood) or in virtual space trough communication platforms. Durable relations that
extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community.
People tend to define those social ties as important to their identity, practice, and roles in
social institutions like family, home, work, government, society, or humanity, at
large.Although, communities are usually smallrelative to personal social ties (micro-level),
"community" may also refer to large group affiliations (or macrolevel), such as national
communities, international communities, and virtual communities.

3.6.1 Meaning and Definitions of Community:

“A set of interrelationships among social institutions in a locality” (Bell and Newby,).

“A community is said to exist when interaction between individuals has the purpose of
meeting individual needsand obtaining group goals…a limited geographical area is another

98
feature…the features of social interaction,structures for the gratification of physical, social
and physical needs, and limited geographical area are basic to the definitions of community.”
“Community is, first, a place, and second, a configuration as a way of life, both as to how
people do things and what they want, to say, their institutions and goals”
“Community is a number of families residing in a relatively small area within which they
have developed amore or less complete socio-cultural definitions imbued with collective
identifications and by means of which they resolve problems arising from the sharing of an
area”
“Community refers to a structure of relationships through which a localized population
provides its daily requirements”
“Community is a collection of people who share a common territory and meet their basic
physical and socialneeds through daily interaction with one another”
“Community is a social group with a common territorial base; those in the group share
interests and have a sense of belonging to the group”
“Community is a body of people living in the same locality…Alternatively, a sense of
identity and belongingshared among people living in the same locality…, Also, the set of
social relations found in a particularbounded area”

3.6.2 Types of Community:

There are two types of communities Rural and Urban communities, due to different social
conditions in both rural and urban areas.
Rural Community
Rural community is a natural phenomenon. It is present in every society of the world having
distinct culture and pattern of social life. It is actually a product of natural free will of the
people having extreme similarity in theirobjectives and ambitions of living.
Agriculture is the main identity and element. People of this community mostly have. Face to
face 'interaction with high degree of homogeneity in their identities. Basic urban facilitieslike
school, hospital, market, municipal office, police station etc. are usually missing in this
community.
Urban Community
Urban community is the opposite of rural community. The urban people’s lifestyle is highly
impersonal with each other along high degree of complexity and heterogeneity in their living
style and identities. It is actually a product of rational choice. A complex division of labour

99
with specialization in their jobs is the identity of urban community. Modern civic facilities
are usually available.

3.6.3 Characteristics of Community:

(1) A group of people:

A group of people is the most fundamental or essential characteristic or element of
community. This group maybe small or large but community always refers to a group of
people. Because without a group of people we can’tthink of a community, when a group of
people live together and share a common life and blinded by a strong sense of community
consciousness at that moment a community is formed. Hence a group of people is the
firstpre-requisites of community.
(2) A definite locality:
It is the next important characteristic of a community. Because community is a territorial
group. A group ofpeople alone can’t form a community. A group of people forms a
community only when they reside in a definite territory. The territory need not be fixed
forever. A group of people like nomadic people may change theirhabitations. But majority
community is settled and a strong bond of unity and solidarity is derived from theirliving in a
definite locality.
(3) Community Sentiment:
It is another important characteristic or element of community. Because without community
sentiment acommunity can’t be formed only with a group of people and a definite locality.
Community sentiment refers toa strong sense of awe feeling among the members or a feeling
of belonging together. It refers to a sentiment ofcommon living that exists among the
members of a locality.
Because of common living within an area for a long time a sentiment of common living is
created among the members of that area. With this the membersemotionally identify
themselves. This emotional identification of the members distinguishes them from
themembers of other community.
(4) Neutrality:
Communities are naturally organized. It is neither a product of human will nor be it created
by an act of government.It grows spontaneously. Individuals became the member by birth.
(5) Permanence:
Community is always a permanent group. It refers to a permanent living of individuals within
a definite territory. It is not temporary like that of a crowd or association.

