MJS 1321: MEDIA ETHICS: PRINCIPLES& PRACTICE

COURSE OUTLINE

Pre-requisites: None

1. Rationale

Ethical issues in the media are more complex now than ever before. Therefore, this course is
designed to give postgraduate students more skills in order to be able to meet these ethical media
challenges in order to remain un compromised. Hence, this course is designed to be more
practical so that it is more beneficial.

2. Aim

This course aims at empowering the students with more knowledge on ethical media issues so
that they are better informed on how to sift through delicate complex societal issues in order not
to be compromised.

3. Course Objectives

By the end of the course, students should be able to:

a. Explain media ethics

b. Demonstrate modern ethical media challenges experienced by media practitioners

c. Demonstrate knowledge of how to handle and resolve ethical media challenges

4. Course Content

a. Ethics in general

 Ethics and morality

 Categories of ethical issues
 Media ethics
 Values
 Appeal to ethical principles
 Choosing responsibility

b. The Philosophical foundations of Media Ethics

 The philosophical branches of ethics

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  Meta-ethics
 Normative ethics
 Applied ethics
 The cultural, social and practical foundations of media ethics
 Proto-norms in media ethics

c. Types of Ethics

 Deontological ethics
 Utilitarianism
 Egalitarianism (Theory of Justice)
 Teleological (Consequence-based) theories
 Virtue theories (Aristotle’s Golden Mean)
 Relativism or Situation ethics
 Judeo-Christian ethics
 Arab-Islamic ethics
 Afri-centred ethics (Cultural ethics)

d. Frontiers of Ethics

 Determinism, responsibility and choice

 Religion, law and Politics
 Business and financial pressure
 Popular culture: aesthetics tastes, nakedness & morality
 Reporters and sources
 Seducers & pacifiers: freebies, junkets and perks
 Invasion of privacy
 ‘Special’ advertisement, profit, wealth and public trust
 Internet / social media
 Corporate Public Relations and social responsibility
 Violence
 Censorship
 Human suffering, corruption, discrimination, accidents and death
 Plagiarism and copyright
 Embargo
 Confidentiality and the public interest
 Gender, minors and minority sensitivity
 The media and anti-social behaviour
 Freedom, conflict of interest and responsibility

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e. Ethical Decision Making (Resolving Ethical Dilemmas)

 Ethical dilemmas
 Top-Down Approach
 Bottom-Up Approach
 Steps for making Ethical Decisions
 Value Translations
 Ethical Check List
 Asking Good Questions to Make Good Ethical Decisions
 Characteristics of the ethical public communicator

 Resolving ethical challenges

f. Theories of the Media and Democracy

 Theories of the media

 Corporatist (Autocratic)
 Citizens Participation (Consensus)
 Libertarian (Participatory)
 Social responsibility (Pluralism)
 New theories
 Models of Democracy
 Pluralist democracy
 Administrative democracy
 Civic democracy
 Direct democracy
 The roles of the Media
 Monitorial role
 The facilitative role
 The radical role
 The collaborative role

g. Media roles under challenge

 Contemporary critiques of media performance

 Alternative perspectives on changing media and politics
 Changes affecting the traditional media
 The potential of the new media

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h. Online Media and Ethics

 Layered journalism
 Disguised authors

 Language
 Privacy Invasion
 Regulation of Social Media
 A revolution in ethics
 Difficult questions for digital media ethics
 Ethics of images
 Resolving digital media ethics

i. Ethical guidelines for specific media professionals

 Broadcasters
 Print media, photojournalists, video journalists & Online media
 Public relations & advertising
 Resolving ethical media challenges in various media types

j. Ethics of media users

k. MECOZ / ZAMEC

l. Challenges in the implementation of media ethics

 Media owners
 Political power
 Disaggregated publics
 Corporate world
 Culture
 Education
 Personal conscience

5. Method of Teaching

Three hours of lecturers per week or as will be applicable in the term/semester system

One hour seminar per week

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6. Assessment

(a) Continuous Assessment: 50%

Consisting of:

 20 % Five assignments on practical application of media ethics (case studies)

 30% Two equally weighted tests

(b) Final Examination: 50%

7. Required Readings

Black, Jay & Roberts, Chris, 2011, Doing ethics in media: Theories and practical applications,
Routledge, London.

Cheney, George, May, Steve & Munshi, Debashish, 2010, The handbook of communication
ethics, Routledge, London.

Christians, G. Clifford and Traber, Michael, 1997, Communication ethics and universal values,
Sage publications, New Delhi.

Christians, G. Clifford, Rotzoll, B. Kim & Fackler, Mark, 1991, Media ethics: Cases and moral
reasoning, Longman, New York.

Kasoma, Francis, The Foundations of African Ethics (Afriethics) and the Professional Practice
of Journalism: The Case for Society-Centred Media Morality: http://pdfproc.lib.msu.edu/?
file=/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/africa%20media%20review/vol10no3/jamr010003007.pdf,
viewed on 12/07/2017.

McBride, Kelly & Rosenstiel, Tom, 2013, The new ethics of journalism: principles for the 21 st
century, Sage publications, Petersburg.

Ward, J.A. Stephen & Wasserman, Herman, 2010, Media ethics beyond borders, Routledge,
London.

8. Recommended Reading

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Boeyink, E. David & Borden, L. Sandra, 2010, Making hard choices in journalism ethics: cases
and practice, Routledge, London.

Christians, G. Clifford et al., 2009, Normative theories of the media: Journalism in democratic
societies, University of Illinois press, Illinois.

Crook, Tim, 2009, Comparative media law and ethics, Routledge, London.

Gordon, David et al., 2011, Controversies in media ethics, Routledge, London.

Kasoma, Francis P. (ed.), 1994, Journalism Ethics in Africa, African Council for Communication
Education, Nairobi.

Meyers, Christopher, 2010, Journalism ethics: A philosophical approach (practical and

professional ethics), Oxford University press, Oxford.

Pattyn, Bart, 2000, Media ethics, Peeters, Leuven.

Rioba, Ayub and Karashani, Fili, 2002, To write or not to write: ethical concerns in journalism,
Media council of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam.

MEDIA ETHICS, PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE

INTRODUCTION

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The objective of this course is to broaden media personnel’s understanding of what ought to
guide people, media personnel in particular, in making judgements or choices and decisions
which are right, good and rational. It is not the aim of this course to discuss how people make
decisions or behave for this would cease to be the concern of Philosophy; it would be Sociology.

Every day, we face situations in which we have to make choices or decisions. These could be
choices or decisions which have far reaching consequences, or which determine our destiny as
individuals as well as a group or society. There are obviously situations to which – out of
experience or established norms – we already have straightforward answers or choices. But there
are also some complex situations which leave us in some dilemma. It is in such complex
situations that we need to examine philosophical theories and principles that would guide us in
making the right, or in some more complex situations, better choices among options.

Anecdote 1

You are chatting with someone you know. You are free to discuss a range of matters whenever
you meet. He/she confides in you that he/she has just made K20,000,000 from tax evasion. How
do you react?

 Do you praise him/her because it was the smartest thing to do?

 Do you threaten to report him/her to the authorities if he/she does not share the loot with
you?
 Do you explain to him/her that you believe it is wrong to evade tax?
 Do you report him/her to the authorities straight away?

What are the considerations that guide you to think the way you do?

Anecdote 2

You are in a bus among other passengers. You spot a latest smart phone just bought from the
shop without switching it on and its lying on the floor. You are the only one who has seen it.
How do you react?

 Do you put this smart phone in your pocket quietly waiting to disembark at the next
stage?
 Do you shout out to find the owner?
 Do you leave this phone on the floor because “it is none of your business”/

What is it that guides you in making the decision that you make?

Anecdote 3

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You have confirmed information that a prominent business person is selling expired human
drugs at various pharmacies. When you contact her, she offers to silence you with a saloon car.
She threatens to deal with you if you refuse the offer and publish the story. How would you
react?

 Do you take the car and zip up your mouth?

 Do you take the car and give the story to somebody else to report?
 Do you take the car and report the story yourself?
 Do you refuse to take the car and publish the story?

What are the considerations that would guide you in making a decision?

These questions can hardly be answered without our having to resort to reason. How do we make
rational decisions or judgements? How do we know that our judgement is right or wrong; or that
our decision is good or bad? What is it that determines the wrongness or rightness of our actions
or decisions? These are fundamental questions of ethics that can sometimes be mind-boggling.
Philosophy, of which ethics is a branch, offers us a base from which we can reason and make
judgements and decisions that are rational and therefore right or good.

1. Ethics in General

We start from the assumption that the students of today are the professionals of tomorrow. In a
world dominated by the power of knowledge, professional experts such as scientists, engineers,
physicians, lawyers, public servants, media experts, economists and business administrators
exercise a crucial influence on the lives and the quality of life of millions of citizens. In future,
this will increase under the influence of new (bio) technological, biomedical and managerial
developments. Their implementation by professionals will affect the human and natural
environment, the solution of problems with regard to life and death, employment and the quality
of information and public office.

Very often the current and future professionals are not sufficiently prepared to deal with the
ethical aspects of their professional decisions and with the social consequences of their work.
They need a broader education in which their professional knowledge and expertise is completed
with the ability to resolve ethical dilemmas and with the capacity to discern the values that are at
stake in every professional decision.

Providing students with greater ethical expertise is necessary but not sufficient, since the
tendency to hyperspecialisation in already quite specialised disciplines goes together with a loss
of the ability to integrate everything into a larger and meaningful whole. In such a context, there

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is need for a broad education in which space is created for an integral interpretation of reality, for
initiation into traditions of thought, for the development of the student’s civic sense and the
configuration of persons as moral subjects.

It was the realisation that in certain moments not all ethical codes might be utilised. The term
Ethics comes from a Greek word ETHOS which means CHARACTER or what a good person
is or does to have a good character. In general, therefore, Ethics deals with the philosophical
foundations of decision making, of choosing among the good and bad options that one faces.

Instead the term Morality comes from a Latin word MORES and refers to the way or manner in
which people behave. Thus morality has come to mean socially approved customs or the practice
or application of ethics. Ethics is concerned with that which holds society together or provides
the stability and security essential to the living of human life. It deals with obligations and
responsibilities we have towards others and what we should do to make the world a better place.

However, the two terms have merged to such an extent that they have become virtually
indistinguishable. This approach has been supported in the study of media ethics because it
reflects the growing realisation that professional ethical behaviour cannot be separated entirely
from the moral standards of society at large.

Therefore, the objective of the ethical dimension is for the media personnel’s understanding of
what ought to guide people, media personnel in particular, in making judgements or choices and
decisions which are right, good and rational. Every day, we face situations in which we have to
make choices or decisions. These could be choices or decisions which have far reaching
consequences, or which determine our destiny as individuals as well as a group or society. There
are obviously situations to which – out of experience or established norms – we already have
straightforward answers or choices. But there are also some complex situations which leave us in
some dilemma, for example in performing investigative journalism in order to bring about
governance. It is in such complex situations that we need to examine philosophical theories and
principles that would guide us in making the right, or in some more complex situations, better
choices among options. How do we make rational decisions or judgements? How do we know
that our judgement is right or wrong; or that our decision is good or bad? What is it that

9
determines the wrongness or rightness of our actions or decisions? These are fundamental
questions of ethics that can sometimes be mind-boggling.

Ethics as a branch of Philosophy involves thinking about morality, moral problems and moral
judgement. Ethics, therefore, is a branch of Philosophy that looks at:

 A system of principles which guides actions

 A system of principles guiding people on the right actions to take
 A standard of conduct that indicates how one should behave based on moral duties
 Values which guide a person, organisation or society
 Value system by which a person determines what is right or wrong, fair or unfair, just
or unjust, honest or dishonest.
 In a nutshell, Ethics is a branch of Philosophy that seeks to use rational and systematic
principles, values and norms to determine what is good or bad, correct or incorrect,
right or wrong, as far as human actions are concerned.

3.1. Media Ethics

(iv) Media Ethics

The rights and responsibilities of media use, freedom, regulation and journalistic conduct have
been debated in Western societies since the oldest known newspaper was published in Germany
in 1609. But the press’s harm to society was not explicitly linked to ethical principles until the
end of the 19th century. The first time press critics used ‘ethics’ in a title was July 1889 (Lilly,
1889). Hazel Dicken Garcia (1989) ends her examination of journalistic standards in the US at
that date, citing it as the transition from everyday procedures to a more reflective period related
to ethical precepts. Indeed, once the press developed into an industrial structure in the 1890s, and
the first forays into journalism education appeared, an intellectual concern about the press’s
obligation took root in a form basically unchanged until now. Several factors congealed in the
1890s to give communication ethics its distinctive shape.

 The press and utilitarian ethics: the media had become a complex and diversified social
institution, with journalists as experts pursuing specialised tasks. The North American
media began understanding itself during this decade not as a political forum or socialising
force, but as a corporate economic structure marketing a commodity for consumers.
Structural patterns of authority and accountability were utilitarian in form, and
utilitarianism characterised its organisational culture, which in turn was rooted in
industrial production and market distribution. The industrialisation and
commercialisation of the media displaced an earlier media culture that was primarily

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 organised around politics and that frequently used partisan advantage as its main
standard. With the industrialisation of the press, media occupations, especially
journalism, began to redefine themselves as middle-class professions. They began to seek
a place within the rising university system. The key impetus behind the creation of these
early university programs in journalism was the need for the press to enhance its
respectability in the face of heated public criticism. In the early and mid 19 th century,
journalism was a low-prestige occupation in a highly competitive market. Since
newspapers and journalists were perceived to have very little power, the public was not
impressed by the typical newspaper or journalist, but was not especially alarmed either.
Newspaper in the USA grew in circulation, industrialisation their production and
introduced economies of scale through modern distribution and through reliance on
advertising, that led to increasing monopolisation of local markets in the later 19 th and
early 20th centuries. The rising power of the press made lapses that had earlier been
colourful now seem dangerous. Newspaper magnates were seen by many as robber
barons and anti-democrats. This popular perception of corruption had a significant
amount of truth to it. In response, respectable elements of the press sought to develop a
more polished public image.
 Moral Philosophy at the turn of the century: as journalism education entered the
academy, moral philosophy was in decline. The vision of a unified curriculum and
culture of learning was being abandoned as the explosion of knowledge fostered
departmentalisation and specialised instead. The serious, systematic work in ethics ended
up in philosophy departments where it was isolated from the university and taught to a
few majors as metaethics in non-normative terms. There was little incentive to keep pace
with the advances of science, technology and professions; moral philosophy was
measured by scholastic categories instead. A social institution growing in power and
complexity arrived in an academic setting at the very time significant moral philosophy
was making itself irrelevant. There was no heavyweight philosophical arena to counter
journalism’s anaemic utilitarianism. The nascent work in journalism ethics took place
outside the domain of moral philosophy. Both institutionally and intellectually,
philosophical ethics had accepted exile from the increasingly dominant work of the
university in the professions, and in the social and natural sciences. As a result, the
architects of journalism ethics lacked the conceptual tools with which to build a house
that could withstand the hostile elements.
 The flowering of academic study in the 1920s: in the USA, the initial work of the 1890s,
though rudimentary in ethics, evolved into a serious effort during the 1920s as journalism
education was established within the liberal arts. 4 important textbooks in journalism
ethics emerged from America’s heartland during this period: Nelson Crawford’s Ethics
of Journalism (1924), Leon Flint’s The conscience of the newspaper (1925), William
Gibbon’s Newspaper Ethics (1926), and Albert Henning’s Ethics and practices of
Journalism (1932). None recognised the others in quotation or argument, yet they were
similar in the topics they considered central: reporters and sources, economic temptations
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 and conflicts of interest, national security, free press, fair trial, deception, fairness,
accuracy, sensationalism and protection of privacy.
 Scientific naturalism as prevailing worldview: after 1932, the term ‘ethics’ and its
cognates disappeared from mass communication book titles for almost 40 years in the
USA. This almost indicates that ethical inquiry dropped from the prominent place it had
held in journalism education. Scientific naturalism aggressively ordered the structure of
knowledge during this period. Stretched across the fact-value dichotomy of scientific
naturalism, journalistic morality became equivalent to unbiased reporting of neutral data.
Presenting unvarnished facts was heralded as the standard of good performance.
Objective reporting was not merely a technique, but a moral imperative. The bracketing
of value judgements from the transmitting of information was considered virtuous.
Reporters were encouraged to demonstrate moral leadership in improving democratic life
and the cornerstone of their responsibility was considered to be the objective reporting
and unslanted facts. Thus concern for ethics during this period up to the 1960s occurred
only on isolated occasions. The Report of the Commission on Freedom of the Press in
1947 was the most famous counterstatement of this period. Occasionally there were
pockets of resistance in journalism’s intellectual and vocational life, but the professional
statistical model prevailed nonetheless. The scientific worldview was the ruling
paradigm. A preoccupation with that value-centred enterprise called ethics seemed out of
place in an academic and professional environment committed to facticity.
 Social responsibility: The Hutchins Commission (whose official name was the
Commission on Freedom of the Press) was formed during World War II, when Henry
Luce (publisher of Time and Life magazines) asked Robert Hutchins (president of the
University of Chicago) to recruit a commission to inquire into the proper function of the
media in a modern democracy. After deliberating for four years, the Commission came to
this conclusion in 1947: the press plays an important role in the development and stability
of modern society and, as such, it is imperative that a commitment of social responsibility
be imposed on mass media. According to this social responsibility theory, the press has a
moral obligation to consider the overall needs of society when making journalistic
decisions in order to produce the greatest good. Though there had been journalism "codes
of ethics" for decades, the Commission's report was considered landmark by some
scholars; they believed it was a pivotal reassertion of modern media's role in a democratic
society. Social-responsibility theory was born at a time (just after Franklin Roosevelt’s
death) when large and powerful publishers were unpopular with the public, and when the
public had a high degree of suspicions about the motivations and objectives of the press.
The press had mushroomed into an unwieldy and powerful entity, and criticism of the
Fourth Estate was widespread. Critics contended that the media had monopolistic
tendencies, that corporate owners were not concerned with the rights or interests of those
unlike themselves, and that commercialization produced a debased culture as well as
dangerously selfish politics. Social-responsibility theory thus proposes that the media
take it upon themselves to elevate society's standards, providing citizens with the
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 information they need to govern themselves. It is in the best interest of the media to do
this; if they do not, social theorists warn, the public will demand that the government
regulate the media. Some scholars (among them John C. Nerone) have speculated
whether journalistic fairness and balance already existed prior to the Commission’s
report. Were the Commission's conclusions merely an "adjustment" in liberalism, brought
on by perceived business demands? Libertarians (who prioritize individual liberty and
seek to minimize the power of the state) are wary of the social-responsibility theory; they
believe that responsibility means accountability, accountability means government
intervention, and government intervention comes at the expense of liberty. Indeed, the
Commission noted that continued misuse of press power would necessitate regulation.
Although scorned by the media itself, the Hutchins Commission did stimulate a heavy
emphasis on professionalism (quality work and integrity), codes of ethics, media
councils, better training and media criticism. The foundation of ethics was oriented to
duty rather than rights. However, the precise content of that moral foundation was not
articulated and social responsibility theory has generally allowed utilitarianism to
dominate its paradigm in the same way utility has commandeered liberalism as a whole.
Hutchins did not serve as a radical alternative to academia’s naturalistic worldview and
therefore did not establish a distinctive normative base for the media in a democratic
society.
 Utilitarian rationalism: the normative ethics with the greatest influence during this period
was utilitarian rationalism. Utilitarian ethics was attractive for its compatibility with the
canons of rational calculation. In the utilitarian perspective, one validated an ethical
position by hard evidence. You count the consequences for human happiness of one or
another course, and you go with the one with the highest favourable total. What counts as
human happiness was thought to be something conceptually unproblematic, a
scientifically establishable domain of facts.
 Growth in Mass Communication Ethics since 1980: in these demanding days as a global
information order emerges, applied and practical ethics dominate the academy. Applied
ethics has sought to develop itself into a field of study with its own identity; this pursuit
is still underway and has met with some successes. The dramatic growth in research,
teaching, and interest among media professionals and academics has been unrelenting,
though the methodologies of ethics scholarship are often impressionistic. Important
advances have been made on the ethics of privacy, confidentiality and deception. But
most of the crucial issues (promise-keeping, distributive justice, diversity in popular
culture, digital manipulation and conflict of interest) are still woefully underdeveloped.
Even truth-telling, which is central to information systems as a norm, has been largely
neglected.
 The Decade of Internationalisation: media ethics in the 1990s has shifted its emphasis
from local and isolated concerns to the international arena. Mass communication ethics in
terms of issues, participation and setting has passed the international watershed. Given
the global character of mass media industries, it will be world-wide in character
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 permanently, although there may be some elements of regionalism from time to time
depending on matters pressing hard in that area.

