PACE

2 SOLUTIONS

SOLUTION
A homogeneous mixture of solute and solvent is called a solution.
SOLUTE
In a solution, the component which is present in smaller proportion is called solute.
SOLVENT
In a solution, the component which is present in larger proportion is called solvent.
DILUTE SOLUTION
A solution which has a low concentration of solute than solvent.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS

Based on the number of components in a solution, they are classified as follows:

1. Binary solutions: A solution which has only two components is called a binary
solution.
2. Ternary solution: A solution which has three components is called a ternary
solution.

BINARY SOLUTIONS
A solution which has only two components i.e., one solute dissolved in one
solvent is called a binary solution.
Examples:
(i) NaCl dissolved in water.
(ii) Glucose dissolved in water.

CLASSIFICATION OF BINARY SOLUTIONS

Based on the nature of solvent, binary solutions are classified as follows:

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1. Solid solutions: It is a type of binary solution in which the solvent is solid and the
solute may be a solid, liquid or a gas.

Solute Solvent Examples

Solid Solid Alloys like brass, bronze, copper dissolved in gold.

Liquid Solid Mercury ( Hg ) in Zinc ( Zn ) [Amalgam].

Gas Solid Solution of H2 in platinum.

2. Liquid solutions: It is a type of binary solution in which the solvent is liquid and
the solute may be a solid, liquid or a gas. 113 gram

Solute Solvent Examples

Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water, NaCl dissolved in water.

Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water.

Gas Liquid O2 dissolved in water, Aerated drinks, soda water.

3. Gaseous solutions: It is a type of binary solution in which the solvent is Gas and
the solute may be a solid, liquid or a gas.

Solute Solvent Examples

Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas.

Liquid Gas Water vapours in air, Humidity in air. CHCl3 mixed with
nitrogen gas.

Gas Gas Oxygen in air, Mixture of gases such as N2 & H2 .

Mixture of O2 and N2 .

CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION
It is the amount of a solute dissolved in a known volume of solvent or solution.
Methods of expressing concentration:
1. Percentage by mass or mass percentage  W / W  :

It is defined as the mass of solute in gram present dissolved in 100 g of its solution.
Mass% of a solution can be calculated as follows:
Mass of solute
Mass percentage =  100
Mass of solution

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Example: 10% Na2CO3 solution can be prepared by dissolving 10 g of Na2CO3 in

90 g of water.

2. Percentage by volume or volume percentage V /V  :

3
It is defined as the volume of solute in cm3 dissolved in 100 cm of its solution.
Volume % of a solution can be calculated as follows:
Volume of solute
Volume percentage =  100
Total volume of solution
3
Example: 10% by volume of ethanol is prepared by dissolving 10 cm of ethanol
in 100 cm of its solution i.e., 10 cm of ethanol + 90 cm of water.
3 3 3

3. Percentage by mass-volume  W /V  :
3
It is defined as the mass of a solute in ' g ' dissolved in 100 cm of solution.
% by mass – volume can be calculated as follows:
Mass of solute
% by mass − volume =  100
Volume of solution
Example: 10 % by mass-volume of Na2CO3 can be prepared by dissolving 10 g of
Na2CO3 in a total volume of 100 cm 3 of solution.

4. Mole fraction of solute ( X solute ) :

It is defined as the ratio of number of moles of solute to the total number of moles
of solute and solvent present in solution. It is denoted by the symbol ' X ' .
Number of moles of solute
XSolute =
Number moles of solute and solvent
Note: Number of moles of a substance can be calculated as follows,
Number of moles ( n ) = Mass of substance / its gram molar mass

Sum of mole fractions of all components present in solution is equal to one.

i.e.,  A +  B = 1

5. Molarity ( M ) :

It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in one litre ( dm 3 ) of solution.

Molarity of a solution can be calculated as follows,

Number of moles of solute
Molarity =
Volume of solution in litres
OR

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Mass of solute
Molarity =  1000
Molar mass  Volume of solution in litre

6. Molality ( m ) :

It is defined as the number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1 kg of a solvent.