100
(6) Similarity:
The members of a community are similar in a number of ways. As they live within a definite
locality, they lead acommon life and share some common ends. Among the members
similarity in language, culture, customs, andtraditions and in many other things is observed.
Similarities in these respects are responsible for thedevelopment of community sentiment.
(7) Wider Ends:
A community has wider ends. Members of a community associate not for the fulfilment of a
particular end butfor a variety of ends. These are natural for a community.
(8) Total organised social life:
A community is marked by total organized social life. It means a community includes all
aspects of social life.Hence a community is a society in miniature.
(9) A Particular Name:
Every community has a particular name by which it is known to the world. Members of a
community are also identified by that name. For example, people living in Odisha is known
as Odia.
(10) No Legal Status:
A community has no legal status because it is not a legal person. It has no rights and duties in
the eyes of law. Itis not created by the law of the land.

(11) Size of Community:

A community is classified on the basis of its size. It may be big or small. Village is an
example of a small
community whereas a nation or even the world is an example of a big community. Both the
type of communities are essential for human life.
(12) Concrete Nature:
A community is concrete in nature. As it refers to a group of people living in a particular
locality, we can see itsexistence. Hence it is concrete.

3.6.4 Functions of Community

A community cannot exist unless members demonstrate a concern for one another, which
results in a maturing of both the individual and the community as a whole. Asbury University
promotes a community which is characterized by three interdependent functions: Caring,
Collaborating and Challenging.
 Caring:

101
As we follow in the steps of Jesus Christ and His teachings, we will demonstrate a love for
those around us which is evident in our caring, “carrying” and comforting of one another.
Practically speaking, our concern for others will go beyond the obvious spiritual and physical
realms into the emotional, mental and social realms. This concern for the development of the
whole person emphasizes our commitment to develop whole people who are wholly prepared
to be wholly used of God.
 Collaborating:
Any effective organization is distinguished by the way in which its component parts work
together to achieve the ultimate mission. Asbury’s mission is to provide students with the
opportunity to learn in a Christian, liberal arts environment and to prepare them to make a
significant contribution in their world for Jesus Christ. A team approach where there is a
collegial and collaborative effort between administration, faculty, students and staff
results in a cooperating community where the whole is greater than and more important
than any of its component parts.

 Challenging:
The heritage of the University has always held high expectations for its members and
expected them to maintain both their own character and the University’s character. Our
love for one another motivates us to encourage and, when appropriate, challenge each
other as we strive together to achieve God’s purpose for our lives. Redemptive
accountability brings one to repentance, forgiveness, accountability and growth.

Check your progress 5

Q 1 Define community.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
..................

102
3.7 ASSOCIATION

Men have diverse needs, desires and interests. All these needs cannot be fulfilled by man
himself. So, people from different groups and association to cater various needs. When a
Coma group of people organize itself expressly for the pursuit of some common interests or
interests, an association is born. A mere group of people without having common end does
not form an association.
A collection of individual or a crowd without having a definite aim cannot form an
association. A family, a club, a political party, a college, a trade Union, a municipality etc.
some of the examples of associations. In all these cases, these social groups have a specific
goal to attain. As the interests of men are manifold, there are various associations to
fulfilment economic, social political and other interests of people. Hence, an association is an
organised group formed for the specific purpose of fulfilling the common needs of a number
of people

3.7.1 Meaning and Definition of an Association

An association is a group of people organized for a particular purpose or a limited number of

purposes.
To constitute an association there must be, firstly, a group of people; secondly, these people
must be organized one, i.e., there must be certain rules for their conduct in the groups, and
thirdly, they must have a common purpose of a specific nature to pursue. Thus, family,
church, trade union, music club all are the instances of association.
Associations may be formed on several bases, for example, on the basis of duration, i.e.
temporary or permanent like Flood Relief Association which is temporary and State which is
permanent; or on the basis of power, i.e. sovereign like state, semi-sovereign like university
and non-sovereign like club, or on the basis of function, i.e. biological like family, vocational
like Trade Union or Teachers’ Association, recreational like Tennis Club or Music Club,
Philanthropic like charitable societies.
Some of the definitions of association are mentioned below:
According to Maclver, “An organization deliberately formed for the collective pursuit of
some interest or set of interest, which the members of it share, is termed as association.
Ginsberg writes, “An association is a group of social beings related to one another by the fact
that they possess or have instituted in common an organization with a view to securing
specific end or specific ends:”