Therefore, Media Ethics are moral principles of behaviour which ought to be observed by
media practitioners. They are a standard of conduct that indicates how they should
conduct themselves based on moral duties.

Looking at the meaning of ethics, therefore, it could be said that media ethics are moral
principles of behaviour which ought to be observed by media practitioners. They are a standard
of conduct that indicates how they should conduct themselves based on moral duties.

So in order for a media practitioner to observe ethics in the media, they need 3 things:

 Learning to Interpret: before one can ethically reflect about the solution to a problem,
one must clarify what the problem means, what meanings are connected with the
problem and how the problem fits into the wider social context. For example, it would
make little sense to pose questions of business ethics if one does not understand what
business as a human activity means. It makes little sense to have a technical discussion
about euthanasia without asking oneself about the meaning of human life and death. It is
rather a matter of opening minds and improving the capacity to interpret reality by way
of additional education in literature and philosophy. One must also educate their
emotional intelligence and their capacity to put themselves in the shoes of the other. This
entails breaking out of their closed and limited knowledge.
 Ethics education requires training in civic sense: as a media practitioner, one must
also learn to think about their social responsibility and take account of the social
consequences of exercising professional power or knowledge power. Training in civic
sense requires not only the transfer of knowledge about political and social ethics, but
also the formation of social attitudes such as attention for the least advantaged in society.
That is why in investigative journalism, the aim of any saga is never to attract attention
to oneself, but for good governance so that society is fairer.
 There is no ethical responsibility without personal development: the essential
mission of education is to help everyone to develop their own potential and become a

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 complete human being, as opposed to a tool at the service of the economy. The
acquisition of knowledge and skills should go hand in hand with building up character
and accepting one’s responsibility in society. Ethics requires more than just knowledge
acquisition. A media practitioner involved in investigative journalism, digging out the
hidden rubbish in people’s lives is not only responsible for what he or she does in
specific situations or choice, but also for the moral quality of his or her life.

The media has a commitment to the social responsibility of the society. Investigative journalism
is not for the personal accolades of the reporter, but for the production of the greatest good of the
community. Investigative journalism helps the ego in a person to be concerned with the rights of
others knowing very well that commercialization in society has produced a debased culture as
well as dangerously selfish politics. Social-responsibility theory thus proposes that the media
take it upon themselves to elevate society's standards, providing citizens with the information
they need to govern themselves.

Why there is need for a system of ethics in society

Society is not always a gentle taskmaster when it comes to passing judgement on its moral
agents. The standards against which society scrutinizes individual and institutional behavior are
embedded in its code of moral conduct, its system of ethics. We may ask why does society really
needs a system of ethics? There are at least four reasons that merit attention.

The need for social stability: First of all, a system of ethics is necessary for social intercourse.
Ethics is the foundation of our advanced civilization, a cornerstone that provides some stability
to society’s moral expectations. If we are to enter into agreements with others, a necessity in a
complex, interdependent society, we must be able to trust one another to keep those agreements,
even if it is not in our self-interest to do so. Professional athletes who demand to renegotiate their
contracts before they have expired may breed contempt and mistrust in the front office and the
belief among the fans that they are placing self-interest over the interest of the team. The reading
and viewing publics likewise expect journalists to report the truth, even when there is no formal
agreement to do so. When reporters fail in in this expectation, public confidence is eroded.

Certainly, episodes like the Janet Cooke affair, in which the Washington post returned a 1981
Pulitzer prize for feature writing after a young reporter admitted that she had fabricated the story,
can undermine the credibility of the media. The embarrassing episode began when the post
published a dramatic account of an eight-year-old heroin addict, identified by Cooke as
‘jimmy.’’ Jimmy was depicted as a third-generation heroin addict, and the article painted a bleak

15
picture of his home environment in southeast Washington, where he lived with his mother, an
ex-prostitute and her lover, Ron was a drug dealer, who was also responsible for jimmy’s
addiction. Cooke even described a scene as in which jimmy got ‘fixed up’ with an injection of
heroin.

The article angered and upset police chief burtell Jefferson, who threatened to have Cooke and
the post editors subpoenaed if they did not reveal jimmy’s true identity. Washington’s mayor
even ordered a search for the child. But Cooke told her editors that Ron had threatened to kill her
if she told anyone who he was. The editors stood by their reporter and succeeded in holding
Washington officials at arm’s length. In the meantime, the post entered the Cooke article in the
Pulitzer competition.

Cooks journalistic deception began to unravel after she won the prize. The Toledo blade, in
preparing a ‘hometown-girl-makes-good’ story, discovered some discrepancies in the
biographical information transmitted by the associated press from the Pulitzer form. Post editors
were then informed and Cooke soon confessed that the jimmy story was a fabrication based on a
composite of young addicts whom she had heard about from social workers. Cooke resigned and
the post returned her Pulitzer prize. Fortunately, such instance are rare, but just one well-
publicized ethical indiscretion can undermine respect from an already skeptical public. To the
credit of the post, the newspapers ombudsman moved swiftly to make a full disclosure to the
readers.

The need for a moral hierarchy: Secondly, a system of ethics serves as a moral gatekeeper in
apprising society of the relative importance of certain customs. It does this by alerting the public
to (1) those norms that are important enough to be described as moral and (2) the hierarchy of
ethical norms and their relative standing in the moral pecking order.

All cultures have many customs, but most do not concern ethical mores. For example, eating
with utensils is customary in Western countries, but the failure to do so is not immoral. Standing
for the national anthem before a sporting event is a common practice, but those who remain
seated are not behaving unethically. There is a tendency to describe actions of which we
disapproval as immoral, although most of our social indiscretions are merely transgressions of
etiquette. A system of ethics identifies those customs and practices where social disapproval is
significant enough to render them immoral.

However, even those values and principles that have the distinction of qualifying as moral norms
are not all on an equal footing. From time to time in this book I will refer to certain ideas, such as
the commitment to truth and proscriptions against stealing, as fundamental societal values. This
distinction suggests that some are more important than others. Trespassing, for example,
although not socially approved, is generally viewed less seriously than lying. This may explain
why the journalistic practice of invading private property to get a story, though not applauded in

16
all quarters, does not usually meet with the same degree of condemnation as the use of outright
deception.

The need to resolve conflicts: Thirdly, a system of ethics is an important social institution for
resolving cases involving conflicting claims based on individual self-interest. For example, it
might be in a student’s own interest to copy from a classmate’s term paper. It is in the
classmate’s best interest to keep her from doing so. Societal rules against plagiarism are brought
to bear in evaluating the moral conduct inherent in this situation.

The need to clarify values: Finally, a system of ethics also functions to clarify for society the
competing values and principles inherent in emerging and novel moral dilemmas. Some of the
issues confronting civilization today would challenge the imagination of even the most ardent
philosopher. A case in point is the battle over animal rights, a movement that has confronted
researchers with this discomforting question: do the human benefits of animal research outweigh
the suffering of the creatures themselves? This issue also poses a thorny public relations
problem, particularly for those companies using animals to test commercial products.

Requirements of a system of ethics

If society’s norms are to serve as moral guide posts, what criteria should be used in constructing
a workable system of ethics? There may be some disagreement on this issue, but the following
four criteria should form the foundation for any ethical system. These requirements pertain both
to general societal principles and to codes of conduct reflecting the standards of professional
organizations.

Shared Values: An ethical system must be constructed, first and foremost, on shared values.
Although individuals and groups within society may apply these standards differently to specific
situations, they should at least agree on common ethical norms. For example, the fact that some
members of society choose to lie under some circumstances does not diminish society’s
fundamental commitment to the value of truth. In other words, deviations from the norm maybe
excused for substantial reasons, but exceptions to the rule do not automatically alter its value.

This commitment to shared, or common, values is often reflected in the codification of those
norms. The ten commandments, for example, are part of the code of moral conduct underlying
the Judeo-Christian heritage. Many media institutions have codified their ethical principles and
such codes can at least provide the journalistic novice with some idea of the dividing line
between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.

Wisdom: Ethical standards should be based on reason and experience. They should seek to
strike a balance between the rights and interests of autonomous individuals and their obligations
to society. In short, ethical norms should be reasonable. It would be unreasonable, for example,

17
to expect reporters to remove themselves entirely from involvement in community affairs
because of potential conflicts of interest. In fact, wisdom suggests that community involvement
can enrich journalists understanding of the stories they cover.

Wisdom also demands breathing room for advertisers who use ‘puffery’ in their commercial
messages, as long as the ads are not deceptive. Hyperbole is the handmaiden of salesmanship and
the marketplace suffers little from the introduction of exaggerated commercial claims of
enhanced sex appeal and social acceptance. A code based on wisdom promotes ethical behavior
while avoiding excessive and unreasonable moral propriety. Application of this criterion to a
system of ethics results in flexibility, which shuns the extremes of an intransigent code at the one
end and moral anarchy at the other. In journalism, for example, the proper balance is considered
to be somewhere between the sensational and the bland.

Of course, wisdom based on experience suggests that the solutions derived from a moral code
should be appropriate to the problem. Ethical quandaries sometimes call for drastic remedies. An
affirmative action program, which in some cases might appear to be extreme, is sometimes
justified to correct past discrimination. A university that suddenly discovers pervasive cheating
on its campus might, in a moment of moral indignation, impose harsh new penalties for
academic violations of the student code of conduct.

The idea of moderation could also be applied to the dilemma confronting the newspaper that
carries ads for X-rated movies, especially if they contain offensive promotional material.
Conservatives in the community would prefer that the ads be forever banned and have often been
on this point. Libertarians would argue, on the other hand, that any legal product or service
should be allowed to promote its wares in the mass media. A publisher might take the
temperature position that is, between the extremes of banning the ads and accepting ads with
graphic, tasteless displays and accept ads with only movie title announcements.

Justice: Justice has to do with peoples relations with one another and is often important to the
resolution of ethical disputes. Central to the idea of justice is the notion of fairness, in which all
individuals are treated alike in terms of what they deserve. In other words, there should be no
double standards, unless there are compelling and rational reasons for discrimination.

This principle has important implications for the media. Media practitioners may employ it to
decide what guidelines should be applied to using deception, establishing and maintaining
confidential relationships and intruding on the privacy of others. For example, justice requires
that journalists report the embarrassing behavior of others, both public and private figures, based
on what they really deserve rather than for the purpose of titillating the morbid curiosity of the
audience. Hollywood could also benefit from this idea of justice by using it to eliminate its
dramatic renditions of racial and sexual stereotypes. And in all fairness, there has been
substantial progress in this area.

18
Freedom: A system of ethics must be based on some freedom of choice. A society that does not
allow such freedom is morally impoverished. Moral agents must have several alternatives
available and must be able to exercise their powers of reason without coercion. The first moral
choice was made by Adam and Eve when they ate the forbidden fruit and were expelled from
paradise. Of course, most ethical judgements do not result in such dire consequences. But
without freedom there can be no moral reasoning, because moral reasoning, as we will see in
chapter 3, involves choosing from among several alternatives and defending one’s decision
based on some rational principle. In short, freedom provides the opportunity to raise one’s ethical
awareness, a goal that any system of ethics should encourage.

The importance of ethics in media coverage

The media is credited with being one of the upholders of freedom, a guardian of democracy, a
watchdog of justice, a voice of the voiceless. The task of collecting, writing and disseminating
news and information to meet this noble obligation is very challenging. It is very important for
the media practitioners to adhere to media ethics.

In sourcing information while presenting news, media practitioners have to report on gender
crimes; exploitation of the underprivileged; indulgence of the affluent; romantic and spiritual
relationships; community and societal affairs; economic, political, social and cultural affairs;
arrogance of those in positions of power and authority; natural calamities and man-made
accidents; communal tensions and riots; different political points of views; conflicts and wars;
acts of terrorism, to mention but a few. While reporting news, explaining facts, analysing
information and placing these in their historical, social, economic and political contexts, media
practitioners have to be aware of their audience and accordingly use the language and tone
considered appropriate, proper and relevant. According to Christians and Traber (1997) and
Pattyn (2000) it is imperative that media practitioners observe media ethics for a number of
reasons:

 Team Profession: Media is a team profession and hence everyone in the team needs to
be ethically conscious. Each member’s actions have a ripple effect on the entire
profession. Media practitioners need to be ethical if they have to be respected and
ultimately the public would have confidence in the entire profession. Thus ethical
conduct by media practitioners is required in order to promote professional integrity.
 Public Interest: Media practitioners have a duty to serve their clients in an appropriate
manner because these support the profession and believe in it. Hence, it would be
unethical to betray their trust. Reporters have a moral responsibility to news sources who
are the life blood of the media. The moral responsibility of reporters to the public is
paramount. The media consumer is now king and queen. Whatever ethical decisions
media practitioners take, they must be in the interest of the public.

19
 Responsibility: Media practitioners have to constantly choose responsibility in their
work. For instance, every good media practitioner knows that pornography in the media
is a serious social and moral issue. Hence, reporters have an obligation to society to
report accurately, fairly, truthfully and objectively. This is because evil and good exist
side by side. One African proverb says that where God boils the yam, that is exactly
where the devil roasts his fish.
 Protection of personal conscience: Media practitioners have a duty to protect and act
according to the conscience so that personal integrity is protected thereby avoiding acts
that tend to erode an individual’s respect and integrity. Remember that success is a ladder
which cannot be climbed with hands in the pocket.
 Learning to Interpret: Before one can ethically reflect about the solution to a problem,
one must clarify what the problem means, what meanings are connected with the problem
and how the problem fits into the wider social context. For example, it would make little
sense to pose questions of business ethics if one does not understand what business as a
human activity means. It makes little sense to have a technical discussion about
euthanasia without asking oneself about the meaning of human life and death. That is
why professional ethics requires more than simply a transfer of ideas from a
differentiated ethical discipline or of models of ethical argumentation. It is rather a matter
of opening minds and improving the capacity to interpret reality by way of additional
education in literature and philosophy. One must also educate their emotional intelligence
and their capacity to put themselves in the shoes of others. This entails breaking out of
their closed and limited knowledge.
 Training in civic sense: through media ethics, media practitioners learn to think about
their social responsibility and take account of the social consequences of exercising
professional power or knowledge power. Training in civic sense requires not only the
transfer of knowledge about political and social ethics, but also the formation of social
attitudes such as attention for the least advantaged in society.
 There is no ethical responsibility without personal development: the essential mission
of media ethics is also to help media practitioners to develop their own potential and
become a complete human being, as opposed to a tool at the service of the economy. The
acquisition of knowledge and skills should go hand in hand with building up character
and accepting one’s responsibility in society. Ethics requires more than just knowledge
acquisition. Media ethics implies more than providing media professionals with the
means to make a critical judgement about problems through rational argumentation.
Traditionally, ethics has been viewed as practical wisdom, aimed at the moral
development of the acting person. Such a person is not only responsible for what he or
she does in specific situations or choices, but also for the moral quality of his or her life,
in other words, for the integration of moral choices and actions into a meaningful life that
is configured as a narrative unity.

20
Main Stage in the process of Ethical Decision Making

The professional life of media practitioners centres on making decisions. Like a rainbow, ethical
decisions come in many colours. But media practitioners must make decisions which will have to
be justified with defensible reasons. The reasoning process is very important in ethical decision
making. Media practitioners should learn to analyse every stage of decision making process to
arrive at defensible and justified ethical decisions. There are four main stages in the process of
ethical decision making: Empirical Definition, Identification of Values, Appeal to Ethical
Principles and Choosing Responsibility.

a. Empirical definition: suppose there is an event; is what has happened newsworthy?

Media practitioners should arrive at this with the help of traditional news values which
include: timeliness, prominence, relevance, immediacy, proximity, conflict, controversy
and drama, disaster, consequences, human interest, rarity, unusualness, uniqueness etc.
But more importantly is the fact that media practitioners should also take into account
traditional African news values.

b. Identification of values: media practitioners need to identify the operative value in news
reporting and analyse them. The values should reflect presuppositions about social life
and human nature. Although there are many values, they can categorise them as positive
or negative. Media practitioners need to ask themselves the question; are the operative
values in the story positive or negative to the society? e.g. identifying sex scandals and
death.
c. Appeal to ethical principles: gone are the days when mass media had no ethical
guidelines and principles. There are now universally accepted principles which guide
media practitioners in making decisions. These ethical decisions include truth telling,
respect for privacy, accuracy, confidentiality, balanced reporting, honesty, fairness and
right of reply etc.

d. Choosing responsibility: media practitioners are always faced with the ethical dilemma of
making responsible decisions. They should ask themselves what moral responsibilities
they have to self, to the mass medium organisation they work for, to the media

21
 profession, to news sources and to the public. Responsibility to self concerns one’s
conscience. It finally tells the media practitioners whether to publish the story or not.