Molality of a solution can be calculated as follows,
Number of moles of solute
Molality =
Mass of solvent in Kg
OR
Mass of solute
Molality =  1000
Molar mass  Mass of solvent in Kg
7. Parts per million (ppm):
It is defined as the number of parts by mass of a solute dissolved in one million
106 parts by mass of its solution.
Ppm concentration of a solution can be calculated as follows,
Mass of solute
Ppm =  106
Mass of solution
Note:
• Concentrations which are temperature independent: Mass percentage, ppm,
mole fraction and molality are temperature independent since mass is
temperature independent.
• Concentrations which are temperature dependent: Volume percentage, mass
by volume percentage and molarity are temperature dependent since volume
is temperature dependent.

SOLUBILITY
It is defined as the maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a
specified amount of a solvent to obtain a saturated solution at the specified
temperature.
Saturated solution: A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at that
temperature is called a saturated solution.
In a saturated solution the following dynamic equilibrium exists.
Solute + Solvent Solution
When a solute is added to a solvent, the solute particles go into the solution and
the concentration of the solution increases. This process is called dissolution. Some
solute particles in solution collide with each other & separate from solution. This
process is called crystallization.

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A stage is reached at which the rate of dissolution becomes equal to the rate of
crystallization. It is called equilibrium state. At this state the concentration of the
solution remains constant and no more solute can be dissolved in it. Such a solution
is called saturated solution.

Factors affecting the solubility of a Solid in a liquid:

1. Nature of the solute and solvent:
Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar
solvents. A solute dissolves in a solvent if the intermolecular interactions are
similar in the two. i.e., “Like dissolves like”.
Examples:
NaCl , KNO3 , NH4Cl etc., which are ionic dissolve in the polar solvents such
as water. I 2 , S8 which are non-polar dissolve in non-polar solvents such as CCl4 ,
benzene.
2. Temperature:
Temperature has a marked effect on the solubility of a solid in a liquid. The
solubility of a solid in a liquid may increase or decrease with increase in
temperature which depends on the enthalpy of solution.
• If, the process of dissolution is exothermic (  sol H  0 ) then, the solubility
decreases with increase in temperature.
• If, the process of dissolution is endothermic (  sol H  0 ) then, the solubility
increases with increase in temperature.
The above two observations can be explained by Le-Chatelier’s principle.
3. Pressure:
Pressure does not have any significant effect on the solubility of solids in liquids
as these are highly incompressible.

SOLUBILITY OF A GAS IN A LIQUID

When a gas [solute] is passed into a liquid [solvent], the gas molecules dissolve
in liquid resulting in a solution. The concentration of solution increases. Some of the
gas molecules dissolved in solution escape out. This process is called evaporation. At
the stage of equilibrium, the rate of dissolution of gas in liquid becomes equal to the
rate of evaporation. Further no more gas can be dissolved in it and thus, the
concentration of the solution remains constant. Such a solution is called saturated
solution.
The amount of gas present dissolved in a specified amount of the solvent at the
saturation state is referred to as solubility of gas in a liquid.

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Factors affecting the solubility of a gas in liquid:

1. Nature of the gas [solute] and the nature of liquid [solvent]:
Polar gasses dissolve in polar solvents whereas the non-polar gasses dissolve in
non-polar solvents.
Example: Polar gasses such as HCl , SO2 and NH 3 etc are more soluble in polar
solvents such as water. Non-polar gasses such as N2 , O2 etc are more soluble in
non-polar solvents such as benzene, CCl4 i.e., “Like dissolves like”.
2. Temperature:
Gas + Liquid Solution; H = − ve
Dissolution of a gas in a liquid is always an exothermic process. Thus, according
to Le-Chatelier’s principle, with increase in temperature, the equilibrium will shift
in the backward direction. Hence the solubility of gas in a liquid decrease with
increases in temperature.
3. Effect of pressure:
The solubility of gases in liquids varies considerably with pressure. This can be
explained by a law called Henry's law.
Henry's law: It states that "at constant temperature, the mass of a gas dissolved
in a given volume of a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas in
equilibrium with solution”.
i.e., at constant temperature, m  p .
Therefore, m = K H  P where, m → mass of the dissolved gas
P → pressure
K H → Henry’s constant
If, the mole fraction ( X ) is taken as the measure of the gas dissolved in a liquid,
then, according to Henry’s law.
X  P or P  X
Therefore, P = K H  X
Thus, Henry’s law can also be stated as, at constant temperature, the partial
pressure of the gas in vapour phase ( P ) is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of the gas in solution.
SIGNIFICANCE OF HENRY’S CONSTANT ( K H )

• Higher is the value of Henry’s constant ( K H ) at a given pressure, lower will be the
solubility of the gas in liquid and vice versa.
Note: Aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold water than the warm water.
This is because in cold water, there will be more amount of dissolved oxygen gas
which is due to lesser value of KH .