103
G. D. H. Cole says, “By an association I mean any group of persons pursuing a common
purpose by a course of corporative action extending beyond a single act and for this purpose
agreeing together upon certain methods of procedure, and laying down, in however,
rudimentary a form, rule for common action.”

3.7.2 Essential Elements of an Association:

Essential elements of an association are as follows:

(1) It is a concrete form of Organization:
Association is a group of persons collected together with some particular aim. It is, thus, a
concrete group which can be seen; while at work. Thus, in contrary to society’ Association is
a concrete form of organization of human beings.
(2) It is established:
Like community, association does not grow spontaneously. It has no natural growth and it
does not grow itself. They are created by men to satisfy some motive or cause Rules and
regulations are formed to run a particular kind of association and the member of the
association run it on the basis of these rules and regulations.
There, we find a ‘code of conduct’ to be followed by the office-bearers and other members of
the association. Moreover, their rules and regulations are subjected to drastic changes if the
creator of association desire so.
(3) Its aim is determined:
No association is formed without any aim. First, there is the problem and the solution of
which, becomes the aim of the association formed to solve such problems. For example, if it
is a dramatic association, then its aim will naturally be to stage dramas and plays. No
association can maintain its identity without any distinct aim and object.
(4) Followers of rules and regulations are the only members:
Every association float on the ground of certain rules and regulations. It also contains code of
conduct for the members. Those who follow the rules^ and regulations provided for and
participate in the pursuit of the aim of the association are only called as the members of it.
Anyone acting contrary or disowning the obligations as members may be expelled from the
membership; as per procedure framed for the purpose. For example, if the member of
“political association” stops believing or start criticizing the policies of the association of
which he has been, hitherto the supporter, shall cease to be the member.
It also becomes obligatory for every member to co-operate with other in the achievement of
the goals of the association. Otherwise, what for else is he the member? What is his aim of

104
joining such an association? The answer is; it is useless for him to be the member of such an
association, and it is equally useless for an association to keep such an individual on the
membership list.
(5) Its membership is voluntary:
An association is not an essential organization like State or society. Neither it is a natural
organization in which every one’s contribution can be asked for on natural grounds. Neither
there is any common instinct among the persons based on common and unified ideology to
become the member of a particular association. And, also there is no ‘whips’ from the heaven
or State to every citizen to form an association and to become its member.
But the membership of an association is voluntary. A person becomes the members because
he wants it and only because he likes it and if he grows a feeling of dislike, he is absolutely
free to disown any such association. “Mr. A is free to become the member of Arya Samaj and
shift its memberships from Arya Samaj to Sanatan Dharam Samaj.” There are no restrictions,
no law and no suppression of Mr. A for his changes.
(6) An association exists for its aims and objects:
The life of an association is upto the achievement of the aim for which it has been created.
The existence of association after his achievement of the aim becomes, immaterial and
irrelevant. It becomes nominal and lifeless body of formalities only. “The aim is the soul of
the association.

3.7.3 Main characteristics of an Association

Association: An association is formed or created by people. It is a social group. Without

people there can be no association. It is an organized group. An unorganized group like
crowd or mob cannot be an association.
Common interest: An association is not merely a collection of individuals. It consists of
those individuals who have more or less the same interests. Accordingly those who have
political interests may join political association and those who have religious interests may
join religious associations and so on.
Cooperative spirit: An association is based on the cooperative spirit of its members. People
work together to achieve some definite purposes. For example a political party has to work
together as a united group on the basis of cooperation in order to fulfill its objective of
coming to power.
Organization: Association denotes some kind of organization. An association is known
essentially as an organized group. Organization gives stability and proper shape to an