The media is credited with being one of the upholders of freedom, a guardian of democracy, a
watchdog of justice, a voice of the voiceless. The task of collecting, writing, broadcasting and
disseminating news and information to meet this noble obligation is very challenging. It is very
important for the media practitioners to adhere to media ethics.

In sourcing information while presenting news, media practitioners have to report on gender
crimes; exploitation of the underprivileged; indulgence of the affluent; romantic and spiritual
relationships; community and societal affairs; economic, political, social and cultural affairs;
arrogance of those in positions of power and authority; natural calamities and man-made
accidents; communal tensions and riots; different political points of views; conflicts and wars;
acts of terrorism, to mention but a few. While reporting news, explaining facts, analysing
information and placing these in their historical, social, economic and political contexts, media
practitioners have to be aware of their audience and accordingly use the language and tone
considered appropriate, proper and relevant. It is, therefore, important for media practitioners to
observe media ethics because:

 Team Profession: Media is a team profession and hence everyone in the team needs to
be ethically conscious. Each member’s actions have a ripple effect on the entire
profession. Media practitioners need to be ethical if they have to be respected and
ultimately the public would have confidence in the entire profession. Thus ethical
conduct by media practitioners is required in order to promote professional integrity.
 Public Interest: Media practitioners have a duty to serve their clients in an appropriate
manner because these support the profession and believe in it. Hence, it would be
unethical to betray their trust. Reporters have a moral responsibility to news sources who
are the life blood of the media. The moral responsibility of reporters to the public is
paramount. The media consumer is now king and queen. Whatever ethical decisions
media practitioners take, they must be in the interest of the public.
 Responsibility: Media practitioners have to constantly choose responsibility in their
work. For instance, every good media practitioner knows that pornography in the media

22
 is a serious social and moral issue. Hence, reporters have an obligation to society to
report accurately, fairly, truthfully and objectively. This is because evil and good exist
side by side. One African proverb says that where God boils the yam, that is exactly
where the devil roasts his fish.
 Protection of personal conscience: Media practitioners have a duty to protect and act
according to the conscience so that personal integrity is protected thereby avoiding acts
that tend to erode an individual’s respect and integrity. Remember that success is a ladder
which cannot be climbed with hands in the pocket.

Types of ethics

Although normally people just talk about three major types of ethics, yet nowadays we can
recognise at least 6 major types of ethics: deontology, utilitarian (Teleologocal), virtue theories,
situational, Christian, theory of justice and Arab-Islamic ethics.

 Deontological Ethics: deontologists (derived from the Greek word “deon” or “duty”)
are sometimes referred to as “nonconsequentialists” because of their emphasis on acting
on principle or according to certain universal moral duties without regard to the good or
bad consequences of their actions. The most famous deontologist is Emmanuel Kant.
His fundamental moral principle is his categorical imperative which is based on moral
rules that should be universally applied regardless of the situation. According to this
duty-based theory, prohibitions against certain kinds of behaviour apply, even if
beneficial consequences would result. Because of their emphasis on rules and
commitment to duty, deontological theories are sometimes referred to as “absolutist”,
admitting of no exceptions. Thus, in this view, Robin Hood would have been a villain
and not a hero for his rather permissive approach to the redistribution of wealth to the
poor. Under a duty-based approach to ethical decision making, reporters would not be
justified in using deception in ferreting out a story. Nevertheless, duty-based theories do
have some advantages. First of all, concrete rules that provide for few exceptions take
some of the pressure off moral agents to predict the consequences of their actions. There
is a duty to act according to the rules, regardless of the outcome. Furthermore, there is

23
 more predictability in the deontological theories, and one who follows these ideas
consistently is likely to be regarded as a truthful or honest person. However, from this
description, it would appear that the Kantian approach to ethical decision making is too
uncompromising for the complex world in which we live and especially for
investigative journalism.
 Teleological (Consequence-Based) or Utilitarianism: Teleological or consequentialist
theories are popular in modern society. They measure the worth of actions by their ends
and consequences. These theories are commonly said to be ‘teleological’ (derived from
the Greek term ‘telos’, meaning ‘end’ or ‘consequentialist’. While there are many types
of utilitarian theory, they hold in common that the rightness and wrongness of actions
and practices are determined solely by the consequences produced for the general well-
being of all parties affected by the actions or practices. What makes an action morally
right or wrong is the total good or evil produced by the act, not the mere act in itself.
This is linked to the belief that one must act to achieve the greatest good for the greatest
number. John Stuart Mill, who objected to Kant’s emphasis on the intentions behind the
act, argued that it is the outcome or consequence of an act that counts. Mill’s theory is
summarised as “seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number,” Hence placing
emphasis on public good over the private good. What determines what is right or wrong
is considered by what will yield the best consequences for the welfare of human interest.
This theory instructs to produce the greatest balance of good over evil, and distribute a
good consequence to more people rather than to a few when we have a choice. They are
predicated on the notion that the ethically correct decision is the one that produces the
best consequences. Consequentialists, unlike deontologists, do not ask whether a
particular practice or policy is right or wrong but whether it will lead to positive results.
Teleology is premised on the notion that an ethically correct decision is the one that
produces the best consequences (Day, 1991, p.54). Thus, investigative journalism finds
a home here because the bottom line is to choose the action that will bring about the
most good to the preferred side.

 Egalitarianism: This theory is based on the notion that all individuals should be treated
equally in terms of rights and opportunities (ibid: 51). In some instances, this is known
as the theory of Justice. It is founded on the fundamental principle of fairness.

24
 Philosopher John Rawls, who spearheaded this approach, recommended that self-
interested individuals enter into a social contract that minimises harm to the weakest
parties (ibid). The bottom line is for media practitioners not to abuse their powers to
invade the privacy of innocent victims caught in the news story. Fairness entails that the
media practitioner does not harm innocent people by simply being honest. This theory
also agrees with investigative journalism because it is after justice and fair play.
 Judeo-Christian Ethics: This is based on the Judeo-Christian values of the Ten
Commandments of the Old Testament of the Bible (Exodus 20) and the New Testament,
“Love your neighbour as you love yourself”. Although this is based on the Christian
belief in God, this notion in reality is all-embracing in a sense that it is based on respect
for human dignity. All individuals—rich or poor, black or white, famous or ordinary—
should be accorded respect as human beings regardless of their status in life (ibid:50).
Investigative journalism also finds a place here because it is never done out of hatred but
out of love for the community.
 Arab-Islamic Ethics: According to Ayish and Sadig (Christians and Taber, 1997,
pp.123-125), the basic components and features of the Arab-Islamic ethical system are
derived from both the secular and religious traditions. In a general sense, Arab-Islamic
morality has placed a good deal of emphasis on speech, making it equivalent to action in
terms of rewards and penalties. The main implication of this view is that communication
plays a role in individual development and in community progress, and no barriers
should obstruct the realisation of these goals. This flows from the fact that
communication is important for realising the ultimate goal of affirming service to God
within the divine scheme of creation. Although the individual is granted full freedom of
communication within the concept of establishing good and combating evil, it is
regarded as immoral to get involved in communication that contravenes belief in God or
that impinges on the rights of others or the community at large. Islamic morality is not
based on the consequences of actions nor on self interest. It is rather based on something
higher than the mundane events of the imperfect human and natural world, that is, on the
revealed Message of Allah. Arab-Islamic communication ethics is thus radically based
on religious authority and on a religion that constitutes a whole way of life, excluding
nothing. However, there are 3 major areas which are focussed on: first it is the value of

25
 honour. It has a positive aspect in a sense that it acknowledges a person’s dignity and
shows respect for social- cultural institutions and communal practices. Second is the
value of mercy. It denotes a fundamental human attitude that should govern human
interaction and communication. Third is the value of justice through communication.
The media ought to convey knowledge and wisdom, piety and respect and build up and
maintain harmony and equilibrium in society. Investigative journalism is one way of
maintaining equilibrium.
 Situational Ethics: This involves actions which are driven by whether something fits in
that given environment or not. In this case, a media practitioner may not be guided by
universal ethical values but by what is obtainable on the ground. Investigative
journalism is also applicable here because if what is taking place on the ground requires
to be investigated, then it is important that it takes place.
 Afri Ethics: This sometimes is what is called Cultural Ethics. To understand the
foundations of Afriethics, we need to start from an analysis of how an African views life
and human nature. The world of an African consists of the living and the dead. The
living and the dead all share one world - the world of the living-dead or dead-living - in
which they also share one life and one vital force. What the living do or do not do
affects the dead and what the dead do or do not do affects the living. The dead are not
actually 'dead', they merely transfer to another life - the life of the dead-living or living-
dead. The living need the dead to carry out a normal and full life. The dead, in turn,
need the living to enjoy their 'life' to the full (hence libations and other sacrifices by the
living to the dead). What the dead do or do not do can have a telling effect on the living.
The evil spirits (bad dead people), for example, have the power and influence to haunt
those among the living against whom they have a grudge by generally making life
difficult for them. The good spirits, on the other hand, have the ability and the power to
protect the living from problems which come with life's vicissitudes or are deliberately
planted on them by evil living people or spirits. There are good and bad people among
the living, just as there are good and bad spirits among the dead. The spirit, 'Umupashi'
(Bemba) 'Muzimu' (nyanja), 'moya' (Tonga) etc., is the vital force which gives life to
both the living and the dead. The spirit does not die. What dies is the body in its
physical form. Africans believe the spirits of the dead have bodies too but these bodies

26
are spiritual and not physical. The living-dead are in a continuum. At one end are the
very good people and at the other end are very bad people. In between are good people
and bad people. Because African society is communal, there is constant interaction
between the good people and the not-so-good. The aim is to have the good acts of the
good people rub-off on the not-so-good so that they too can emulate them and also
become good. The yardstick for good acts is whether or not they serve the community
— the whole community consisting of the living and the dead — either as a family, a
clan or the tribe (ethnic group). When acts only serve to propagate or satisfy pursuits of
individuals, they are not regarded to be as good as those that serve the family, clan or
tribe and may be even regarded as bad acts if they are harmful to the family, clan or
tribe. The more beneficial to a larger community the acts are, the ethically better they
are. Thus, acts that only serve an individual are not as good as those that serve the whole
family and, similarly, acts that only serve the family are less good compared to those
that serve the clan and the tribe. Acts that are only for the good of the individual at the
exclusion of the clan and the tribe may even be regarded as bad. Thus, to eat alone
individually or as a family when the rest of the village or clan is starving is regarded as
bad act and a person who repeatedly does this is looked at as a bad person. A
noteworthy ethical point in African life is that the bad people in a community are
constantly advised and counselled so that they become better members of the
community. They are not simply condemned and ostracised. The counselling is usually
done by elders, who, because of their wide experience in life, are looked up to as being
wiser than the younger members of the community. When it is elders who are going
wrong and there are no age mates to advise them, there is also room for young people to
advise elders provided proper etiquette is followed. The need for common good for the
community overshadows all acts in African society. There are positive and negative acts
of self-preservation. Cultivating a crop, for example, is a positive act of self-
preservation because it is carried out without intentionally trying to harm other people.
When an individual, however, acts deliberately to harm another person by, for example,
killing him or her in self-defence, such an act is regarded as a permissible negative act
of self-preservation. To risk one's life for the good of family, clan or tribe is regarded as
a heroic act worthy of commendation. Thus, a person who goes out of his way to rid the

27
 village of a marauding animal such as a snake or lion and ends up being killed, is
regarded as a hero while one who tries to save his life by running away from danger that
confronts him/her and the rest of the community, is regarded as a coward and, therefore,
a bad person. Brave people have been rewarded in African society with all sorts of
favours, including marrying the chief's daughter and thereby becoming part of the royal
household," while cowards have always been despised and ridiculed in African society.
The basis of morality among many African societies is the fulfilment of obligations to
kinsmen, living and dead, and to neighbours, living in a community with kin and
neighbours, showing respect to seniors and fulfilling obligations to dependants. Because
of this great emphasis on one's relationship with other people, both living and dead,
morals have been evolved in order to keep society not only alive but in harmony. Thus
individual morals must conform to family morals and if the two conflict, the family
morals are held paramount. Similarly, family morals must conform to clan, and clan to
tribe morals. What strengthens the family, the clan and the tribe or ethnic group is
generally morally good. To safeguard the welfare of the community, there are many
taboos concerning what may not be done and the consequences for disregarding these
taboos. Therefore in order to live a good life in Africa, African journalists should
emulate this type of life whereby they would be at peace with the living-dead, the
spirits, the ancestors, the environment, the community members and God.
 Conscience: Personal conscience is very important. It is the seat of God where one
considers decisions from the depth of one’s heart. Whatever a journalist has to
disseminate, he/she consult oneself whether it is right or wrong.

Aristotelian Virtue Ethics

Andrew Fisher and Mark Dimmock

To seek virtue for the sake of reward is to dig for iron with a spade of gold.

– Ivan Panin [1]

28
Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Introduction
Aristotle (384–322 BC) was a scholar in disciplines such as ethics, metaphysics, biology and
botany, among others. It is fitting, therefore, that his moral philosophy is based around assessing
the broad characters of human beings rather than assessing singular acts in isolation. Indeed, this
is what separates Aristotelian Virtue Ethics from both Utilitarianism and Kantian Ethics.

The Function Argument

Aristotle was a teleologist, a term related to, but not to be confused with, the label “teleological”
as applied to normative ethical theories such as Utilitarianism. Aristotle was a teleologist
because he believed that every object has what he referred to as a final cause. The Greek term
telos refers to what we might call a purpose, goal, end or true final function of an object. Indeed,
those of you studying Aristotle in units related to the Philosophy of Religion may recognize the
link between Aristotle’s general teleological worldview and his study of ethics.

Aristotle claims that “…for all things that have a function or activity, the good and the ‘well’ is
thought to reside in the function”.[2] Aristotle’s claim is essentially that in achieving its function,
goal or end, an object achieves its own good. Every object has this type of a true function and so
every object has a way of achieving goodness. The telos of a chair, for example, may be to
provide a seat and a chair is a good chair when it supports the curvature of the human bottom
without collapsing under the strain. Equally, says Aristotle, what makes good sculptors, artists
and flautists is the successful and appropriate performance of their functions as sculptors, artists
and flautists.

This teleological (function and purpose) based worldview is the necessary backdrop to
understanding Aristotle’s ethical reasoning. For, just as a chair has a true function or end, so
Aristotle believes human beings have a telos. Aristotle identifies what the good for a human
being is in virtue of working out what the function of a human being is, as per his Function
Argument.

Function Argument

1. All objects have a telos.

2. An object is good when it properly secures its telos.

Given the above, hopefully these steps of the argument are clear so far. At this point,
Aristotle directs his thinking towards human beings specifically.

3. The telos of a human being is to reason.

4. The good for a human being is, therefore, acting in accordance with reason.

In working out our true function, Aristotle looks to that feature that separates humanity from
other living animals. According to Aristotle, what separates humankind from the rest of the
world is our ability not only to reason but to act on reasons. Thus, just as the function of a chair

29
can be derived from its uniquely differentiating characteristic, so the function of a human being
is related to our uniquely differentiating characteristic and we achieve the good when we act in
accordance with this true function or telos.

The notion that humanity has a true function may sound odd, particularly if you do not have a
religious worldview of your own. However, to you especially Aristotle wrote that “…as eye,
hand, foot and in general each of the parts evidently has a function, may one lay it down that
man similarly has a function apart from all these?”[3]

On the basis that we would ascribe a function to our constituent parts — we know what makes a
good kidney for example — so too Aristotle thinks it far from unreasonable that we have a
function as a whole. Indeed, this may be plausible if we consider other objects. The component
parts of a car, for example, have individual functions but a car itself, as a whole, has its own
function that determines whether or not it is a good car.

Aristotelian Goodness
On the basis of the previous argument, the good life for a human being is achieved when we act
in accordance with our telos. However, rather than leaving the concept of goodness as general
and abstract we can say more specifically what the good for a human involves. Aristotle uses the
Greek term eudaimonia to capture the state that we experience if we fully achieve a good life.
According to Aristotle, eudaimonia is the state that all humans should aim for as it is the aim and
end of human existence. To reach this state, we must ourselves act in accordance with reason.
Properly understanding what Aristotle means by eudaimonia is crucial to understanding his
Virtue Ethical moral position.

Eudaimonia has been variously translated and no perfect translation has yet been identified.
While all translations have their own issues, eudaimonia understood as flourishing is perhaps the
most helpful translation and improves upon a simple translation of happiness. The following
example may make this clearer.

Naomi is an extremely talented pianist. Some days, she plays music that simply makes her
happy, perhaps the tune from the television soap opera “Neighbors” or a rendition of “Twinkle,
Twinkle Little Star”. On other days, she plays complex music such as the supremely difficult
Chopin-Godowsky Études. These performances may also make Naomi happy, but she seems to
be flourishing as a pianist only with the latter performances rather than the former. If we use the
language of function, both performances make Naomi happy but she fulfils her function as a
pianist (and is a good pianist) only when she flourishes with the works of greater complexity.

Flourishing in life may make us happy but happiness itself is not necessarily well aligned with
acting in accordance with our telos. Perhaps, if we prefer the term happiness as a translation for
eudaimonia we mean really or truly happy, but it may be easier to stay with the understanding of
eudaimonia as flourishing when describing the state of acting in accordance with our true
function.

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Aristotle concludes that a life is eudaimon (adjective of eudaimonia) when it involves “…the
active exercise of the mind in conformity with perfect goodness or virtue”.[4] Eudaimonia is
secured not as the result exercising of our physical or animalistic qualities but as the result of the
exercise of our distinctly human rational and cognitive aspects.

Eudaimonia and Virtue

The quotation provided at the end of section three was the first direct reference to virtue in the
explanatory sections of this chapter. With Aristotle’s theoretical presuppositions now laid out,
we can begin to properly explain and evaluate his conception of the virtues and their link to
moral thinking.

According to Aristotle, virtues are character

or personality traits. This focus on our dispositions and our character, rather than our actions in
isolation, is what earns Aristotelian Virtue Ethics the label of being an agent- centered moral
theory rather than an act-centered moral theory.