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APPLICATIONS OF HENRY’S LAW

• Soft drinks, soda water and aerated drinks contain the dissolved CO2 . Thus,
in the preparation of these drinks CO2 gas is passed at high pressure to increase
its solubility.
• At higher altitudes, the partial pressure of O2 is less than that of ground level.
This leads to low concentration of oxygen in blood & tissues of the people living
at higher altitudes and also in climbers. The low conc. of O2 in blood of such
people makes them weak & also lead to reduced thinking ability. This condition
is called anoxia & it can be explained by Henry’s law.
• Deep sea divers suffer from a painful condition called Bends. This is because,
due to high pressure inside the sea, N2 gas dissolves in blood and when they
come out of the sea, the dissolved nitrogen gas diffuses out of blood vessels
resulting in the rupture of blood vessels & severe pain due to internal bleeding.
This problem is minimized by using oxygen diluted with helium which is less
soluble.
• In lungs, the oxygen present in inhaled air dissolves in blood because of its high
partial pressure. In blood O2 combines with haemoglobin ( Hb ) to form oxy
haemoglobin. In tissues where the partial pressure of O2 is low, the oxy-
haemoglobin release oxygen for its utilization in cellular activities.
The above-mentioned biological phenomena can be explained by Henry’s law.
VAPOUR PRESSURE
It is defined as “the pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid on the surface
of the liquid which is in equilibrium with the liquid at that temperature”.
Factors affecting the vapour pressure:
1. Nature of the liquids: Liquids having higher intermolecular force of attraction are
less volatile and hence their vapour pressure is less. Example: water.
Liquids having less intermolecular force of attraction are more volatile and hence
their vapour pressure is more. Example: Ethanol, Benzene etc
2. Temperature: With increase in temperature, the kinetic energy of liquid molecules
increases. Thus, the number of molecules escaping into vapours state increases
and hence the vapour pressure also increases.
VAPOUR PRESSURE OF BINARY SOLUTIONS OF TWO LIQUIDS
[Liquid-Liquid solutions]
In a binary solution of two liquids [i.e., a liquid solute dissolved in liquid
solvent], both solute and solvent are volatile. Thus, on the surface of solution, there
exist the vapours of both the components. In such solutions, the total vapour pressure
of the liquid mixture [Solution] is equal to the sum of partial pressure of both the
liquids.
Note: In binary solution of two liquids, the pressure exerted by the vapours of each
liquid is called its partial vapour pressure.

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RAOULTS’S LAW FOR LIQUID MIXTURES

It states that at a given temperature ‘the partial vapour pressure each
component in a mixture of two liquids to the product of mole fraction of that
component in solution and vapour pressure of the same component in its pure state’.
Consider a binary solution of two liquids ' A ' & ' B' . According to Raoult’s law,
the partial vapour pressure of each component can be obtained as follows.

PA = X A  PA where, PA → Partial vapour pressure of component ' A ' .

X A → Mole fraction of component ' A ' .

PA → Vapour pressure of pure component ' A' .

PB = X B  PB where, PB → Partial vapour pressure of component ' B' .

XB → Mole fraction of component ' B' .

PB → Vapour pressure of pure component ' B' .

Total vapour pressure of the solution: Ptotal = PA + PB =  X A  PA  +  X B  PB 

CLASSIFICATION OF BINARY SOLUTIONS

It has been observed that not all the binary solutions of 2 liquids obey Raoult’s
law at all concentrations and at all temperatures. Thus, they are classified into two
types as follows.
1. Ideal solutions: A binary solution of two liquids which obey Raoult’s law for
liquid mixtures at all temperatures and concentrations is called an ideal solution.
Examples:
(i) Chloro benzene & Bromo benzene
(ii) Chloro ethane & Bromo ethane
(iii) n − hexane & n − heptane
(iv) Benzene & Toluene
Characteristics of ideal solutions:
• The inter molecular force of attraction between the molecules in mixture
 A − B will be same as the force of attraction between the molecules of solvent
 A − A and solute  B − B .
• There is no volume change during mixing of two liquids i.e., Vmix = 0 .