105
association. Organization refers to the way in which the statuses and roles are distributed
among the members.
Regulation of relations: Every association has its own ways and means of regulating the
relation of its members. Organization depends on this element of regulation. They may
assume written or unwritten forms.
Association as agencies: Associations are means or agencies through which their members
seek to realize their similar or shared interests. Such social organizations necessarily act not
merely through leaders but through officials or representatives as agencies. Associations
normally act through agents who are responsible for and to the association.
Durability of association: An association may be permanent or temporary. There are some
long standing associations like the state; family, religious associations etc.Some associations
may be temporary in nature.

3.7.4 Functions of an Association

The members of an association have a common purpose; they unitedly try to achieve this.
Associations perform several useful functions. Their purpose, functions and benefits are
discussed below.
(i) The personality of a member develops with the help of the association. The association
provides him with scope and encouragement for the expression of his talent.
(ii) The association works for attaining the common objectives of its members. Common
interests bind the members together.
(iii) The association generates a feeling of unity among its members. Their unity makes the
association strong and enables it to achieve their common goal.
(iv) The members give more importance to their common interests than to their individual
interest. This increases their friendship, fellow-feeling and cooperation.
(v) Each association has a ‘code of conduct’ for its members. They are required to abide by it.
This establishes discipline and order in the association.
(vi) An individual joins an association partly to be able to achieve his own goal with the help
of the association. He alone may not succeed, so he needs the association.
(vii) Individuals have different kinds of wants. These may be physical, mental, spiritual, and
cultural. The association helps them in this regard.
(viii) In an association the members exchange their views. Through discussion, they get
enlightened by several points of view. This increases their knowledge and awareness.

106
(ix) Association is a breeding ground of leadership. Those members who have leadership
qualities get opportunity to further develop these qualities and to emerge as successful
leaders. Associations are also a training centre for leadership.

Check your progress 6

Q 1 Define association.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.................

3.8 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

In an organized society, there is stability and change. Stability is the condition of equilibrium
among the parts of society. It is the state of smooth functioning. During this condition; the
social problems decrease in society. Change is the dynamic condition of society. An
organized society is also changing for the fulfillment of social needs. Abrupt changes in the
form of revolution disrupt the existing social order and disorganization occurs in society.
The examples of organization can easily be understood from the organs of human body which
are technically joined together called organization of parts in human body. The parts of a
table are prepared separately by the carpenter and then fitted together in a technical order.
This table is an organized body. It means organization is arranging of parts into its whole.
Similarly, social group is an organization of individuals into a social unit. The individuals set
themselves at their positions (status) and by interaction (role) they make a social group. It
means they are fitted themselves into the group according to their positions. This
participation individuals into group is social organization.
The whole society is a big organization in which individuals, groups and institutions
participate. It is a vast network of social relationship like the parts of a watch organized
together. The groups fit themselves in interaction with other groups giving shape to society
by organization: The process of organization resembles with a human body, a machine; a
factory, an office, a bank and the human society.

107
3.8.1 Meaning and Definition of Social Organization

At present the term social organization is used to refer to the interdependence of parts in
groups. These groups may vary in size and nature from workers to the factories. Many
sociologists prefer to use the term social system to refer to the society as such rather than
social organization.
The term is used in sociological studies and researches today to stress the importance of
arrangement of parts in which the parts of society are related to each other and how each is
related to the whole society. Organization makes possible the complex activities in which the
members of a complex society participate. A small body of organized police can control a
very large crowd. A small number of men constituting themselves as a government can rule a
country.
Sometimes the word organization is used to refer to the associational groups. It includes
corporations, armies, schools, banks and prisons. The society consists of many such
organizations. A state is frequently called a political organization. A school may represent an
educational organization and so on. They are all social organizations. According to Ogburn
and Nimkoff entire society represents a wider organization; a social organization. But society
is also quite generally an organized group of interacting individuals.
Ogburn and Nimkoff have defined organization is an articulation of different parts which
perform various functions; it is an active group device for getting something done.
Eliott and Merrill says, organization is a state of being, a condition in which the various
institutions in a society are functioning in accordance with their recognized or implied
purposes.
According to H.M Johnson, organization refers to an aspect of interaction systems.