Act-Centered Moral Theories

Utilitarianism and Kantian Ethics are two different examples of act-centered moral theories due
to their focus on actions when it comes to making moral assessments and judgments. Act-
centered moral theories may be teleological or deontological, absolutist or relativist, but they
share a common worldview in that particular actions are bearers of moral value — either being
right or wrong.

Agent-Centered Moral Theories

Aristotelian Virtue Ethics is an agent-centered theory in virtue of a primary focus on people and
their characters rather than singular actions. For Aristotle, morality has more to do with the
question “how should I be?” rather than “what should I do?” If we answer the first question then,
as we see later in this chapter, the second question may begin to take care of itself. When
explaining and evaluating Aristotelian Virtue Ethics you must keep in mind this focus on
character rather than specific comments on the morality of actions.

Aristotle refers to virtues as character traits or psychological dispositions. Virtues are those
particular dispositions that are appropriately related to the situation and, to link back to our
function, encourage actions that are in accordance with reason. Again, a more concrete example
will make clear how Aristotle identifies virtues in practice.

All of us, at one time or another, experience feelings of anger. For example, I may become angry
when my step-son thoughtlessly eats through the remaining crisps without saving any for others,
or he may feel anger when he has to wait an extra minute or two to be picked up at work because
his step- father is juggling twenty-six different tasks and momentarily loses track of time (how
totally unfair of him…). Anyway, as I was saying, back to Aristotle, “Anyone can become angry

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— that is easy. But to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at the right time, for the
right purpose, and in the right way — that is not easy”.[5]

For Aristotle, virtue is not a feeling itself but an appropriate psychological disposition in
response to that feeling; the proper response. The correct response to a feeling is described as
acting on the basis of the Golden Mean, a response that is neither excessive nor deficient. The
table below makes this more apparent.

Feeling/Emotion Vice of Deficiency Virtuous Disposition (Golden Mean) Vice of Excess

Anger Lack of spirit Patience Irascibility

Shame Shyness Modesty Shamefulness

Fear Cowardice Courage Rashness

Indignation Spitefulness Righteousness Envy

Anger is a feeling and therefore is neither a virtue nor a vice. However, the correct response to
anger — the Golden Mean between two extremes — is patience, rather than a lack of spirit or
irascibility. Virtues are not feelings, but characteristic dispositional responses that, when viewed
holistically, define our characters and who we are.

The Golden Mean ought not to be viewed as suggesting that a virtuous disposition is always one
that gives rise to a “middling” action. If someone puts their life on the line, when unarmed, in an
attempt to stop a would-be terrorist attack, then their action may be rash rather than courageous.
However, if armed with a heavy, blunt instrument their life-risking action may be courageously
virtuous rather than rash. The Golden Mean is not to be understood as suggesting that we always
act somewhere between complete inaction and breathless exuberance, but as suggesting that we
act between the vices of excess and deficiency; such action may well involve extreme courage or
exceptional patience.

In addition to feelings, Aristotle also suggests that we may virtuously respond to situations. He
suggests the following examples.

Feeling/Emotion Vice of Deficiency Virtuous Disposition (Golden Mean) Vice of Excess

Social conduct Cantankerousness Friendliness Self-serving flattery

Conversation Boorishness Wittiness Buffoonery

Giving money Stinginess Generosity Profligacy

We must keep in mind the agent-centered nature of Aristotelian Virtue Ethics when considering
these examples. A person does not cease to have a witty disposition in virtue of a single joke that

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might err on the side of buffoonery, or cease to be generous because they fail to donate to charity
on one occasion. Our psychological dispositions, virtuous or not, are only to be assessed by
judgment of a person’s general character and observation over more than single-act situations. If
we act in accordance with reason and fulfil our function as human beings, our behavior will
generally reflect our virtuous personality traits and dispositions.

Developing the Virtues

In a quote widely attributed to Aristotle, Will Durrant (1885–1981) sums up the Aristotelian
view by saying that “…we are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit”.
[6]
It is fairly obvious that we cannot become excellent at something overnight. Making progress
in any endeavor is always a journey that requires both effort and practice over time. Aristotle
holds that the same is true for human beings attempting to develop their virtuous character traits
in attempt to live the good life. You may feel yourself coming to an Aristotelian Virtue Ethical
view after reading this chapter and therefore be moved to become wittier, more courageous and
more generous but you cannot simply acquire these traits by decision; rather, you must live these
traits in order to develop them.

Cultivating a virtuous character is something that happens by practice. Aristotle compares the
development of the skill of virtue to the development of other skills. He says that “…men
become builders by building” and “… we become just by doing just acts”.[7] We might know
that a brick must go into a particular place but we are good builders only when we know how
to place that brick properly. Building requires practical skill and not merely intellectual
knowledge and the same applies to developing virtuous character traits. Ethical characters are
developed by practical learning and habitual action and not merely by intellectual teaching.

In the end, the virtuous individual will become comfortable in responding to feelings/situations
virtuously just as the good builder becomes comfortable responding to the sight of various tools
and a set of plans. A skilled builder will not need abstract reflection when it comes to knowing
how to build a wall properly, and nor will a skilled cyclist need abstract reflection on how to
balance his speed correctly as he goes around a corner.

Analogously, a person skilled in the virtues will not need abstract reflection when faced with a
situation in which friendliness and generosity are possibilities; they will simply know on a more
intuitive level how to act. This is not to say that builders, cyclists and virtuous people will not
sometimes need to reflect specifically on what to do in abnormal or difficult situations (e.g.
moral dilemmas, in the case of ethics) but in normal situations appropriate responses will be
natural for those who are properly skilled.

It is the need to become skilled when developing virtuous character traits that leads Aristotle to
suggest that becoming virtuous will require a lifetime of work. Putting up a single bookshelf
does not make you a skilled builder any more than a single act of courage makes you a
courageous and virtuous person. It is the repetition of skill that determines your status and the
development of virtuous characters requires a lifetime of work rather than a single week at a
Virtue Ethics Bootcamp.

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Practical Wisdom (Phronesis)
Aristotle does offer some specifics regarding how exactly we might, to use a depressingly
modern phrase, “upskill” in order to become more virtuous. Aristotle suggests that the aim of an
action will be made clear by the relevant virtuous characteristic as revealed by the Golden Mean;
for example, our aim in a situation may be to respond courageously or generously. It is by
developing our skill of practical wisdom (translation of “phronesis”) that we become better at
ascertaining what exactly courage or generosity amounts to in a specific situation and how
exactly we might achieve it.

By developing the skill of practical wisdom, we can properly put our virtuous character traits
into practice. For the Aristotelian, practical wisdom may actually be the most important virtuous
disposition or character trait to develop as without the skill of practical wisdom it may be
difficult to actually practice actions that are witty rather than boorish, or courageous rather than
cowardly. Imagine trying to be a philosopher without an acute sense of logical reasoning; you
would struggle because this seems to be a foundational good on which other philosophical skills
rely. So too it may be with the virtues, practical wisdom supports our instinctive knowledge of
how to respond virtuously to various feelings, emotions and situations.

If this still seems to be somewhat opaque, then we may develop our sense of practical wisdom by
looking at the actions of others who we do take to be virtuous. A child, for example, will most
certainly need to learn how to be virtuous by following examples of others. If we are unsure in
our own ability to discern what a courageous response in a given situation is, then we may be
guided by the behavior of Socrates, Jesus, Gandhi, Mandela or King, as examples. If we learn
from the wisdom and virtue of others, then just as a building apprentice learns from a master so
too virtue apprentices can learn from those more skilled than they in practicing virtue. Hopefully,
such virtue apprentices will eventually reach a point where they can stand on their own two feet,
with their personally developed sense of practical wisdom.

Voluntary Actions, Involuntary Actions and

Moral Responsibility
Despite the focus on agents and not actions, Aristotle does have something to contribute when it
comes to discussions of potential moral responsibility as associated with particular actions. We
can separate actions into two obvious categories:

1. Voluntary actions
2. Involuntary actions

Very broadly, an action is voluntary when it is freely chosen and involuntary when it is not —
these terms are more precisely defined next, in line with Aristotle’s ideas. These distinctions
matter in ethics because a person might be held to be morally responsible for their voluntary
actions but not for their involuntary actions. According to Aristotle, an action is voluntary unless
it is affected by force or ignorance, as understood in the following ways.

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Physical Force

Imagine that Reuben is driving his car on his way home from work. Out of the blue, his
passenger grabs his hand and forces him to turn the steering wheel, sending the car into
oncoming traffic. Without this physical force, Reuben would not have turned the wheel and he
very much regrets the damage that is caused. According to Aristotle, Reuben’s action is
involuntary because of this external physical force and so he is not morally responsible for the
crash.

Psychological Force

Think of David, working at a bank when a group of thieves break in armed with guns. David is
told that if he does not open the safe then he will be killed. Under this extreme psychological
pressure, Aristotle would accept that David’s opening of the safe is involuntary, because David
would not have opened the safe otherwise and he very much regrets doing so. On this basis,
David is not morally responsible in any way for the theft.

In addition to force, ignorance of a certain type can also support an action being labelled as
involuntary.

Action from Ignorance

Rhys, a talented musician, wishes to perform a surprise concert for a friend and has been
practicing songs from the Barry Manilow back catalogue for weeks. However, in the days before
the surprise concert his friend, unbeknown to Rhys, develops an intense and very personal dislike
for Manilow. Thus, when Rhys takes to the stage and blasts out his rendition of the classic tune
“Copacabana” his friend storms off in much distress. In this situation, Aristotle would accept that
Rhys acted involuntarily when causing offence because he was unaware of the changed
circumstances; he acted from ignorance when performing the song rather than from malice.
Without this epistemic (or knowledge-related) barrier, Rhys would not have acted as he did and
he very much regrets the distress caused. For these reasons, Rhys bears no moral responsibility
for the upset resulting from his song choice.

Crucially, Aristotle does not allow that all action that involves ignorance can be classed as
involuntary, thereby blocking associated claims of moral responsibility.

Action in Ignorance

Laurence has had too much to drink and chooses to climb a traffic light with a traffic cone on his
head. Laurence’s alcohol consumption has made him ignorant, at least temporarily, of the
consequences of this action in terms of social relationships, employment and police action.
However, for Aristotle this would not mean that his action was involuntary because Laurence
acts in ignorance rather than from ignorance due to an external epistemic (or knowledge-based)
barrier. Laurence does not, therefore, escape moral responsibility as a result of his self-created
ignorance.

35
Finally, Aristotle also identifies a third form of action — non-voluntary action — that is also
related to ignorant action.

Action from Ignorance with No Regret

Return to the case of Rhys and his Manilow performance but remove any sense of regret on
Rhys’ part for the distress caused. If, at the moment that the epistemic gap is bridged and Rhys
learns of his friend’s newly acquired musical views, he feels no regret for his action, then
Aristotle would class it as a non-voluntary rather than involuntary action. The action cannot be
voluntary as Rhys acted from ignorance, but it is not obviously involuntary as, without a sense of
regret, it may have been that Rhys would have performed the action even if he knew what was
going to happen.

The detail above is important and your own examples will help your understanding and
explanations. The summary, however, is refreshingly simple. If an action is voluntary, then it is
completed free from force and ignorance and we can hold the actor morally responsible.
However, if the action is involuntary then the actor is not morally responsible as they act on the
basis of force or from ignorance.

Objections to Virtue Ethics and Responses

Objection: Unclear Guidance

Consider yourself caught in the middle of a moral dilemma. Wanting to know what to do you
may consult the guidance offered by Utilitarianism or Kantian Ethics and discover that various
specific actions you could undertake are morally right or morally wrong. Moving to seek the
advice of Aristotelian Virtue Ethics, you may find cold comfort from suggestions that you act
generously, patiently and modestly whilst avoiding self-serving flattery and envy. Rather than
knowing how to live in general, you may seek knowledge of what to actually do in this case.
Virtue Ethics may therefore be accused of being a theory, not of helpful moral guidance, but of
unhelpful and non- specific moral platitudes.

In response, the virtue ethicist may remind us that we can learn how to act from considering how
truly virtuous people might respond in this situation, but this response raises its own worry —
how can we identify who is virtuous, or apply their actions to a potentially novel situation?
Although a defender of Virtue Ethics, Rosalind Hursthouse (1943–) gives a voice to this
common objection, putting forward the worry directly by saying that “‘Virtue Ethics does not,
because it cannot, tell us what we should do… It gives us no guidance whatsoever. Who are the
virtuous agents [that we should look to for guidance]?”[8] If all the virtue ethicist can offer to a
person wondering how to act — perhaps wondering whether or not to report a friend to the
police, or whether or not to change careers to work in the charity sector — is “look to the moral
exemplars of Socrates and Gandhi and how they would act in this situation”, then we might well
sympathize with the objector since very often our moral dilemmas are new situations, not merely
old ones repeated. Asking “what would Jesus do”, if we deem Jesus to be a morally virtuous role
model, might not seem very helpful for an MP trying to determine whether or not to vote for an

36
increase in subsidies for renewable energy technologies at huge expense, and potential financial
risk, to the tax-payer (to take a deliberately specific example).

Despite her statement of the objection, Hursthouse thinks that this is an unfair characterization of
Virtue Ethics. Hursthouse suggests that Virtue Ethics provides guidance in the form of “v-rules”.
These are guiding rules of the form “do what is honest” or “avoid what is envious”.[9] These rules
may not be specific, but they do stand as guidance across lots of different moral situations.
Whether or not you believe that this level of guidance is suitable for a normative moral theory is
a judgment that you should make yourself and then defend.

Objection: Clashing Virtues

Related to the general objection from lack of guidance, a developed objection may question how
we are supposed to cope with situations in which virtues seem to clash. Courageous behaviour
may, in certain cases, mean a lack of friendliness; generosity may threaten modesty. In these
situations, the suggestion to “be virtuous” may again seem to be unhelpfully vague.

To this particular objection, the Aristotelian virtue ethicist can invoke the concept of practical
wisdom and suggest that the skilled and virtuous person will appropriately respond to complex
moral situations. A Formula One car, for example, will be good when it has both raw speed and
delicate handling and it is up to the skilled engineer to steer a path between these two virtues. So
too a person with practical wisdom can steer a path between apparently clashing virtues in any
given situation. Virtue ethicists have no interest in the creation of a codified moral rule book
covering all situations and instead put the onus on the skill of the virtuous person when deciding
how to act. Again, whether this is a strength or weakness is for you to decide and defend.

Objection: Circularity

An entirely different objection to Aristotelian Virtue Ethics is based on a concern regarding

logical circularity. According to Aristotle, the following statements seem to be correct:

1. An act is virtuous if it is an act that a virtuous person would commit in that circumstance.
2. A person is virtuous when they act in virtuous ways.

This, however, looks to be circular reasoning. If virtuous actions are understood in terms of
virtuous people, but virtuous people are understood in terms of virtuous actions, then we have
unhelpfully circular reasoning.

Julia Annas (1946–) responds to this apparent problem by arguing that there is nothing
dangerously circular in this reasoning because it is simply a reflection of how we learn to
develop our virtuous dispositions.[10] Annas suggests the analogy of piano-playing:

1. Great piano playing is what great pianists do.

2. A pianist is great when he “does” great piano playing.

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In this case, there does not seem to be any troubling circularity in reasoning. It is not the case
that whatever a great pianist plays will be great, but rather that great pianists have the skills to
make great music. So too it is with virtues, for virtuous people are not virtuous just because of
their actual actions but because of who they are and how their actions are motivated. It is their
skills and character traits that mean that, in practice, they provide a clear guide as to which
actions are properly aligned with virtues. Thus, if we wish to decide whether or not an act is
virtuous we can assess what a virtuous person would do in that circumstance, but this does not
mean that what is virtuous is determined by the actions of a specifically virtuous individual. The
issue is whether or not a person, with virtuous characteristics in the abstract, would actually carry
that action out. Virtuous people are living and breathing concrete guides, helping us to
understand the actions associated with abstract virtuous character dispositions.

Objection: Contribution to Eudaimonia

The final distinct objection to Aristotelian Virtue Ethics considered in this chapter stems from
the Aristotelian claim that living virtuously will contribute to our ability to secure a eudaimon
life. A challenge to this view may be based on the fact that certain dispositions may seem to be
virtuous but may not actually seem to contribute to our flourishing or securing the good life.

As an example of this possible objection in practice, consider the following. Shelley is often
described as generous to a fault and regularly dedicates large amounts of her time to helping
others to solve problems at considerable cost, in terms of both time and effort, to herself.
Working beyond the limits that can reasonably be expected of her, we may wish to describe
Shelley as virtuous given her generous personality. However, by working herself so hard for
others, we may wonder if Shelley is unduly limiting her own ability to flourish.

Responses to this initial statement of the objection are not hard to imagine. We may say that
Shelley has either succumbed to a vice of excess and is profligate with her time rather than
generous, or we may accept that she is generous rather than profligate and accept the
uncomfortable conclusion and say that this virtuous character trait is helping her to flourish. This
second claim may seem more plausible if we ruled out a description of Shelley wasting her time.

Still, this objection may stand up if you can envisage a situation in which someone could be
properly described as rash rather than courageous or wasteful rather than generous and, because
of these traits, actually be contributing to their own flourishing. You should consider your own
possible cases if you seek to support this general objection.

Moral Good and Individual Good

For Aristotle, moral goodness and individual goodness may seem to be intimately linked. After
all, a virtuous person will be charitable and friendly etc. and as a result of these characteristics
and dispositions will both advance their own journey towards eudaimonia and make life better
for others. Hedonism (which claims that pleasure is the only source of well-being — see Chapter
1), as a rival theory attempting to outline what is required for well-being, might be thought to fail
because it downplays the importance of acting in accordance with reason, so hedonists do not
therefore live according to their telos or true function.

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Aristotle says of his ideally virtuous person that they will have a unified psychology — that their
rational and non-rational psychologies will speak with one voice. On the contrary, the non-
virtuous person will have a psychology in conflict between their rational and non-rational
elements. In considering who has the better life from their own individual perspectives — the
happy Hedonist or the Aristotelian virtuous person — you should again form your own reasoned
judgment.

It is important to note, as we conclude this chapter, that Aristotle does not suggest that living a
virtuous life is sufficient to guarantee a state of eudaimonia for a person. External factors such as
poverty, disease or untimely death may scupper a person’s advance towards eudaimonia.
However, for Aristotle, being virtuous is necessary for the achievement of eudaimonia; without
the development of virtues it is impossible for a person to flourish even if they avoid poverty,
disease, loneliness etc.