• There is no enthalpy change during mixing of two liquids i.e., Hmix = 0 .

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Graphical representation of an ideal solution:

 
(1) When X A = 1 [Liquid A is pure], PA = X A  PA = PA , when X A = 0 [Liquid A is

absent], PA = X A  PA = 0 .
 
(2) When XB = 1 [Liquid B is pure], PB = X B  PB = PB , when XB = 0 [Liquid B is

absent], PB = X B  PB = 0 .
 
(3) P = PA + PB = X A  PA + X B  PB

2. Non-ideal solutions: A binary solution of two liquids which does not obey
Raoult’s law for liquid mixtures at all temperatures and concentrations is called a
non-ideal solution.

Characteristics of non-ideal solution:

• The intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules in mixture  A − B

will not be same as the force of attraction between the molecules of solvent

 A − A and solute  B − B .
• There is volume change during mixing of two liquids i.e., Vmix  0 .

• There is enthalpy change during mixing of two liquids i.e., Hmix  0 .

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IDEAL SOLUTIONS & NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

Ideal solutions Non-ideal solutions

1. They obey Raoult’s law for liquid They do not obey Raoult’s law for liquid
mixtures at all temperatures and all mixtures at all temperatures and all
concentrations. concentrations.

2. The force of attraction between the The force of attraction between the
molecules of solute & solvent is same molecules of solute & solvent is not same
as the force of attraction between the as the force of attraction between the
molecules of liquids in their pure molecules of liquids in their pure state.
state.

3. There is no enthalpy change during There is enthalpy change during the

the mixing of pure liquids to form mixing of pure liquids to form solution
solution i.e., Hmix = 0 . i.e., Hmix  0 .

4. There is no Volume change during There is Volume change during the

the mixing of pure liquids to form mixing of pure liquids to form solution
solution i.e., Vmix = 0 . i.e., Vmix  0 .

Types of non-ideal solutions:

• Non-ideal solutions showing positive deviation from Raoult’s’ law:
These are the non-ideal solutions in which the total vapour pressure
of the mixture is higher than the value expected from Raoult’s law.

Characteristics:
(i) The intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules of the mixture
 A − B will be less than those between solvent  A − A and solute  B − B
liquids.
(ii) There is increase in volume during mixing of pure liquids to form solution
i.e., Vmix  0 .
(iii) There is increase in enthalpy during mixing of pure liquids to form solution
i.e., Hmix  0 .

Examples: Ethanol & Water, Acetone & Benzene, CHCl3 & CCl4 .

• Non-ideal solutions showing negative deviation from Raoult’s’ law:

These are the non-ideal solutions in which the total vapour pressure of the
mixture is lesser than the value expected from Raoult’s law.

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Characteristics:
(i) The intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules of the mixture
 A − B will be more than those between solvent  A − A and solute  B − B
liquids.
(ii) There is decrease in volume during mixing of pure liquids to form solution
i.e., Vmix  0 .
(iii) There is decrease in enthalpy during mixing of pure liquids to form solution
i.e., Hmix  0 .

Examples: Water & HCl , H 2O and HNO3 , H2O and H 2 SO4 .

Differences between the non-ideal solutions showing + ve & – ve deviation from

Raoult’s law:

Non-ideal solutions showing Non-ideal solutions showing

+ve deviation – ve deviation
1. The intermolecular force of attraction
The intermolecular force of attraction
between the molecules of the mixture
between the molecules of the mixture
 A − B will be less than those  A − B will be more than those between
between the molecules of solvent
molecules of solvent  A − A and solute
 A − A and solute  B − B liquids.
 B − B liquids.

2. There is increase in volume during There is decrease in volume during

mixing of pure liquids to form mixing of pure liquids to form solution
solution i.e., Vmix  0 . i.e., Vmix  0 .

3. There is increase in enthalpy during There is decrease in enthalpy during

mixing of pure liquids to form mixing of pure liquids to form solution
solution i.e., H mix  0 . i.e., H mix  0 .