3.8.2 Characteristics of Social Organization

Following are the main characteristics of social organizations

1. Unanimity among Members
Unanimity means the full agreement among the members of a social organization who accept
the situation willingly. Unanimity among members of a social organization is an important
character which plays a vital role in the existence of that organization.
Every individual in a group or society has its own status and according to the status they
perform various roles which are acceptance to the whole group. But when the status or a role
of an individual charged it becomes dysfunctional to the social organization and leads to
social disorganization.

108
2. Social Control
When a social organization becomes disorganized, social control is very essential for its
organization. The individuals must be brought under social control which makes a block in
the way of social disorganization.
3. Desire to Accept Status
In a society, all the members have no equal status but having difference in sex, physical
capabilities, age and group. So for smooth running of a social organization every individual
accepts one’s own status and works bitterly. These individuals work in a cooperative level
which promotes their living standards. So, in a good social organization these individuals
accept their own status which can be improved.
4. Social Organization and Social Control
In allthe societies small groups are combined and form a social organization but when it
becomes disintegrated and again leads to the formation of small group. So, there exists an
interaction between social organization and social group and both are interlinked with each
other.

3.8.3 Types of Social Organization

Social organizations or institutions arise out of social needs and situations of members. These
organizations are the means through which individuals adjust their behaviour to
environmental conditions.
Lapiere says that “social organization consists of all the ways by which men live and work
together, more especially of all the programmed, ordered and coordinated relations of the
members of the society.” Social organisations at different levels organize and give expression
to collective behaviour.
They coordinate and crystallize numerous interests of individuals and groups.
Social organisations are of two broad types, namely, those which grow out of kinship and
those that result from the free and voluntary associations of members. A brief analysis of a
few such organizations may be given.
Family:
It is the earliest and the most universal of all social institutions. It is also the most natural,
simplest and permanent form of social organization. In society, individuals are primarily
organized into separate families and households.

109
Family is generally composed of husband, wife and their children. It may be defined as a
group of persons, united either by the ties of marriage or blood relationship, having a
common household, a common tradition or culture.
The form and features of family may be different from place to place and country to country
but family as a social group exists everywhere. It may rightly be described as the keystone of
the social arch. It performs a variety of functions like biological, emotional, economic,
educational and cultural.
Clan:
The members of a clan are supposed to be the descendants of common ancestors. They
usually bear common surname. They are usually found among primitive people and members
act through the guidance of a chieftain.
They are associated through common social, religious and cultural ceremonies. Members
practice exogamy; they do not marry a person belonging to the same clan. All members
worship a totem or a symbolic object like cow, bull, bird etc.
Tribe:
A tribe is a wider social organization than clan and has been defined as “a social group of a
simple kind, and members of which speak a common dialect, have a common government
and act together for such common purpose as welfare.” Tribe is usually formed after a
stronger clan subordinates a weaker one.
Tribe has a government with a tribal chief as its head. It is organized for military purposes
and has a common dialect and language. Though devoid of blood relationship, a tribe
maintains solidarity among its members.
Community:
One way of organizing individuals on secular lines is through formation of communities and
associations. A community is defined as “the total organisation of social life within a limited
area.” A community is a self-sufficient group based on common life. The area of a
community may range from narrow to very broad (even global) limits.
Association:
MacIver defines, “An association as a group organized for the pursuit of an interest or group
of interests in common.” Associations may be of various types including kinship, religious,
cultural, recreational, philanthropic, vocational, political groups. Primarily political
associations like the state and its coercive agency, the government are part of society.