Summary
Aristotelian Virtue Ethics is very different in nature to the other act-centered normative moral
theories considered in this book. Whether this, in itself, is a virtue or a vice is an issue for your
own judgment. The lack of a codified and fixed moral rule book is something many view as a
flaw, while others perceive it as the key strength of the theory. Some, meanwhile, will feel
uncomfortable with Aristotle’s teleological claims, differing from those who are happy to accept
that there is an objectively good life that is possible for human beings. Regardless, there is little
doubt that Aristotelian Virtue Ethics offers a distinct normative moral picture and that it is a
theory worthy of your reflections.

Digital Media Ethics

Photo: Jos van der Hoek/CreativeCommons

by Stephen J.A. Ward

39
  A revolution in ethics
 Layered journalism
 Difficult questions for digital media ethics
 Ethics of images

Digital media ethics deals with the distinct ethical problems, practices and norms of digital news
media. Digital news media includes online journalism, blogging, digital photojournalism, citizen
journalism and social media. It includes questions about how professional journalism should use
this ‘new media’ to research and publish stories, as well as how to use text or images provided
by citizens.

A revolution in ethics
A media revolution is transforming, fundamentally and irrevocably, the nature of journalism and
its ethics. The means to publish is now in the hands of citizens, while the internet encourages
new forms of journalism that are interactive and immediate.
Our media ecology is a chaotic landscape evolving at a furious pace. Professional journalists
share the journalistic sphere with tweeters, bloggers, citizen journalists, and social media users.
Amid every revolution, new possibilities emerge while old practices are threatened. Today is no
exception. The economics of professional journalism struggles as audiences migrate online.
Shrinkage of newsrooms creates concern for the future of journalism. Yet these fears also prompt
experiments in journalism, such as non-profit centers of investigative journalism.
A central question is to what extent existing media ethics is suitable for today’s and tomorrow’s
news media that is immediate, interactive and “always on” – a journalism of amateurs and
professionals. Most of the principles were developed over the past century, originating in the
construction of professional, objective ethics for mass commercial newspapers in the late 19th
century.
We are moving towards a mixed news media – a news media citizen and professional journalism
across many media platforms. This new mixed news media requires a new mixed media ethics –
guidelines that apply to amateur and professional whether they blog, Tweet, broadcast or write
for newspapers. Media ethics needs to be rethought and reinvented for the media of today, not of
yesteryear.

Tensions on two levels

The changes challenge the foundations of media ethics. The challenge runs deeper than debates
about one or another principle, such as objectivity. The challenge is greater than specific

40
problems, such as how newsrooms can verify content from citizens. The revolution requires us to
rethink assumptions. What can ethics mean for a profession that must provide instant news and
analysis; where everyone with a modem is a publisher?
The media revolution has created ethical tensions on two levels.

 On the first level, there is a tension between traditional journalism and online journalism.
The culture of traditional journalism, with its values of accuracy, pre-publication
verification, balance, impartiality, and gate-keeping, rubs up against the culture of online
journalism which emphasizes immediacy, transparency, partiality, non-professional
journalists and post-publication correction.
 On the second level, there is a tension between parochial and global journalism. If
journalism has global impact, what are its global responsibilities? Should media ethics
reformulate its aims and norms so as to guide a journalism that is now global in reach and
impact? What would that look like?

The challenge for today’s media ethics can be summarized by the question: Whither ethics in a
world of multi-media, global journalism? Media ethics must do more than point out these
tensions. Theoretically, it must untangle the conflicts between values. It must decide which
principles should be preserved or invented. Practically, it should provide new standards to guide
online or offline journalism.

Layered journalism
What would an integrated ethics look like?
It will be the ethics of the integrated newsroom, a newsroom that practices layered journalism.
Layered journalism brings together different forms of journalism and different types of
journalists to produce a multi-media offering of professional-styled news and analysis combined
with citizen journalism and interactive chat.
The newsroom will be layered vertically and horizontally.
Vertically, there will be many layers of editorial positions. There will be citizen journalists and
bloggers in the newsroom, or closely associated with the newsroom. Many contributors will
work from countries around the world. Some will write for free, some will be equivalent to paid
freelancers, others will be regular commentators.
In addition, there will be different types of editors. Some editors will work with these new
journalists, while other editors will deal with unsolicited images and text sent by citizens via
email, web sites, and twitter. There will be editors or “community producers” charged with going
out to neighborhoods to help citizens use media to produce their own stories.

41
Horizontally, the future newsroom will be layered in terms of the kinds of journalism it
produces, from print and broadcast sections to online production centers.
Newsrooms in the past have had vertical and horizontal layers. Newspaper newsrooms have
ranged vertically from the editor in-chief at the top to the cub reporter on the bottom.
Horizontally, large mainstream newsrooms have produced several types of journalism, both print
and broadcast. However, future newsrooms will have additional and different layers. Some news
sites will continue to be operated by a few people dedicated only to one format, such as
blogging. But a substantial portion of the new mainstream will consist of these complex, layered
organizations.
Layered journalism will confront two types of problems. First, there will be ‘vertical’ ethical
questions about how the different layers of the newsroom, from professional editors to citizen
freelancers, should interact to produce responsible journalism. For example, by what standards
will professional editors evaluate the contributions of citizen journalists? Second, there will be
‘horizontal’ questions about the norms for the various newsroom sections.

Difficult questions for digital media ethics

Who is a journalist?

The ‘democratization’ of media – technology that allows citizens to engage in journalism and
publication of many kinds – blurs the identity of journalists and the idea of what constitutes
journalism.
In the previous century, journalists were a clearly defined group. For the most part, they were
professionals who wrote for major mainstream newspapers and broadcasters. The public had no
great difficulty in identifying members of the “press.”
Today, citizens without journalistic training and who do not work for mainstream media calls
themselves journalists, or write in ways that fall under the general description of a journalists as
someone who regularly writes on public issues for a public or audience.
It is not always clear whether the term “journalist” begins or ends. If someone does what appears
to be journalism, but refuses the label ‘journalist’ is he or she a journalist? If comedian Jon
Stewart refuses to call himself a journalist, but magazines refer to him as an influential journalist
(or refers to him as someone who does engage in journalism) is Stewart a journalist?
Is a person expressing their opinions on their Facebook site a journalist?

What is journalism?

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A lack of clarity over who is a journalist leads to definitional disputes over who is doing
journalism. That leads to the question: What is journalism? Many people believe, “What is
journalism?” or “Is he or she doing journalism?” is a more important question than whether who
can call themselves a journalist.
At least three approaches to this question are possible – skeptical, empirical, and normative.
Skeptically, one dismisses the question itself as unimportant. For example, one might say that
anyone can be a journalist, and it is not worth arguing over who gets to call themselves a
journalist. One is skeptical about attempts to define journalism.
Empirically, there is a more systematic and careful approach to the question. We can look at
clear examples of journalism over history and note the types of activities in which journalists
engaged, e.g. gathering information, editing stories, publishing news and opinion. Then we use
these features to provide a definition of journalism that separates it from novel writing,
storytelling, or editing information for a government database.
The normative approach insists that writers should not be called journalists unless they have
highly developed skills, acquired usually through training or formal education, and unless they
honor certain ethical norms.
The skills include investigative capabilities, research skills, facility with media technology of
media, knowledge of how institutions work, and highly developed communication skills. The
ethical norms include a commitment to accuracy, verification, truth, and so on.
The normative approach is based on an ideal view of journalism as accurately and responsibly
informing the public. One defines journalism by considering the best examples of journalism and
the practices of the best journalists.
A writer who has these skills and these ethical commitments is capable of publishing good (well-
crafted, well-researched) and ethically responsible journalism. Persons who do not meet these
normative requirements may call themselves journalists but they are not considered journalists
from this normative perspective. They are at irresponsible, second-rate, or incompetent writers
seeking to be journalists, or pretending to be journalists.

Anonymity

Anonymity is accepted more readily online than in mainstream news media. Newspapers usually
require the writers of letters to the editor to identify themselves. Codes of mainstream media
ethics caution journalists to use anonymous sources sparingly and only if certain rules are
followed. The codes warn journalists that people may use anonymity to take unfair or untrue
“potshots” at other people, for self-interested reasons.

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Online, many commentary and “chat” areas do not require anonymity. Online users resist
demands from web site and blogs to register and identify themselves. Anonymity is praised as
allowing freedom of speech and sometimes helping to expose wrong doing. Critics say it
encourages irresponsible and harmful comments. Mainstream media contradict themselves when
they allow anonymity online but refuse anonymity in their newspapers and broadcast programs.
The ethical question is: When is anonymity ethically permissible and is it inconsistent for media
to enforce different rules on anonymity for different media platforms? What should be the ethical
guidelines for anonymity offline and online?

Speed, rumor and corrections

Reports and images circulate the globe with amazing speed via Twitter, YouTube, Facebook,
blogs, cell phones, and email. Speed puts pressure on newsrooms to publish stories before they
are adequately checked and verified as to the source of the story and the reliability of the alleged
facts. Major news organizations too often pick up rumors online. Sometimes, the impact of
publishing an online rumor is not world shaking – a false report that a hockey coach has been
fired. But a media that thrives on speed and “sharing” creates the potential for great harm. For
instance, news organizations might be tempted to repeat a false rumor that terrorists had taken
control of the London underground, or that a nuclear power plant had just experienced a
‘meltdown’ and dangerous gases were blowing towards Chicago. These false reports could
induce panic, causes accidents, prompt military action and so on.
A related problem, created by new media, is how to handle errors and corrections when reports
and commentary are constantly being updated. Increasingly, journalists are blogging ‘live’ about
sports games, news events, and breaking stories. Inevitably, when one works at this speed, errors
are made, from misspelling words to making factual errors. Should news organizations go back
and correct all of these mistakes which populate mountains of material? Or should they correct
errors later and not leave a trace of the original mistake –what is called “unpublishing?”
The ethical challenge is to articulate guidelines for dealing with rumors and corrections in an
online world that are consistent with the principles of accuracy, verification, and transparency.

Impartiality, conflicts of interest, and partisan journalism

New media encourages people to express their opinion and share their thoughts candidly.
Many bloggers take pride in speaking their mind, compared to any mainstream reporters who
must cover events impartially. Many online journalists see themselves as partisans or activists for
causes or political movements, and reject the idea of objective or neutral analysis.

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Partial or partisan journalism comes in at least two kinds: One kind is an opinion journalism that
enjoys commenting upon events and issues, with or without verification. Another form is
partisan journalism which uses media as a mouthpiece for political parties and movements. To
some extent, we are seeing a revival (or return) to an opinion/partisan journalism that was
popular before the rise of objective reporting in the early 1900s.
Both opinion and partisan journalism have long roots in journalism history. However, their
revival in an online world raises serious ethical conundrums for current media ethics. Should
objectivity be abandoned by all journalists? Which is best for a vigorous and healthy democracy
– impartial journalism or partisan journalism?
To make matters more contentious, some of the new exponents of opinion and impartial
journalism not only question objectivity, they question the long-standing principle that
journalists should be independent from the groups they write about. For example, some partisan
journalists reject charges of a journalistic “conflict of interest” when they accept money from
groups, or make donations to political parties.
Economically, mainstream newsrooms who uphold traditional principles such as impartiality
increasingly feel compelled to move toward a more opinionated or partisan approach to news and
commentary. To be impartial is said to be boring to viewers. Audiences are said to be attracted to
strong opinion and conflicts of opinion.
Even where newsrooms enforce the rules of impartiality — say by suspending a journalist for a
conflict of interest or partial comment — they fail to get full public support. Some citizens and
groups complain that newsroom restraints on what analysts and reporters can say about the
groups they cover is censorship.
Is it good, that more and more, journalists no longer stand among the opposing groups in society
and try to inform the public fairly about their perspectives but rather become part of the groups
seeking to influence public opinion?
The ethical challenge is to redefine what independent journalism in the public interest means for
a media where many new types of journalism are appearing and where basic principles are being
challenged.

Entrepreneurial not-for-profit journalism

The declining readers and profits of mainstream media, as citizens migrate online, has caused
newsrooms to shrink their staff. Some journalists doubt the continuing viability of the old
economic model of a mass media based on advertising and circulation sales.

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In response, many journalists have started not-for-profit newsrooms, news web sites, and centers
of investigative journalism based on money from foundations and donations from citizens. Some
journalists go online and ask for citizens to send them money to do stories. This trend can be
called “entrepreneurial journalism” because the journalist no longer simply reports while other
people (e.g. advertising staff) raise funds for their newsroom. These journalists are entrepreneurs
attempting to raise funds for their new ventures.
The new ventures raise ethical questions.
How independent can such newsrooms be when they are so reliant on funds from a limited
number of donors? What happens if the newsroom intends to report a negative story about one of
its main funders? From whom will these newsrooms take money? How transparent will they be
about who gives them money and under what conditions?
The challenge is to construct an ethics for this new area of journalism.

Reporters using social media

Many news organizations encourage their reporters to use social media to gather information and
to create a “brand” for themselves by starting their own blog, Facebook page, or Twitter account.
However, online commenting can put reporters, especially beat reporters, in trouble with their
editors or the people they comment about, especially if the news outlet says it provides impartial
reporting. For example, a reporter who covers city hall may report dispassionately in her
newspaper about a candidate for mayor. But on her blog, she may express strong opinion, saying
the candidate is an unlikeable and incompetent politician. Such comments would give the
candidate cause to complain about the lack of impartiality of the reporter.
The ethical challenge is to develop social media guidelines that allow reporters to explore the
new media world but also to draw reasonable limits on personal commentary.

Citizen journalists and using citizen content

One of the difficult “horizontal” issues, noted above, is whether newsrooms should keep all types
of journalists to the same editorial standards? For example, should citizen journalists be required
to be balanced and impartial? Can journalists who operate a newsroom’s web site report on a
story before their colleagues, the print reporters? In other words, should print reporters be held to
a higher standard of pre-publication verification?
Furthermore, as newsroom staff shrink, and the popularity of online news grows, organizations
are increasingly able, and willing, to collaborate with citizens in covering disasters, accidents,

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and other breaking news. Citizens who capture events on their cell phones can transmit text and
images to newsrooms.
Newsrooms need to put in place a process for citizen-supplied material, which may be bogus or
biased. How shall sources be identified? How much vetting is necessary for different sorts of
stories? Should citizen contributors be made aware of the newsroom’s editorial standards?
The ethical question is whether it is possible to construct a media ethics whose norms apply
consistently across all media platforms. Or are we faced with the prospect of having different
sets of norms for different media platforms?

Ethics of images
Finally, there are the new ethical issues raised by the rise of new image technology. These
images include both photographs and video. Citizens and professional journalists have new and
easy ways to capture and transmit images, such as cell phones linked to the internet via wireless
technology. They have new technologies for altering and manipulating these images.
This convergence of ease of capture, ease of transmission, and ease of manipulation questions
the traditional principles of photojournalism which were developed for non-digital capture and
transmission of pictures and video.
As mentioned above, one issue is whether newsrooms can trust the easily obtained images of
citizens and citizen journalists. Who is the sender and how do we know that this image is really
of the event in question?
Another issue is whether a journalist or a citizen used technology to alter the photograph, e.g. to
add an object to the picture or to take an object out. The manipulation of images is so tempting
that mainstream newsrooms have fired a string of photojournalists over the past decade to
discourage fraudulent practices.
Even with manipulation, not all issues are clear.
Photojournalists often talk about how it is permitted to change the ‘technical’ aspects of a picture
such as altering slightly the tone or color of a photo. But they draw the line at any further
changes. Changing the meaning or content of the image so as to mislead viewers is considered
unethical.
However, the line between a technical change and a change is meaning is not always clear. An
image maker can enhance the colors of a photo until it is quite unlike the original picture of the
object or the event.

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Also, editors may argue that it permissible to alter images for the covers of fashion magazines
(and other types of magazine) since the cover is a work of ‘art’ to attract buyers while they
browse magazine stands.
Once again, there is much for ethics to do to clarify the principles of responsible image making
and how those principles apply to difficult cases.

How to Resolve Ethical Dilemmas and Still Make Deadline

From the Top Down

Ethical decision making in the newsrooms is no easy matter. Because of this, many editors take
the easy way out: Whenever an ethical problem is brought to their attention, they make the
decision and implement it from the top down, relying on their responsibility and authority as
editors.

This approach has the advantage of speed, ensuring that no deadlines will be missed. The
advantage is that it treat decision about ethics as if they are simple matters of enforcement of rule
set down by the boss. The decisions tend to be arbitrary and inconsistent over time. Indeed, this
approaches discourages lower-level employees- reporters, photographers and videographers, for
example, who encounter the majority of ethical problems in their day-to-day work-from bringing
an ethical problem to the boss’s desk.

Unfortunately, this to-down approach is how decisions are made in most news organization

Bottom-up approach

There is another approach that stems from the fundamental notion that ethics involves both
the individual and the organization, both the personal responsibility of each journalist and the
authority and responsibility of the news organizations for which he or she works. A bottom-up,
teamwork-based approach recognizes that ethics draws strength from each person’s commitment
to the values that underlie the norms.

Viewed in this way, ethics are largely self-enforced rather than imposed from above as if
they were laws. Or, as Dr. Kidder notes, ethics are “obedience to the unenforceable.” To be
effective, ethical decision making in newsrooms should involve a relatively simple process,
understood by all, that allows most problems to be dealt with at the lower levels of the
organization.

This kind of process recognizes that journalism is a team sport. The work of a reporter, while
often carried out by an individual, has an impact that radiates out in concentric circles to include
people about whom we write or broadcast, as well as those who read what write or broadcast. In
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the professional sphere, a journalist’s work affects the individual reporter, his or her coworkers,
the news organization and, at a more abstract but significant level, the profession as a whole. In
other words, the decision of each individual reporter and editor ultimately determines the respect
and trust with which the public regards the entire newspaper or broadcast station and the
journalism professional as a whole.

Steps for Making Ethical Decisions

Here is a description of an ethical decision-making process:

1. Consult colleagues and editors. The first step begins when we encounter a problem. We may
recognize an ethical problem simply because our gut, our internal voice, our conscience-call it
what you will-alerts us that we may have to make an uncomfortable decision. It may be because
our journalistic training or guidelines from our editor have made us sensitive to certain ethical
red flags.

Our gut- or our individual moral sense- is a reliable first warning, but it is seldom sufficient
and can often mislead if not reinforced by other steps.

When confronted by an ethical problem as part of your work as a journalist, do not act alone.
Fist, talk to a colleague, a fellow reporter or your immediate supervising editor. Together, decide
whether the problem can be solved at that level or should be dealt with by bringing in other
colleagues with specific responsibilities in the news organization-the section editor or the
managing editor, for example. In some cases, when the problem has a potential impact on the
financial health or good name of the news organization, the publisher and/or owner’s
representatives must be brought into the process.