Graphical representation of non-ideal solutions showing + ve & – ve deviation:

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AZEOTROPES OR AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES

A constant boiling mixture which boils off with no change in composition from
the liquid state to gaseous state is called an Azeotropic mixture.
Types of Azeotropic mixtures:
1. Minimum boiling Azeotropes:
• These are the Azeotropic mixtures in which the force of attraction between the
molecules of the mixture is less than the force of attraction between the
molecules in their pure state.
• Thus, the components have greater tendency to escape into vapour state. Due
to this their vapour pressure is high. Hence such Azeotropes boil at
temperature less than the boiling point of both the liquid components.
• These are formed by the liquid mixtures showing positive deviation from
Raoult’s law.
Example: Rectified spirit [It consists of ethanol (95.5%) and water (4.5%).
It boils at 351.1 K ( 78.1 ) .

2. Maximum boiling Azeotropes:

• These are the Azeotropic mixtures in which the force of attraction between the
molecules of the mixture is more than the force of attraction between the
molecules in their pure state.
• Thus, the components have lesser tendency to escape into vapour state. Due to
this their vapour pressure is less. Hence such Azeotropes boil at temperature
more than the boiling point of both the liquid components.
• These are formed by the liquid mixtures showing negative deviation from
Raoult’s law.
Example: Water ( 373 K ) + HCl ( 188 K ) of 20% by mass boils at 383 K .

68% HNO3 + 32% H2O by mass boils at 393.5 K .

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

Certain properties of solutions which depend only on the number of solute

particles present in solution and not on the nature
of solute are called colligative properties

Examples:
 P − P 
(i) Relative lowering of vapour pressure   .
 P 
(ii) Osmotic pressure (  ) .

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(iii) Elevation in boiling point ( Tb ) .

(iv) (
Depression in freezing point T f . )
Significance of colligative properties:
By measuring any one colligative property of a dilute solution, the molecular
mass of its solute can be calculated.

VAPOUR PRESSURE
It is defined as the pressure exerted by the vapours of the liquid on the surface
of the liquid which is in equilibrium with the liquid.
Effect of addition of a non-volatile solute to a solvent[liquid] on its vapour pressure:
When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, some of the solvent molecules
get replaced by the solute particles on the surface. Due to this the number of solvent
molecules escaping in to vapour state becomes less and the vapour pressure decreases.
Hence the vapour pressure of a solution is always less than the vapour pressure of a
pure solvent.
If, P is the vapour pressure of a pure solvent and ' P ' is the vapour pressure
of its solution, then P  P .
The difference in the vapour pressure of a pure solvent and the vapour pressure
of its solution.
[i.e., P − P ] is called lowering of vapour pressure.
Lowering of vapour pressure can be defined as the decrease in vapour pressure
produced when a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent.

I. RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE

It is defined as “the ratio of lowering of vapour pressure produced

when a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent to
the vapour pressure of pure solvent.

 P − P 
i.e., Relative lowering of vapour pressure =   .
 P 
The value of RLVP depends only on the number of solute particles and not on
the nature of solute. Hence it is a colligative property.
According to Raoult’s law for a solid in liquid, the relative lowering of vapour
pressure of a solution produced by dissolving a non-volatile solute is equal to the
mole fraction of solute in solution.

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To derive an expression for the molecular mass of a solute:

According to Raoult’s law,
 P − P 
   = XSolute
 P 
If, a solution contains ' n1 ' moles of solute dissolved in ' n2 ' moles of solvent then,

 P − P  n2
  =
 P  n1 + n2
For a dilute solution, n2  n1 .

 P  − P  n2
Therefore,   =
 P  n1
 P  − P  W2 / M2
  =
 P  W1 / M1
 P  − P  W2 M1
  = 
 P  M2 W1

 P   W2  M1
M2 =   =
P −P W1

where, W2 = Mass of solute, W1 = Mass of solvent, M1 = Molar mass of solvent, M2 =

Molar mass of solute, P = Vapour pressure of pure solvent & ( P  − P ) = Lowering of
vapour pressure.

II. ELEVATION IN BOILING POINT

Boiling point is the temperature at which a substance passes from liquid state
to gaseous state.
A liquid starts to boil when its vapour pressure becomes equal to atmospheric
pressure.
Effect of addition of a non-volatile solute to a solvent:
When a solute is added to a solvent, its vapour pressure decreases. Thus, the
boiling point increases.
Hence a solution has to be heated to a higher temperature than the boiling point
of a pure solvent. This indicates that the boiling point of a solution is always more
than its pure solvent.
Example: Sea water boils at more than 100 C temperature due to the presence of
dissolved salts like NaCl .