110
3.8.4 Functions of Social Organization

1. To define the role of the individual:

An individual employed in an enterprise must know his role, position and relationship with
other personnel in his department and with others. Organisation becomes necessary so that
the persons involved in the enterprise can identify themselves in the enterprise. It is through
the organisation that one can know his position and role in the unit. He can relate his position
with other members of the enterprise.
2. Determination of authority:
The assignment of a certain role proposes the granting of certain authority so that
performance can be possible. Organisation is necessary to define the authority i.e., the rights
and powers of men in different positions which would help them to discharge their assigned
roles.
3. Fixation of responsibility:
Each individual is assigned a certain duty organisational structure defines what performance
is expected of a member of the unit of the department of the enterprise. Absence or faulty
determination of responsibility will lead to irresponsible functions, behaviour and attitudes.
4. Specialisation:
Modern production and management techniques are based on the idea of specialization which
means the performance of different parts of a job by persons specifically suited for them.
Organisation is basically required to promote specialization. Efficient and smooth functioning
is possible when different elements of a job are performed by experts and their efforts are
pooled to attain the desired and product.
5. Coordination:
Since the pattern of managerial operations is to be based on die division’ of labour, there
arises the need of coordinating the activities of various individuals or that of different
departments. They perform diverse, activities and these have to be woven into the main
fabric.
6. Proper utilisation of human resources:
The most important thing for enterprises is to make the best possible use of its human
resources. There must not be wastage or misapplication of human efforts. This is of great
importance for economy as well as for the achievement of objectives.
It can be possible only by suitable organisation, which avoid all bottlenecks-chances of work
being held up and allow smooth flow of performances.

111
7. Efficient functioning:
Efficiency is to be the watchword of an enterprise, all the factors mentioned above will have
a great impact on the efficient functioning of the enterprise, and Organisation avoids all
duplication in jobs, overlapping and wastage. It promotes speedy, smooth and efficient
functioning of the enterprise.

Check your progress 7

Q 1 Define social organization.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
..................

3.9 LET’S SUM IT UP

 Culture is a term that refers to a large and diverse set of mostly intangible aspects of
social life. According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs, systems of
language, communication, and practices that people share in common and that can be
used to define them as a collective.
 Culture also includes the material objects that are common to that group or society.
 Culture is distinct from social structure and economic aspects of society, but it is
connected to them—both continuously informing them and being informed by them.
 Culture is one of the most important concepts within sociology because sociologists
recognize that it plays a crucial role in our social lives.
 It is important for shaping social relationships, maintaining and challenging social
order, determining how we make sense of the world and our place in it, and in shaping
our everyday actions and experiences in society. It is composed of both non-material
and material things.
 Social structure refers to the pattern of social relationships in a society. Such structure
regulates the interactions among members of the society, providing guidelines within

112
 the cultural norms for achieving the goals defined by cultural values. Generally, social
structure maintains societal stability.
 A social system is a relational bond of personal or environmental roles that are a part
of a whole, larger community. This social system also includes a larger society that
works together and functions as a connection between community organizations and
larger institutions. The main premise of a social system is to fulfil the needs of the
larger unit of society.
 In sociology, we define community as a group who follow a social structure within a
society (culture, norms, values, status). They may work together to organise social life
within a particular place, or they may be bound by a sense of belonging sustained
across time and space.
 Association is a type ofsocial group that has a wide range of sociological
implications. From a sociologicalstandpoint, this social group (i.e. association) is
an important characteristic of the moderncomplex society.
 Social organization refers to the network of relationships in a group and how they
interconnect. This network of relationships helps members of a group stay connected
to one another in order to maintain a sense of community within a group. The social
organization of a group is influenced by culture and other factors.