2. Define the ethical problem. What values are involved? Is it a question of right versus wrong,
or a more difficult question of right versus right, a case in which values conflict?

We can then identify our goals with regard to that value. What is our strategy to achieve that
goal? And what specific actions (or tactics) must we follow to be consistent with our values and
goals?

For example, we recognize that truth is a preeminent value, one that has particular meaning
for journalists. Our goal is to achieve accuracy in whatever we write. The way we achieve that
goal is to set standards for our reporting so that we establish what the facts are to the best of our
ability. A specific standard or tactic that a news organization might decide to adopt is the so-
called “two-source” rule, requiring that facts in dispute must be confirmed by two independent
sources.

Dr. Kidder provides a valuable chart to illustrate the way we translate values into action in
newsroom situations.

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3. Check codes and guides. The code of ethics of your professional organization can be a
valuable guide. Even more useful is the ethics and standards manual of your news organization,
if one exists. Such written codes seldom resolve a specific dilemma except in the most obvious
cases. But they provide the parameters for a solution and are of great assistance in orienting the
discussion of an ethical problem.

News organization that do not have their own ethics and standards codes should consider
writing one, using and adapting more general codes such as those from professional
organizations, both national and I international. The advantage of news organization having its
own codes is that it can adopt more specific guidelines that apply only within that organization.

A general code of ethics and standards, for example, might say that a good journalist should
show greater concern for private individuals than public figures when they appear in his or her
stories. A news organization manual may state definitively that rape victims will not be
identified.

A general code will say that journalists should not have outside employment that constitutes
a conflict of interest. A news organization code can specify which moonlighting jobs are
permissible and which are a problem, or it may provide a procedure by which a journalist may
seek approval for a specific outside job.

4. Measure your journalistic objective. We should be conscious of the extent to which our
journalistic objectives affect the way we write and may influence us to cut ethical corners. This
occurs when we say we didn’t have to call a second source to confirm the facts because we were
too close to deadline, or when we have an exclusive, a “a scoop,” that we will lose if we wait to
check the story more carefully.

In other case, journalistic objectives, such as enhancing the credibility of our news
organization, compel us to be even stricter in ethical decisions.

In all cases, journalists should satisfy themselves that general ethical values, such as seeking
truth, acting independently and minimizing harm, have not been sacrificed or compromised in
the pursuit of legitimate but non-ethical objectives, such as speed, entertainment, brevity,
increasing circulation, attracting advertiser or beating the competition.

5. Identify “stakeholders,” people who mightbe affected by the decision. Often there is a
tendency to consider the points of view only of those in the room when we are discussing an
ethical problem. We should make a deliberate effort to list all of those who will be affected by
our decision, and attempt to describe objectively the interest-or “stake”-each person has in our
decision. Those people are often called stakeholders.

The stakeholders are not just the innocent participants in a story. They deserve our special
consideration, especially if they are both innocent and private citizens. The not-so-innocent

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participants also have to be taken into account in our deliberation. In a typical story denouncing
government errors, for example, we must list those who made the errors among the stakeholders
in our decision.

Finally, the most important stakeholder is the public itself, not only our readers, but the society
at large.

A good practice in identifying stakeholders during a discussion is to assign one person as

“devil’s advocate,” the present. This is the person charged with identifying stakeholders who
might not be obvious and with forcing those making the decision to take into account even the
most unpopular points of view.

6. Ask: what are our alternatives? Every story can be written in many different ways. Often
the ethical choice is not between publishing and not publishing. Our ethical decision may be to
write the story in a certain way to achieve both the journalistic effect we seek and resolve an
ethical dilemma.

In some cases, writing an additional story to achieve balance and fairness is the solution.

7. Make a decision. Ethics is not a discussion, no matter how rich and interesting that discussion
may be. A good discussion is not a decision. And in journalism we must act and be accountable
for our decisions. What we cannot do (if we are to remain effective as journalists) is put off
making a decision. In some cases, the decision may be to postpone publication in order to make
the story fairer, or to diminish a harmful effect-for example, withholding the identity of an
accident victim until next of kin has been notified. But decide we must. And we must do it in
time to meet our deadline.

8. Able to explain your decision be. This step is sometimes called the “front page test”. If all
our reasons for making the decision in a certain way were to be revealed on the front page of the
newspaper, would we make the same decision? Is there anything about our motives, our
reasoning that we would be embarrassed about if they were revealed? This does not mean that
we necessarily burden our readers with such explanations in every case. It does mean that we
should asks ourselves whether public disclosure would be a factor in how we decide, and that we
should decide as if we were going to explain fully what we did and why we did it. The most
responsible newspaper and media organizations often do this as more than an academic exercise.
They appoint a writer sometimes given a special independent status as “ombudsman” to write
about the media organization from the inside, questioning, critiquing and explaining issues of
ethics and journalistic standards.

An Ethical checklists

Below you will find an ethical “checklist” first published in the popular book, doing ethics in
journalism: A handbook with case studies, by jay black, bob, Steele and ralph Barney. The

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checklist-10 questions to ask yourself when confronted with an ethical problem provides
guidance to help you make sound ethical choice. The checklist is reprinted here with permission.

ASK GOOD QUESTION TO MAKE GOOD ETHICAL DECISIONS

1.What do I know? What do I need know?

2. What is my journalistic purpose?

3. What are my ethical concerns?

4. What organizational policies and professional guidelines should I consider?

5. How can I include other people, with different perspectives and diverse ideas, in thedecision
makingprocess.

6. How are the stakeholders (that is, those people who are affected by my decision)? What are
their motivations? Which are legitimate?

7. What if the roles were reversed? How would I feel if I were in the shoes of one of the
stakeholders?

8. What are the possible consequences of my actions? Short term? Long term?

9. What are my alternatives to maximize my truth-telling responsibility and minimize harm?

10. Can I clearly and fully justify my thinking and my decision? To the stakeholders? To the
public?

Freedom and Responsibility

In the past few decades, politics and social changes throughout the world have generally resulted
in much more freedom for journalists and their news organization. This newfound journalistic
freedom has been a welcome change as well as a key goal for those who have sought to replace
dictatorship with democracy.

But the reality of new responsibilities tempers the euphoria of freedom. Often professional
obligations and duties of journalists are not entirely clear to those who must live up to them. That
is one reason why an open and vigorous discussion of professional ethics is so important.

Among the major issues in the balance between freedom and responsibility are

 The right to privacy

 The limits to sensationalism, and
 The objectivity of the journalist.

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These issues are debated every day in newsrooms around the world, and the challenges they
present requires some careful analysis of what is at stake and ways, that the media can act
responsibly

In their jobs as reporters and editors, journalist usually see themselves as outside observers-
reporting on news made by someone else. But there are times when the roles are confused or
reversed-when the journalists themselves become part of the story. In the following cases, the
journalist themselves appeared in the forefront of the news and faced some intriguing questions.

Accuracy and Fairness

Journalist first duty is to seek truth and report it completely and fairly. This is a rigorous
journalistic standard: the journalist must decide honestly and ethically whether the facts he or she
has gathered amount to a fair and accurate picture of reality or, to the contrary, will mislead,
distort and perhaps unfairly malign those about whom he or she reports.

These are sometimes the toughest judgments journalists must make. The values of accuracy
and fairness define the precise intersection where journalistic ethics meets the professional
standards that guide a reporter’s day-to-day work. The rage of issues include judging the
reliability of sources, confirming facts, use of deceptive methods and decisions on deadline.

In addition, journalists must scrutinize their own “vested interest”: the understandable drive
shared by nearly every journalist to break major investigative stories denouncing wrongdoing by
powerful public officials. When such denunciations are grounded in solid reporting, confirmed
evidence and multiple, independent sources, and presented without foregone conclusion or bias,
the result is journalism’s highest art.

However, when stories are presented as “investigations” but actually are based on a single
source, rumors or repetitions of unconfirmed charges by anonymous, self-interested accusers, the
result is sloppy journalism-journalism that has earned a new name, “Denunciology.”

These are the issues for discussion in the following cases.

Independence

Journalism makes uncompromising demands on its practitioners. It asks us, as a professional

skills. To put aside our own opinions and interests and instead to pursue the truth on behalf of
readers and society, it asks us to abandon any personal agenda and to write based on facts and
reporting, even if that runs counter to our own favorite causes.

Journalism independence demands that we avoid conflicts of interest and even the
appearance of a conflict of interest, especially those that involve economic benefit for ourselves

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or our news organization. It is a standards that confronts the reality that in much of the world,
journalist’ salaries are at the lowest tier of the struggling middle class.

Unfortunately, it is a standards that is very often respected in the breach, a norm that
exemplifies the phrase, “I submit to the rule, but I don’t obey it.”

In the ideal world, journalism should be free of any motive other than informing the public. It
should never be motivated by a desire to curry favor with an advertiser, advance a political
interest or aid a separate economic interest of the journalist or the media organization.

The range of issues encompassed by the journalistic value of independence includes conflict
of interest; moonlighting (supplementing a journalist’s salary with a second job that places in
question the journalist’s motives); accepting gifts, favors or bribes; and maintaining our
journalistic integrity even against the economic or political whims of media owners. The first
case involves the practice of moonlighting, perhaps the most common ethical dilemma in
journalism throughout the world.

Society of professional Journalists code of ethics

Preamble

Members of the society of professional journalists believe that public enlightenment is the
forerunner of justice and the foundation of democracy. The duty of the journalist is to further
those ends by seeking truth and providing a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues.
Conscientious journalists from all media and specialties strive to serve the public with
thoroughness and honesty. Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a journalist’s credibility.
Members of the society share a dedication to ethical behavior and adopt this code to declare the
society’s principles and standards of practice.

Seek Truth and Report it

Journalist should be honest, fair and courageous in gathering, reporting and interpreting
information. Journalists should:

 Test the accuracy of information from all sources and exercise care to avoid inadvertent
error. Deliberate distortion is never permissible.
 Diligently seek out subject of news stories to give them the opportunity to respond to
allegations of wrongdoing.
 Identify sources whenever feasible. The public is entitled to as much information as
possible on source’s reliability.
 Always question source’s motives before promising anonymity. Clarify conditions
attached to any promise made in exchange for information. Keep promises

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  Make certain that headlines, news teases and promotional material, photos, video, audio,
graphics, sound bites and quotations do not misrepresent. They should not oversimplify
or highlight incidents out of context.
 Never distort the content of news photos or video. Image enhancement for technical
clarity is always permissible .label montages and photo illustrations.
 Avoid misleading reenactments or staged news events. If reenactment is necessary to tell
a story, label it.
 Avoid undercover or other surreptitious methods of gathering information except when
traditional open methods will not yield information vital to the public. Use of such
methods should be explained as part of the story.
 Never plagiarize.
 Tell the story of the diversity and magnitude of the human experience boldly, even when
it is unpopular to do so.
 Examine their own cultural values and avoid imposing those values on others
 Avoid stereotyping by race, gender, age, religion, ethnicity, geography, sexual
orientation, disability, physical appearance or social status.
 Support the open exchange of views, even views they find repugnant.
 Give voice to the voiceless; official and unofficial sources of information can be equally
valid.
 Distinguish between advocacy and news reporting. Analysis and commentary should be
labeled and not misrepresent fact or context.
 Distinguish news from advertising and shun hybrids that blur the lines between the two.
 Recognize a special obligation to ensure that the public’s business is conducted in the
open and that government records are open to inspection.
Minimize Harm

Ethical journalists treat sources, subject and colleagues as human beings deserving of respect.
Journalists should:

 Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by news coverage. Use
special sensitivity when dealing with children and inexperienced sources or subjects.
 Be sensitive when seeking or using interviews or photographs of those affected by
tragedy or grief.
 Recognize that gathering and reporting information may cause harm or discomfort.
Pursuit of the news is not a license for arrogance.
 Recognize that private people have a greater right to control information about
themselves that do public officials and others who seek power, influence or attention.
Only an overriding public need can justify intrusion into any one’s privacy.
 Show good taste. Avoid pandering to lurid curiosity.
 Be cautious about identifying juvenile suspects or victims of sex crimes.
 Be judicious about naming criminal suspects before the formal filing of charges.
 Balance a criminal suspect’s fair trial rights with the public’s right to be informed.

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Act independently

Journalists should be free of obligation to any interest other than the public’s right to know.
Journalists should:

 Avoid conflicts of interest, real or perceived.

 Remain free of associations and activities that may compromise integrity or damage
credibility.
 Refuse gifts, favors, fees, free travel and special treatment, and shun secondary
employment, political involvement, public office and service in community organizations
if they compromise journalistic integrity.
 Disclose unavoidable conflicts.
 Be vigilant and courageous about holding those with power accountable.
 Deny favored treatment to advertisers and special interests and resist their pressure to
influence news coverage.
 Be wary of sources offering information for favors or money; avoid bidding for news.
Be Accountable

Journalists are accountable to their readers, listeners, viewers and each other. Journalists should:

 Clarify and explain news coverage and invite dialogue with the public over journalistic
conduct.
 Encourage the public to voice grievance against the news media.
 Admit mistakes and correct them promptly.
 Expose unethical practices of journalists and the news media.
 Abide by the same high standards to which they hold others.

Ethical Issues in Mass Media

Leaning objectives

1. Explain the importance of racial and gender diversity in mass media.

2. Identify the ethical concerns associated with race and gender stereotypes.

3. List some common concerns about sexual content in the media.

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In the competitive and rapidly changing world of mass-media communications, media professionals-
overcome by deadline, bottom-line imperatives, and corporate interests-can easily lose sight of the ethical
implications of their work. However, as entertainment law specialist Sherri Burr point out, “because
network television is an audiovisual medium that is piped free into ninety-nine percent of American
homes, it is one of the most important vehicles for depicting cultural images to our population. “Sherri
Burr, “Television and societal Effects: An Analysis of media images of Africa-Americans in Historical
Context,” journal of Gender, Race and justice 4 (2001): 159. Considering the profound influence mass
media like television have no cultural perceptions and attitudes, it is important for the creators of media
content to grapple with ethical issues.

Stereotypes, Prescribed Roles, and Public Perception

The U.S. population is becoming increasingly diverse. According to U.S. Census statistics from 2010,
27.6 percent of the population identifies its race as non-White. U.S. Census Bureau, “2010 Census Data,”
http:// 2010.census.gove/2010census/data/. Yet in network television broadcast, major publications, and
other forms of mass media and entertainment, minorities are often either absent or presented as heavily
stereotyped, two-dimensional characters. Rarely are minorities depicted as complex characters with the
full range of human emotions, motivations, and behaviors. Meanwhile, the stereotyping of women, gays
and lesbians, and individuals with disabilities in mass media has also been a source of concern.

The word stereotype originated in the printing industry as a method of making identical copies, and the
practice of stereotyping people is much the same: a system of identically replicating an image of
“another.” As a related in chapter 8 “movies” about D.W. Griffith’s the birth of a nation, a film that relied
on racial stereotypes to portray Southern Whites as victims in the American civil war, stereotypes-
especially those disseminated through mass media-become a form of social control, shaping collective
perceptions and individual identities. In American mass media, the white man is still shown as the
standard: the central figure of TV narratives and the dominant perspective on everything from trends, to
current events, to politics. White maleness becomes an invisible category because it gives the impression
of being the norm. Joanna Hearne, “Hollywood Whiteness and stereotypes,” Film Reference,
http://ww.filmreferece.com/encyclopedia/independent-film-Road-Movies/Race-and-Ethnicity-
HOLLYWOOD-WHITENESS-AND-STEREOTYPES.html.

Minority Exclusion and stereotypes

In the fall of 1999, when the major television networks released their schedules for the upcoming
programming season, a starting trend become clear. Of the 26 newly released TV programs, none
depicted an African American in a leading role, and even the secondary roles on these shows included
almost no racial minorities. In response to this omission, the National association for the Advancement of
colored people (NAACP) and the national Council of La Raza (NCLR), and advocacy group for Hispanic
Americans, organized protest and boycotts. Pressured-and embarrassed-into action, the executive from
the major networks made a fast dash to add racial minorities to their prime-time shows, not only among
actors, but also among producers, writers, and directors. Four of the network-ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox-
added a vice president of diversity position to help oversee the networks’ progress toward creating more
diverse programming. Leonard M. Baynes, n “White out: The absence and stereotyping of people of color
by the Broadcast of Networks in Prime Time Entertainment programming,”

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Arizona Law Review 45 (2003):293.

Despite these changes and greater public attention regarding diversity issues, minority
underrepresentation is still an issue in all areas of mass media. In fact, the trend in recent years has been
regressive. In a recent study, the NAACP reported that the number of minority actors on network
television has actually decreased, from 333 during the 2002-2003 season to 307 four years later. WWAY,
“NAACP Not Pleased with the diversity on Television,” January 12, 2009,

http://www.wwaytv3.com/naacp not pleased diversity television/01/2009 . Racial minorities are often

absent, peripheral, or take on stereotyped roles in film, television, print media, advertising, and even in
video games. Additionally, according to a 2002 study by the University of California, Los Angeles, the
problem is not only visible one, but one that extends behind the scenes. The study found that minorities
are even more underrepresented in creative and decision-making position than they are onscreen. Media
awareness network, “Ethnic and visible minorities in Entertainment media,” 2010,

http//www.media-awareness.ca/English/issues/stereotyping/ethnics and minorities entertain

This lack of representation among producers, writers, and directors often directly affects the way
minorities are portrayed in film and television, leading to racial stereotypes.

Though advocacy groups like the NCLR and the NAACP have often been at the forefront of protests
against minority stereotypes in the media, experts are quick to point out that the issue is one everyone
should be concerned about. As media ethicist Leonard M. Baynes argues, “Since we live in a relatively
segregated country…broadcast television and its images and representations are very important because
television can be the common meeting ground for all Americans.” Baynes, “White Out,” 293. There are
clear corrections between mass media portrayals of minority group and public perceptions. In 1999, after
hundreds of complaints by African Americans that they were unable to get taxis to pick them up, the city
of New York launched a crackdown, threatening to revoke the licenses of cab drivers who refused to stop
for African customers. When interviewed by reporters, many cab drivers blamed their actions on fear they
would be robbed or asked to drive to dangerous neighborhoods. Burr, “Television and societal Effects,”
159.