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If, T b is the boiling point of a pure solvent and Tb is the boiling point of its
solution, then, Tb  T b .
The difference in the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of its pure
solvent is called elevation in boiling point. It is denoted by the symbol Tb .
i.e., ( Tb = Tb − T b )

To define elevation in boiling point ( Tb ) :

It is defined as the increase in boiling point produced when a non − volatile
solute is added to a solvent.

To derive an expression to find the molecular mass of a solute in terms of elevation

in boiling point:
For a dilute solution, Elevation in boiling point produced by dissolving a non-
volatile solute is directly proportional to the molality of solution.
Tb  m
Tb = Kb  m where, m = Molality of the solution and,
Kb = Molal elevation constant/Ebullioscopic constant
W2 / M2 W /1000
m= = 2
W1 /1000 M2  W1
1000  Kb  W2 1000  Kb  W2
Therefore, Tb = or M2 =
W1  M2 W1  Tb
where, Kb → Ebullioscopic constant
W2 → Mass of solute

W1 → Mass of solvent

Tb → Elevation in boiling point

To define molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant.

We know that,
1000  Kb  W2
Tb =
W1  M2

If exactly 1 mole of a solute is dissolved in 1 kg ( 1000 g ) of a solvent, then,

Tb = Kb . Thus, Molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant is defined as “the
elevation in boiling point produced when one mole of a solute is dissolved in 1 Kg of
a solvent”.
Unit of K b = K kg mol −1 .

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III. DEPRESSION IN FREEZING POINT

Freezing point is the temperature at which a substance changes from liquid

state to solid state.
When a non-volatile solid is added to a solvent (liquid), its freezing point
decreases due to the decrease in its vapour pressure.
If, Tf is the freezing point of a pure solvent & T f is the freezing point of a
solution, then T f  T f .

The difference in the freezing point of a pure solvent and the freezing point of
its solution is called depression in freezing point. It is denoted by the symbol T f .

( T f = Tf − T f )
Example: Freezing point of sea water is less than normal water due to dissolved salts
in it.
To define depression in freezing point :
It is defined as the decrease in freezing point produced when a non − volatile solvent
is added to a solvent.

To derive an expression to find the molecular mass of a solute in terms of

depression in freezing point:
For a dilute solution, depression in freezing point produced by dissolving a
non-volatile solute is directly proportional to the molality of solution.
T f  m

T f = K f  m

where, m → Molality of the solution and,

K f → Molal depression constant / Cryoscopic constant

W2 / M2 W /1000
m= = 2
W1 /1000 M2  W1
1000  K f  W2 1000  K f  W2
Therefore, Tf = or M2 =
W1  M2 W1  Tf

where, K f → Cryoscopic constant

W2 → Mass of solute

W1 → Mass of solvent

T f → Depression in freezing point

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To define molal depression constant or Cryoscopic constant:

We know that,
1000  K f  W2
Tf =
W1  M2

If, exactly 1 mole of a solute is dissolved in 1 kg ( 1000 g ) of a solvent, then,

Tf = K f . Thus, Molal depression constant or Cryoscopic constant is defined as “the
depression in freezing point produced when one mole of a solute is dissolved in 1 Kg
of a solvent”.
Unit of K f = K kg mol −1 .

VI. OSMOTIC PRESSURE

OSMOSIS
The movement of solvent molecules from a solvent into solution or from a
dilute solution into a concentrated solution through a semi permeable membrane is
called osmosis.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
It is defined as the suitable external pressure that should be applied on the
surface of a solution to prevent (stop) osmosis.
Osmotic pressure of a dilute solution depends only on the number of solute
particles present in solution and not on the nature of solute. Hence, it is a colligative
property.
Note: A membrane which allows the movement of only solvent molecules through
itself but not the solute particles is called a semi permeable membrane.
[Examples: Parchment membrane, plant membrane, pig’s bladder (Natural semi
permeable membranes). Cupric ferrocyanide (artificial SPM).
LAWS OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE
1. Vant-Hoff’s Boyles law:
It states that “at constant temperature, the osmotic pressure of a solution
is directly proportional to its concentration”.

1
i.e., at constant temperature,   C or   ------------- (1)
V
2. Vant-Hoff’s Charles law:
It states that “at constant concentration, the osmotic pressure of a solution
is directly proportional to its temperature”.