3.10 KEY WORDS

Society: An organized group working together or periodically meeting because of common

interests, beliefs, or profession
Culture: The integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behaviour that depends upon
the capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations
Social Structure: The internal institutionalized relationships built up by persons living within
a group (such as a family or community) especially with regard to the hierarchical
organization of status and to the rules and principles regulating behaviour
Social System: The patterned series of interrelationships existing between individuals, groups,
and institutions and forming a coherent whole
Community: The people living in one particular area or people who are considered as a unit
because of their common interests, social group, or nationality

113
Association: An association can be called a group of people who come together to achieve
any particular purpose or goal and that too for a limited period of time
Organization: A group of people who work together in an organized way for a shared purpose
Social Organization: the system of relationships between persons and among groups with
regard to the division of activity and the functional arrangement of mutual obligations within
society

3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Refer to 3 for check your progress 1

Q 1 society refers to a group of people living together with shared cultures, having social
interactions and inter-relationships.
Refer to 3 for check your progress 1
Q 2 Societies based on functions are political societies, Charitable societies, Economic
cooperative societies and Religious and cultural societies. Societies based on historical
timeline are Hunting and gathering societies, Pastoral societies, Horticultural societies,
Agricultural societies, Industrial societies and Post-industrial societies.
Refer to 3 for check your progress 2
Q 1 Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language,
marriage, music and is different all over the world. Culture is the characteristics and
knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social
habits, music and arts.
Refer to 3 for check your progress 2
Q 2 Major elements of culture are material culture and non-material culture.
Refer to 3 for check your progress 3
Q 1 The term structure refers to some sort of orderly arrangement of parts or components. For
example, a building has a structure which includes various parts such as roof, walls, doors
and windows etc. In the same way, society has a structure.
Refer to 3 for check your progress 4
Q 1 A social system is a relational bond of personal or environmental roles that are a part of a
whole, larger community.
Refer to 3 for check your progress 5

114
Q 1 A community is a social group whose members have something in common, such as a
shared government, geographic location, culture, or heritage.
Refer to 3 for check your progress 6
Q 1 An association is a group organised for the pursuit of an interest or group of interests in
common.Association is a group of persons collected together with some particular aim. It is,
thus, a concrete group which can be seen; while at work.
Refer to 3 for check your progress 7
Q 1 Social organization means how people are divided into social groups and networks.
Social organization encompasses households and families, but also wider networks of kinship
and friends which, in turn, are embedded in groups that are responsible for acquiring,
distributing, and consuming subsistence resources.

3.12 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Margaret Andersen and Howard Taylor, Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society.

Jeanne H. Ballantine and Keith A. Roberts. Our Social World: Introduction to Sociology.
2006. Pine Forge Press.
Dalton Conley. 2009. You May Ask Yourself: An Introduction to Thinking Like a
Sociologist. New York: W.W. Norton.
Susan J. Ferguson, Mapping the Social Landscape. (A reader – Many of the textbooks also
have associated readers.)
Anthony Giddens, Mitchell Duneier, and Richard Appelbaum. Introduction to Sociology.
Jeff Goodwin and James Jasper. 2007. The Contexts Reader. New York: W.W. Norton.
James Henslin, Essentials of Sociology.
William Kornblum and Carolyn Smith. Sociology in a Changing World
John J. Macionis and Ken Plummer, Sociology: A Global Introduction.
Richard T. Schaefer. Sociology, 10th Edition.
Henry Tischler, Introduction to Sociology, 9th Edition.
Selected Short Introductory Books in Sociology, Prepared by Caroline Persell
Giddens, Anthony. 1987. Sociology: A Brief but Critical Introduction. Second Edition. New
York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Levin, W. C. (1994). Sociological Ideas: Concepts and Applications. Belmont, CA,
Wadsworth.

115
3.13TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Define Society. What are the characteristics of society?

2. What are some of the functions of society?
3. Define Culture. What are some of the characteristics of culture?
4. What are some of the functions of culture?
5. Define social structure. What are some of the characteristics of social structure?
6. What are some of the functions of social structure?
7. Define social system. What are some of the characteristics of social system?
8. What are some of the functions of social system?
9. Define community. What are some of the characteristics of community?
10. What are some of the functions of community?
11. Define association. What are some of the characteristics of association?
12. What are some of the functions of association?
13. Define social organization. What are some of the characteristics of social
organization?
14. What are some of the functions of social organization?

116