Racial stereotypes are not only an issue in entertainment media; they also find their way into news
reporting, which is a form of storytelling. Journalists, editors, and reporters are still predominately White.
According to a 2000 survey, only 11.6 percent of newsroom staff in the United States were racial and
ethnic minorities. Media Awareness Network, “Ethnic and Visible Minorities in the News,” 2010,
http//www.media-awareness.ca/English/issues/stereotyping/ethnicand minorities / minorities news.cfm

The situation has not improved dramatically during the past decade. According to a 2008 newsroom
census released by the American Society of Newspaper Editors, the percentage of minority journalists
working daily newspapers was a scantm13.52 percent. National Association of Hispanic Journalists,
“NAHJ Disturbed by Figure That Mask Decline in Newsroom Diversity,” news release, 2010,

http//www.nahj.org/nahjnews/articles/2008/april/ASNE.shtml. Because of this underrepresentation

behind the scenes, the news media is led by those whose perspective is already privileged, who create the
narratives about those without privilege. In the news media, racial minorities are often cast in the role of
villains or troublemakers, which in turn shapes public perceptions about these groups. Media critics

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Robert Entman and Andrew Rojecki point out that images of African American on welfare, African
American violence, and urban crime in African American communities “facilitate the construction of
menacing imagery.” Clifford G. Christians, “Communication ethics,” in Encyclopedia of science,
technology, and ethics, ed. Carl Mitchum (Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005), 1:366. Similarly, a
study by the National Association of Hispanic Journalists found that only 1 percent of the evening news
stories aired by the three major U.S. television networks cover Latinos or Latino issues, and that when
Latinos are featured, they are portrayed negatively 80 percent of the time. Media Awareness Network.
“Ethnic and Visible Minorities in the News.” Still others have criticized journalists and reporters for a
tendency toward reductive presentations of complex issues involving minorities, such as the religious and
racial tensions fueled by the September 11 attacks. By reducing these conflicts to “opposing frames”-that
is, by oversimplifying them as two-sided struggles so that they can be quickly and easily understood-the
news media helped create a greater sense of separation between Islamic Americans and the dominant
culture after September 11, 2001. Ginny Whitehouse, “Why Diversity is an Ethical Issues,” The
Handbook of Mass Media ethics, ed. Lee Wilkins and Clifford G. Christians (New York: Rout ledge,
2009), 101. Since the late 1970s, the major professional journalism organizations in the United states-
Associated Press Managing Editors (APME), Newspaper Association of America (NAA), American
society of Newspaper Editors (ASNE), society for professional Journalist (SPJ), Radio and Television
News Directors Association (RTNDA), and others-have included greater ethnic diversity as a primary
goal or ethic. However, progress has been slow. ASNE has sent 2025 as a target date to have minority
representation in newsroom match U.S. demographics. Whitehouse, “Why Diversity is an Ethical Issue,”
102.

Because the programming about, by, and for ethnic minorities in the mainstream media is
disproportionately low, many turn to niche publications and channels such as BET, Univision,
Telemundo, Essence, jet, and others for sources of information and entertainment. In fact, 45 percent of
ethnic-minority adults prefer these niche media sources to mainstream television, radio programs, and
newspapers. Ibid. 103. These sources cover stories about racial minorities that are generally ignored by
the mainstream press and offer ethnic-minority perspectives on more widely covered issues in the news.
Pew project for Excellence in journalism, “Ethnic,” in The State of the News media 2010,
http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2010/ethnic summary essay.php .

Entertainment channels like BET (a 24-hour cable television station that offers music, videos, dramas
featuring predominately Black caster, and other original programming created by African Americans)
provide the diverse programming that mainstream TV networks often drop. Rachel Zellars, “Black
Entertainment Television (BET),” in Encyclopedia of African Culture and History, 2nd, ed. Colin A.
Palmer (Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2006.) 1:259. Print sources like vista, a bilingual magazine
targeting U.S. Hispanic, and Vivid, the most widely circulated African American periodical, appeal to
ethnic minority groups because they are controlled and created by individuals within these groups.
Though some criticize ethnic media, claiming that they erode common ground or, in some instances,
perpetuate stereotypes, the popularity of these media has only grown in recent years and likely continue in
the absence of more diverse perspectives in mainstream media sources. Can Tran, “TV Network Reviews:
Black Entertainment Television (BET),” Helium,

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http://www.helium.com/items/884989-tv-network-reviews-black-entertainment-television-bet;Joe Flint,
“No Black-and-White Answer for the Lack of Diversity on Television,” Company Town (blog), Los
Angeles Times, June 11, 2010,

http://latimesblog.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2010/06/diversity-television.html .

Femininity in Mass Media

In the ABC sitcom The Donna Reed Show (1958-1966), actress Donna Reed plays a stay-at-home mother
who fills her days with housework, cooking for her husband and children, decorating in community
organizations, all while wearing pearls, heels, and stylish dresses. Such a traditional portrayal of
femininity no doubt sound dated to modern audiences, but stereotyped gender roles continue to thrive in
the mass media. Women are still often represented as subordinate to their male counterparts-emotional,
noncompetitive, domestic, and sweet nature. In contrast to these types, other women are represented as
unattractively masculine, crazy, or cruel. In TV dramas and sitcoms, women continue to fill traditional
roles such as mothers, nurses, secretaries, and housewives. By contrast, men in fill and television are less
likely to be shown in the home, and male characteristics are generally characterized by dominance,
aggression, action, physical strength, and ambition. Daniel Chandler, “Television and Gender roles”
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/modules/TF33120/gendertv.html#E.In the mainstream news media, men are
predominately featured as authorities on specialized issues like business, politics, and economics, while
women are more likely to report on stories about natural disasters or domestic violence-coverage that
does not require expertise. Media awareness network, “media coverage of women and women’s issues,”
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/women and girls/women working.cfm.

Not only White male perspective still presented as the standard, authoritative one, but also the media
itself often comes to embody the male gaze. Media commentator Nancy Hass notes that “shows that don’t
focus on men have to feature the sort of women that guys might watch.” Media Awareness Network,
“The Economics of Gender stereotyping.”
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/women and girls/women economics.cfm.

Feminist critics have long been concerned by the way women in film, television, and print media are
defined by their sexuality. Few female role models exist in the media who are valued primarily for
qualities like intelligence or leadership. Inundated by images that conform to unrealistic beauty standards,
women come to believe at an early age that their value depends on their physical attractiveness.
According to one Newsweek article, eating disorders in girls are now routinely being diagnosed at
younger ages, sometimes as early as eight or nine. The models who appear in magazines and print
advertising are unrealistically skinny (23 percent thinner than the average women), and their photographs
are further enhanced to hide flaws and blemishes. Meanwhile, the majority of women appearing on
television are under the age of 30, and may older actresses, facing the pressure to embody the youthful
ideal, undergo surgical enhancements to appear younger. Jennifer L. Derenne and Eugene V. Beresin,
Body Image, Media, and Eating Disorders,” Academic psychiatry 30 (2006),

http://apa.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/30/3/257. One recent example is TV news host Greta Van

Susteren, a respected legal analyst who moved from CNN to Fox in 2002. At the debut of her slow, On
the Record, Van Susteren, sitting behind a table that allowed viewers to see her short skirt, had undergone

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not only a hair and wardrobe makeover, but also surgical enhancement to make her appear younger and
more attractive. Media Awareness Network, “media coverage.”

In addition to the prevalence of gender stereotypes, the ratio of men to women in the mass media, in and
behind the scenes, is also disproportionate. Surprisingly, though women slightly outnumber men in the
general population, over two-thirds of TV sitcoms feature men in the starring role. Media Awareness
Network, “The Economics of Gender stereotyping,”
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/steretyping/women and girls/women economics.cfm

Among writers, producers, directors, and editors, the number of women lags far behind. In Hollywood,
for instance, only 17 percent of behind-the-scene creative talent is represented by women.
Communication researchers Martha Lauzen argues that “when women have more powerful roles in the
making of a movie or TV shows, we know that we also get more powerful female characters on-screen,
women who are more real and more multi-dimensional. “Media Awareness Network, “Women Working
in the media,”

http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/steretyping/women and girls/women working.cfm .

Sexual content in public communication

Creators of all forms of media know that sex-named, innuendoed, or overtly displayed-is a surefire way to
grab an audience’s attention. “Sex sells” is an advertising cliché; the list of products that advertisers have
linked to erotic imagery or innuendo, from cosmetics and cars to vacations packages and beer, is nearly
inexhaustible. Most often, sexualized advertising content is served up in the form of the female body, in
part or in whole, featured in provocative or suggestive poses beside a product that may have nothing to do
with sexuality. However, by linking these two things, advertiser are marketing desire itself. Sex is used to
sell not just consumer goods; it sells media, too. Music videos on MTV and VH1, which promote artists
and their music, capture audience attention with highly suggestive dance movies, often performed by
scantily clad women. Movie trailers may flash brief images of nudity or passionate kissing to suggest
more to come in the movie. Video games feature female characters like Lara Croft of Tomb Raider,
whose tightly fitted clothes reveal all the curves of her Barbie-doll figure. And partially nude models
grace the cover of men’s and women’s magazines like Maxim, Cosmopolitan, and Vogue where cover
lines promise titillating tips, gossip, and advice on bedroom behavior. Tom Reichert and Jacqueline
Lambiase, Peddling Desire: Sex and the Marketing of Media and Consumer Goods,” Sex in Consumer
Culture: The Erotic Content of Media and Marketing, ed. Tom Reichert and Jacqueline Lambiase (New
York: Routledge, 2005), 3.

In the 1920s and 1930s, filmmakers attracted audiences to the silver screen with the promise of what was
then considered scandalous content. Prior to the 1934 Hays Code, which placed restriction on “indecent”
content in movies, films featured erotic dances, male and female nudity, references to homosexuality, and
sexual violence (for more information on the Hays Code, see Chapter 8 “movies” and Chapter 15
“Media and Government”). D.W. Griffith’s Intolerance (1916) includes scenes with topless actresses,
as does Ben Hur (1925). In Warner Bros.’ Female (1933), the leading lady, the head of a major car
company, spends her evenings in sexual exploits with her male employees, a story line that would never
have passed the Hays Code a year later. Gary Morris, “public Enemy: Warner Brothers in the pre –code
Era,” Bright Lights Film Journal, September 1996, http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/17/04b warner.php.

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Trouble in Paradise, a 1932 romantic comedy, was withdrawn from circulation after the institution of the
Hays Code because of its frank discussion of sexuality. Similarly, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931), which
featured a prostitute as one of the main characters was also banned under the code. Daniel P. Hauser,
“Indecent and Deviant: pre-Hays Code Films You Should See,” indie WIRE, 2007,
http://www.spout.com/groups/Top 5/Re 5 Pre Hays Codefilms/ 190/19210/1/Show.

In the 1960s, when the sexual revolution led to increasingly permissive attitude toward sexuality in
American culture, the Hays Code was replaced with the MPAA rating system. The rating system,
designed to warn parents about potentially objectionable material in films, allowed filmmakers to include
sexually explicit content without fear of public protest. Since the replacement of Hays Code, sexual
content has been featured in movies with much greater frequency.

The problem, according to many media critics, is not that sex now appear more often, but that it is almost
always portrayed unrealistically in American mass media. Mary Lou Galician, Sex, Love and Romance in
the Mass Media (New York: Routledge, 2004), 5; Media Awareness Network, “Sex and Relationships in
the Media,” Media Awareness Network,
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/women and girls/women sex.cfm. This can
be harmful, they say, because the mass media are important socialization agents; that is, ways that
people learn about norms, expectations, and values of their society. Galician, sex, love and Romance, 82.
Sex, as many films, TV shows, music videos, and song lyrics present it, is frequent and casual. Rarely do
these media point out the potential emotional and physical consequences of sexual behavior. According to
one study, portrayals of sex that include possible risks like sexual transmitted diseases or pregnancy only
occur in 15 percent of the sexually explicit material on TV. Parents Television Council, “Facts and TV
Statistics,”

http://www.parentstv.org/ptc/facts/mediafacts.asp. Additionally, actors and models depicted in sexual

relationships in the media are thinner, younger, and more attractive than the average adult. This creates
unrealistic expectationabout the necessary ingredients for a satisfying sexual relationship.

Social psychologists are particularly concerned with the negative effects these unrealistic portrayals have
on women, as women’s bodies are the primary means of introducing sexual content into media targeted at
both men and women. Media activities Jean Kilbourne points out that “women’s bodies are often
dismembered into legs, breasts or thighs, reinforcing the message that women are objects rather than
whole human beings. “Media awareness Network, “Sex and Relationships in the media.” Adbusters, a
magazine that critiques mass media, particularly advertising, points out the sexual objectification of
women’s bodies in a number of its spoof advertisements, such as the one in Figure 14.3, bringing home
the message that advertising often sends unrealistic and harmful messages about women’s bodies and
sexuality. Additionally, many researchers note that in women’s magazines, advertising, and music videos,
women are often implicitly-and sometimes explicitly-given the messages that a primary concern should
be attracting and sexually satisfying men. Ibid. Furthermore, the recent increase in entertainment
featuring sexual violence may, according to some studies, negatively affect the way young men behave
toward women. Barrie Gunter, Media Sex: What are the Issues? (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 2002),

Sexual objectification: women’s bodies are often headless or dismembered into legs, breasts, or thighs in
a media portrayals. Adbusters, “Spoof Ads,”

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http://www.adbusters.org/galler/speefads.

Young women and men especially vulnerable to the effects of media portrayals of sexuality.
Psychologists have long noted that teens and children get much of their information and may of their
opinions about sex through TV, film, and online media. In fact, two-thirds of adolescents turn to the
media first when they want to learn about sexuality. Media Awareness Network, “Sex and Relationships
in the media,” The media may help to shape teenage and adolescent attitudes towards sex, but they can
also lead young people to engage in sexual activity before they are prepared to handle the consequences.
According to one study, kids with high exposure to sex on television were almost twice as likely to
initiate sexual activity compared to kids without exposure. Rebecca L. Collins and others, “Watching Sex
on Television Predicts Adolescent Initiation of Sexual Behavior,” pediatrics 114, no. 3 (2004)

http://pediatrics.aappublication.org/cgi/content/full/114/3/e280.

Cultural critics have noted that sexually explicit themes in mass media are generally more widely
accepted in European nations than they are in the United States. However, the increased concern and
debates over censorship of sexual content in the United States may in fact be linked to the way sex is
portrayed in American media rather than to the presence of the sexual content in and of itself. Unrealistic
portrayals that fail to take into account the actual complexity of sexual relationships seem to be a primary
concern. As Jean Kilbourne has argued, sex in the American media “has far more to do with trivializing
sex than with promoting it. We are offered a pseudo-sexuality that makes it for more difficult to discover
our own unique and authentic sexuality. “Media Awareness Network, “Sex and Relationships in the
media.” However, despite these criticisms, it is likely that unrealistic portrayals of sexual content will
continue to be the norm in mass media unless the general public stops consuming these images.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 In American mass media, where the white male perspective is still presented as the standards,
stereotypes of those who differ-women, ethnic minorities, and gays and lesbian-are an issue of
ethical concern.
 Racial minorities are often absent, peripheral, or stereotyped in film, television, print media,
advertising, and video games.
 Racial stereotypes occur in news reporting, where they influence public perceptions
 Underrepresentation of women and racial and ethnic minorities is also a problem in the hiring of
creative talent behind the scenes.
 The media still often subordinate women to traditional roles, where they serve as support for
their male counterparts.
 The objectification of women in various visual media has particularly led to concerns about body
image, unrealistic social expectations, and negative influences on children and adolescent girls.
 “Sex sells” consumer products and media such as movie and music videos.
 The issue of sexual content in the media has become a source of concern to the media critics
because of the frequency with which it occurs and also because of the unrealistic way it is
portrayed.
Choose a television show or movie you are familiar with and consider the characters in terms of racial
and gender diversity. Then answer the following short-answer questions

Each response should be one to two paragraphs.

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1. Does the show or movie you’ve chosen reflect racial and gender diversity? Why or why not? Explain
why this kind of diversity is important in media.

2. Are there any racial or gender stereotypes present in the show or movie you’ve chosen? If so, identify
them and describe how they are stereotypical. If not, describe what elements would prevent the portrayal
of a female or ethnic minority characters from being stereotypical.

3. Does the show or movie you’ve selected feature any sexual content? If so, do you think that the content
is gratuitous or unrealistic, or does it serve the story? Explain your answer. Then explain why the use
sexual content in media is a concern for many media critics.

How to Resolve Ethical Dilemmas and Still Make Deadline

From the Top Down

Ethical decision making in the newsrooms is no easy matter. Because of this, many editors take
the easy way out: Whenever an ethical problem is brought to their attention, they make the
decision and implement it from the top down, relying on their responsibility and authority as
editors.

This approach has the advantage of speed, ensuring that no deadlines will be missed. The
advantage is that it treat decision about ethics as if they are simple matters of enforcement of rule
set down by the boss. The decisions tend to be arbitrary and inconsistent over time. Indeed, this
approaches discourages lower-level employees- reporters, photographers and videographers, for
example, who encounter the majority of ethical problems in their day-to-day work-from bringing
an ethical problem to the boss’s desk.

Unfortunately, this to-down approach is how decisions are made in most news organization

Bottom-up approach

There is another approach that stems from the fundamental notion that ethics involves both
the individual and the organization, both the personal responsibility of each journalist and the
authority and responsibility of the news organizations for which he or she works. A bottom-up,
teamwork-based approach recognizes that ethics draws strength from each person’s commitment
to the values that underlie the norms.

Viewed in this way, ethics are largely self-enforced rather than imposed from above as if
they were laws. Or, as Dr. Kidder notes, ethics are “obedience to the unenforceable.” To be
effective, ethical decision making in newsrooms should involve a relatively simple process,
understood by all, that allows most problems to be dealt with at the lower levels of the
organization.

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 This kind of process recognizes that journalism is a team sport. The work of a reporter, while
often carried out by an individual, has an impact that radiates out in concentric circles to include
people about whom we write or broadcast, as well as those who read what write or broadcast. In
the professional sphere, a journalist’s work affects the individual reporter, his or her coworkers,
the news organization and, at a more abstract but significant level, the profession as a whole. In
other words, the decision of each individual reporter and editor ultimately determines the respect
and trust with which the public regards the entire newspaper or broadcast station and the
journalism professional as a whole.

Steps for Making Ethical Decisions

Here is a description of an ethical decision-making process:

1. Consult colleagues and editors. The first step begins when we encounter a problem. We may
recognize an ethical problem simply because our gut, our internal voice, our conscience-call it
what you will-alerts us that we may have to make an uncomfortable decision. It may be because
our journalistic training or guidelines from our editor have made us sensitive to certain ethical
red flags.