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i.e., at constant temperature,   T ------------- (2)

From equation (1) and (2),
T
 or V = nRT where, n = number of moles of gas
V
If, a solution is prepared by dissolving ' W2 ' g of solute of molecular mass ' M 2 ' ,
W
then, n = 2 .
M2
W2
Therefore, V = RT
M2
W2 RT
M2 =
V
where, R = universal dil. solution constant,
V = Volume of solution
NOTE
(1) Isotonic solutions: Two solutions of different substances having the same osmotic
pressure at same temperature are called isotonic solutions.
Example for isotonic solutions : Osmotic pressure of the fluid in blood cells is
equivalent the osmotic pressure of to 0.9% ( mass / volume ) sodium chloride
solution which is also called as normal saline.
Note : When two isotonic solutions are separated by a semi permeable membrane,
no osmosis occurs between them.

(2) Hypertonic solution: A solution having higher osmotic pressure than the other
solution is called hypertonic solution.
(3) Hypotonic solution: A solution having lesser osmotic pressure than the other
solution is called hypotonic solution.
(4) Significance of osmosis:
• The movement of water from soil to roots of plants is due to osmosis.
• Meat can be preserved by salting and fruits can be preserved by adding sugar.
This is because, bacteria on a salted meat or canned fruits lose water by osmosis
and dies.
• Raw mangoes when placed in concentrated NaCl solution lose water due to
osmosis & ultimately shrivel into pickle.
• Wilted flowers regain their freshness when placed in fresh water because of
osmosis.
• Limped carrots when placed in water become firm due to in flow of water due
to osmosis.

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(5) Reverse osmosis: The movement of solvent molecules from a solution of higher
concentration to the solution of lower concentration is called reverse osmosis. It
happens when pressure more than osmotic pressure is applied on concentrated
solution.
Note: Reverse osmosis (RO) is used for the purification of water i.e., for
desalination of sea water.

ABNORMAL COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES & ABNORMAL MOLECULAR

MASS
Certain solutes, which undergo dissociation or association in solution, are
found to show abnormal colligative properties. Thus, the relationship between molar
mass & colligative properties is applicable only for the solutions of non-electrolytes &
the solutes which do not undergo association or dissociation.
Example: Glucose, urea etc.
The abnormal colligative properties or abnormal molar masses are due to the
following reasons:
1. Association of solute molecules:
Molecules of certain solutes undergo association in solution due to the formation
of hydrogen bonding. Thus, every 2 molecules of a solute in solution form single
entity. Due to this, the number of solute particles decrease & hence the colligative
property measured also decreases. Molecular mass of such solutes will be higher
1
than the actual molecular mass since, molecular mass  .
Colligative property
Example: Molecular mass of ethanoic acid [acetic acid] determined from the
colligative property data is 120. It is two times of its actual molecular mass of 60.
This is due to association of thionic acid molecules by hydrogen bonding.
2. Dissociation of solute molecules:
Electrolytes like acids, bases and salts undergo dissociation in solution to form two
or more ionic species in solution. Due to this, the numbers of particles in solution
of such substances increase. Thus, such solutions exhibit higher colligative

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property value. Hence the molecular mass of such solutes measured from
colligative property data will be less than their normal molecular mass value.
Example: The actual molecular mass of NaCl is 58.5. But the molecular mass of
NaCl determined by determination of depression in freezing point is 29.5 which
is abnormal molecular mass. This is due to dissociation of NaCl molecules in
solution.

VANT-HOFF FACTOR ( i )

Vant-Hoff introduced a factor ' i ' called Vant-Hoff factor to express the extent
of association or dissociation of solutes in solution.
It is the ratio of normal molecular mass to the abnormal molecular mass of a
solute.
Normal molecular mass
i.e., i =
Abnormal molecular mass
1
Since molecular mass 
Colligative property
Observed colligative property
i= or
Normal colligative property
Number of solute particles after dissociation or association
i=
Number of solute particles before dissociation or association

Case (i):
In case of association of solute molecules in solution, observed molecular mass
will be more than the normal molecular mass. Thus, factor ' i ' has value less than 1.

Case (ii):
In case of dissociation of solute molecules in solution, observed molecular mass
will be less than the normal molecular mass. Thus, factor ' i ' has value more than 1.

Case (iii):
In case there is no association or dissociation of solute, the value of factor ' i '
will be equal to 1

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