Our gut- or our individual moral sense- is a reliable first warning, but it is seldom sufficient
and can often mislead if not reinforced by other steps.

When confronted by an ethical problem as part of your work as a journalist, do not act alone.
Fist, talk to a colleague, a fellow reporter or your immediate supervising editor. Together, decide
whether the problem can be solved at that level or should be dealt with by bringing in other
colleagues with specific responsibilities in the news organization-the section editor or the
managing editor, for example. In some cases, when the problem has a potential impact on the
financial health or good name of the news organization, the publisher and/or owner’s
representatives must be brought into the process.

2. Define the ethical problem. What values are involved? Is it a question of right versus wrong,
or a more difficult question of right versus right, a case in which values conflict?

We can then identify our goals with regard to that value. What is our strategy to achieve that
goal? And what specific actions (or tactics) must we follow to be consistent with our values and
goals?

For example, we recognize that truth is a preeminent value, one that has particular meaning
for journalists. Our goal is to achieve accuracy in whatever we write. The way we achieve that
goal is to set standards for our reporting so that we establish what the facts are to the best of our
ability. A specific standard or tactic that a news organization might decide to adopt is the so-
called “two-source” rule, requiring that facts in dispute must be confirmed by two independent
sources.

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 Dr. Kidder provides a valuable chart to illustrate the way we translate values into action in
newsroom situations.

3. Check codes and guides. The code of ethics of your professional organization can be a
valuable guide. Even more useful is the ethics and standards manual of your news organization,
if one exists. Such written codes seldom resolve a specific dilemma except in the most obvious
cases. But they provide the parameters for a solution and are of great assistance in orienting the
discussion of an ethical problem.

News organization that do not have their own ethics and standards codes should consider
writing one, using and adapting more general codes such as those from professional
organizations, both national and I international. The advantage of news organization having its
own codes is that it can adopt more specific guidelines that apply only within that organization.

A general code of ethics and standards, for example, might say that a good journalist should
show greater concern for private individuals than public figures when they appear in his or her
stories. A news organization manual may state definitively that rape victims will not be
identified.

A general code will say that journalists should not have outside employment that constitutes
a conflict of interest. A news organization code can specify which moonlighting jobs are
permissible and which are a problem, or it may provide a procedure by which a journalist may
seek approval for a specific outside job.

4. Measure your journalistic objective. We should be conscious of the extent to which our
journalistic objectives affect the way we write and may influence us to cut ethical corners. This
occurs when we say we didn’t have to call a second source to confirm the facts because we were
too close to deadline, or when we have an exclusive, a “a scoop,” that we will lose if we wait to
check the story more carefully.

In other case, journalistic objectives, such as enhancing the credibility of our news
organization, compel us to be even stricter in ethical decisions.

In all cases, journalists should satisfy themselves that general ethical values, such as seeking
truth, acting independently and minimizing harm, have not been sacrificed or compromised in
the pursuit of legitimate but non-ethical objectives, such as speed, entertainment, brevity,
increasing circulation, attracting advertiser or beating the competition.

5. Identify “stakeholders,” people who mightbe affected by the decision. Often there is a
tendency to consider the points of view only of those in the room when we are discussing an
ethical problem. We should make a deliberate effort to list all of those who will be affected by
our decision, and attempt to describe objectively the interest-or “stake”-each person has in our
decision. Those people are often called stakeholders.

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 The stakeholders are not just the innocent participants in a story. They deserve our special
consideration, especially if they are both innocent and private citizens. The not-so-innocent
participants also have to be taken into account in our deliberation. In a typical story denouncing
government errors, for example, we must list those who made the errors among the stakeholders
in our decision.

Finally, the most important stakeholder is the public itself, not only our readers, but the society
at large.

A good practice in identifying stakeholders during a discussion is to assign one person as

“devil’s advocate,” the present. This is the person charged with identifying stakeholders who
might not be obvious and with forcing those making the decision to take into account even the
most unpopular points of view.

6. Ask: what are our alternatives? Every story can be written in many different ways. Often
the ethical choice is not between publishing and not publishing. Our ethical decision may be to
write the story in a certain way to achieve both the journalistic effect we seek and resolve an
ethical dilemma.

In some cases, writing an additional story to achieve balance and fairness is the solution.

7. Make a decision. Ethics is not a discussion, no matter how rich and interesting that discussion
may be. A good discussion is not a decision. And in journalism we must act and be accountable
for our decisions. What we cannot do (if we are to remain effective as journalists) is put off
making a decision. In some cases, the decision may be to postpone publication in order to make
the story fairer, or to diminish a harmful effect-for example, withholding the identity of an
accident victim until next of kin has been notified. But decide we must. And we must do it in
time to meet our deadline.

8. Able to explain your decision be. This step is sometimes called the “front page test”. If all
our reasons for making the decision in a certain way were to be revealed on the front page of the
newspaper, would we make the same decision? Is there anything about our motives, our
reasoning that we would be embarrassed about if they were revealed? This does not mean that
we necessarily burden our readers with such explanations in every case. It does mean that we
should asks ourselves whether public disclosure would be a factor in how we decide, and that we
should decide as if we were going to explain fully what we did and why we did it. The most
responsible newspaper and media organizations often do this as more than an academic exercise.
They appoint a writer sometimes given a special independent status as “ombudsman” to write
about the media organization from the inside, questioning, critiquing and explaining issues of
ethics and journalistic standards.

An Ethical checklists

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Below you will find an ethical “checklist” first published in the popular book, doing ethics in
journalism: A handbook with case studies, by jay black, bob, Steele and ralph Barney. The
checklist-10 questions to ask yourself when confronted with an ethical problem provides
guidance to help you make sound ethical choice. The checklist is reprinted here with permission.

ASK GOOD QUESTION TO MAKE GOOD ETHICAL DECISIONS

1.What do I know? What do I need know?

2. What is my journalistic purpose?

3. What are my ethical concerns?

4. What organizational policies and professional guidelines should I consider?

5. How can I include other people, with different perspectives and diverse ideas, in the decision
making process.

6. How are the stakeholders (that is, those people who are affected by my decision)? What are
their motivations? Which are legitimate?

7. What if the roles were reversed? How would I feel if I were in the shoes of one of the
stakeholders?

8. What are the possible consequences of my actions? Short term? Long term?

9. What are my alternatives to maximize my truth-telling responsibility and minimize harm?

10. Can I clearly and fully justify my thinking and my decision? To the stakeholders? To the
public?

Freedom and Responsibility

In the past few decades, politics and social changes throughout the world have generally resulted
in much more freedom for journalists and their news organization. This newfound journalistic
freedom has been a welcome change as well as a key goal for those who have sought to replace
dictatorship with democracy.

But the reality of new responsibilities tempers the euphoria of freedom. Often professional
obligations and duties of journalists are not entirely clear to those who must live up to them. That
is one reason why an open and vigorous discussion of professional ethics is so important.

Among the major issues in the balance between freedom and responsibility are

 The right to privacy

 The limits to sensationalism, and
 The objectivity of the journalist.
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These issues are debated every day in newsrooms around the world, and the challenges they
present requires some careful analysis of what is at stake and ways, that the media can act
responsibly

In their jobs as reporters and editors, journalist usually see themselves as outside observers-
reporting on news made by someone else. But there are times when the roles are confused or
reversed-when the journalists themselves become part of the story. In the following cases, the
journalist themselves appeared in the forefront of the news and faced some intriguing questions.

Accuracy and Fairness

Journalist first duty is to seek truth and report it completely and fairly. This is a rigorous
journalistic standard: the journalist must decide honestly and ethically whether the facts he or she
has gathered amount to a fair and accurate picture of reality or, to the contrary, will mislead,
distort and perhaps unfairly malign those about whom he or she reports.

These are sometimes the toughest judgments journalists must make. The values of accuracy
and fairness define the precise intersection where journalistic ethics meets the professional
standards that guide a reporter’s day-to-day work. The rage of issues include judging the
reliability of sources, confirming facts, use of deceptive methods and decisions on deadline.

In addition, journalists must scrutinize their own “vested interest”: the understandable drive
shared by nearly every journalist to break major investigative stories denouncing wrongdoing by
powerful public officials. When such denunciations are grounded in solid reporting, confirmed
evidence and multiple, independent sources, and presented without foregone conclusion or bias,
the result is journalism’s highest art.

However, when stories are presented as “investigations” but actually are based on a single
source, rumors or repetitions of unconfirmed charges by anonymous, self-interested accusers, the
result is sloppy journalism-journalism that has earned a new name, “Denunciology.”

These are the issues for discussion in the following cases.

Independence

Journalism makes uncompromising demands on its practitioners. It asks us, as a professional

skills. To put aside our own opinions and interests and instead to pursue the truth on behalf of
readers and society, it asks us to abandon any personal agenda and to write based on facts and
reporting, even if that runs counter to our own favorite causes.

Journalism independence demands that we avoid conflicts of interest and even the
appearance of a conflict of interest, especially those that involve economic benefit for ourselves

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or our news organization. It is a standards that confronts the reality that in much of the world,
journalist’ salaries are at the lowest tier of the struggling middle class.

Unfortunately, it is a standards that is very often respected in the breach, a norm that
exemplifies the phrase, “I submit to the rule, but I don’t obey it.”

In the ideal world, journalism should be free of any motive other than informing the public. It
should never be motivated by a desire to curry favor with an advertiser, advance a political
interest or aid a separate economic interest of the journalist or the media organization.

The range of issues encompassed by the journalistic value of independence includes conflict
of interest; moonlighting (supplementing a journalist’s salary with a second job that places in
question the journalist’s motives); accepting gifts, favors or bribes; and maintaining our
journalistic integrity even against the economic or political whims of media owners. The first
case involves the practice of moonlighting, perhaps the most common ethical dilemma in
journalism throughout the world.

Society of professional Journalists code of ethics

Preamble

Members of the society of professional journalists believe that public enlightenment is the
forerunner of justice and the foundation of democracy. The duty of the journalist is to further
those ends by seeking truth and providing a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues.
Conscientious journalists from all media and specialties strive to serve the public with
thoroughness and honesty. Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a journalist’s credibility.
Members of the society share a dedication to ethical behavior and adopt this code to declare the
society’s principles and standards of practice.

Seek Truth and Report it

Journalist should be honest, fair and courageous in gathering, reporting and interpreting
information. Journalists should:

 Test the accuracy of information from all sources and exercise care to avoid inadvertent
error. Deliberate distortion is never permissible.
 Diligently seek out subject of news stories to give them the opportunity to respond to
allegations of wrongdoing.
 Identify sources whenever feasible. The public is entitled to as much information as
possible on source’s reliability.
 Always question source’s motives before promising anonymity. Clarify conditions
attached to any promise made in exchange for information. Keep promises

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  Make certain that headlines, news teases and promotional material, photos, video, audio,
graphics, sound bites and quotations do not misrepresent. They should not oversimplify
or highlight incidents out of context.
 Never distort the content of news photos or video. Image enhancement for technical
clarity is always permissible .label montages and photo illustrations.
 Avoid misleading reenactments or staged news events. If reenactment is necessary to tell
a story, label it.
 Avoid undercover or other surreptitious methods of gathering information except when
traditional open methods will not yield information vital to the public. Use of such
methods should be explained as part of the story.
 Never plagiarize.
 Tell the story of the diversity and magnitude of the human experience boldly, even when
it is unpopular to do so.
 Examine their own cultural values and avoid imposing those values on others
 Avoid stereotyping by race, gender, age, religion, ethnicity, geography, sexual
orientation, disability, physical appearance or social status.
 Support the open exchange of views, even views they find repugnant.
 Give voice to the voiceless; official and unofficial sources of information can be equally
valid.
 Distinguish between advocacy and news reporting. Analysis and commentary should be
labeled and not misrepresent fact or context.
 Distinguish news from advertising and shun hybrids that blur the lines between the two.
 Recognize a special obligation to ensure that the public’s business is conducted in the
open and that government records are open to inspection.
Minimize Harm

Ethical journalists treat sources, subject and colleagues as human beings deserving of respect.
Journalists should:

 Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by news coverage. Use
special sensitivity when dealing with children and inexperienced sources or subjects.
 Be sensitive when seeking or using interviews or photographs of those affected by
tragedy or grief.
 Recognize that gathering and reporting information may cause harm or discomfort.
Pursuit of the news is not a license for arrogance.
 Recognize that private people have a greater right to control information about
themselves that do public officials and others who seek power, influence or attention.
Only an overriding public need can justify intrusion into any one’s privacy.
 Show good taste. Avoid pandering to lurid curiosity.
 Be cautious about identifying juvenile suspects or victims of sex crimes.
 Be judicious about naming criminal suspects before the formal filing of charges.
 Balance a criminal suspect’s fair trial rights with the public’s right to be informed.

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Act independently

Journalists should be free of obligation to any interest other than the public’s right to know.
Journalists should:

 Avoid conflicts of interest, real or perceived.

 Remain free of associations and activities that may compromise integrity or damage
credibility.
 Refuse gifts, favors, fees, free travel and special treatment, and shun secondary
employment, political involvement, public office and service in community organizations
if they compromise journalistic integrity.
 Disclose unavoidable conflicts.
 Be vigilant and courageous about holding those with power accountable.
 Deny favored treatment to advertisers and special interests and resist their pressure to
influence news coverage.
 Be wary of sources offering information for favors or money; avoid bidding for news.
Be Accountable

Journalists are accountable to their readers, listeners, viewers and each other. Journalists should:

 Clarify and explain news coverage and invite dialogue with the public over journalistic
conduct.
 Encourage the public to voice grievance against the news media.
 Admit mistakes and correct them promptly.
 Expose unethical practices of journalists and the news media.
 Abide by the same high standards to which they hold others.

Ethical Issues in Mass Media

Leaning objectives

1. Explain the importance of racial and gender diversity in mass media.

2. Identify the ethical concerns associated with race and gender stereotypes.

3. List some common concerns about sexual content in the media.

In the competitive and rapidly changing world of mass-media communications, media professionals-
overcome by deadline, bottom-line imperatives, and corporate interests-can easily lose sight of the ethical
implications of their work. However, as entertainment law specialist Sherri Burr point out, “because
network television is an audiovisual medium that is piped free into ninety-nine percent of American
homes, it is one of the most important vehicles for depicting cultural images to our population. “Sherri
Burr, “Television and societal Effects: An Analysis of media images of Africa-Americans in Historical

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Context,” journal of Gender, Race and justice 4 (2001): 159. Considering the profound influence mass
media like television have no cultural perceptions and attitudes, it is important for the creators of media
content to grapple with ethical issues.

Stereotypes, Prescribed Roles, and Public Perception

The U.S. population is becoming increasingly diverse. According to U.S. Census statistics from 2010,
27.6 percent of the population identifies its race as non-White. U.S. Census Bureau, “2010 Census Data,”
http:// 2010.census.gove/2010census/data/. Yet in network television broadcast, major publications, and
other forms of mass media and entertainment, minorities are often either absent or presented as heavily
stereotyped, two-dimensional characters. Rarely are minorities depicted as complex characters with the
full range of human emotions, motivations, and behaviors. Meanwhile, the stereotyping of women, gays
and lesbians, and individuals with disabilities in mass media has also been a source of concern.

The word stereotype originated in the printing industry as a method of making identical copies, and the
practice of stereotyping people is much the same: a system of identically replicating an image of
“another.” As a related in chapter 8 “movies” about D.W. Griffith’s the birth of a nation, a film that relied
on racial stereotypes to portray Southern Whites as victims in the American civil war, stereotypes-
especially those disseminated through mass media-become a form of social control, shaping collective
perceptions and individual identities. In American mass media, the white man is still shown as the
standard: the central figure of TV narratives and the dominant perspective on everything from trends, to
current events, to politics. White maleness becomes an invisible category because it gives the impression
of being the norm. Joanna Hearne, “Hollywood Whiteness and stereotypes,” Film Reference,
http://ww.filmreferece.com/encyclopedia/independent-film-Road-Movies/Race-and-Ethnicity-
HOLLYWOOD-WHITENESS-AND-STEREOTYPES.html.

Minority Exclusion and stereotypes

In the fall of 1999, when the major television networks released their schedules for the upcoming
programming season, a starting trend become clear. Of the 26 newly released TV programs, none
depicted an African American in a leading role, and even the secondary roles on these shows included
almost no racial minorities. In response to this omission, the National association for the Advancement of
colored people (NAACP) and the national Council of La Raza (NCLR), and advocacy group for Hispanic
Americans, organized protest and boycotts. Pressured-and embarrassed-into action, the executive from
the major networks made a fast dash to add racial minorities to their prime-time shows, not only among
actors, but also among producers, writers, and directors. Four of the network-ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox-
added a vice president of diversity position to help oversee the networks’ progress toward creating more
diverse programming. Leonard M. Baynes, n “White out: The absence and stereotyping of people of color
by the Broadcast of Networks in Prime Time Entertainment programming,”

Arizona Law Review 45 (2003):293.

Despite these changes and greater public attention regarding diversity issues, minority
underrepresentation is still an issue in all areas of mass media. In fact, the trend in recent years has been
regressive. In a recent study, the NAACP reported that the number of minority actors on network

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television has actually decreased, from 333 during the 2002-2003 season to 307 four years later. WWAY,
“NAACP Not Pleased with the diversity on Television,” January 12, 2009,

http://www.wwaytv3.com/naacp not pleased diversity television/01/2009 . Racial minorities are often

absent, peripheral, or take on stereotyped roles in film, television, print media, advertising, and even in
video games. Additionally, according to a 2002 study by the University of California, Los Angeles, the
problem is not only visible one, but one that extends behind the scenes. The study found that minorities
are even more underrepresented in creative and decision-making position than they are onscreen. Media
awareness network, “Ethnic and visible minorities in Entertainment media,” 2010,

http//www.media-awareness.ca/English/issues/stereotyping/ethnics and minorities entertain

This lack of representation among producers, writers, and directors often directly affects the way
minorities are portrayed in film and television, leading to racial stereotypes.

Though advocacy groups like the NCLR and the NAACP have often been at the forefront of protests
against minority stereotypes in the media, experts are quick to point out that the issue is one everyone
should be concerned about. As media ethicist Leonard M. Baynes argues, “Since we live in a relatively
segregated country…broadcast television and its images and representations are very important because
television can be the common meeting ground for all Americans.” Baynes, “White Out,” 293. There are
clear corrections between mass media portrayals of minority group and public perceptions. In 1999, after
hundreds of complaints by African Americans that they were unable to get taxis to pick them up, the city
of New York launched a crackdown, threatening to revoke the licenses of cab drivers who refused to stop
for African customers. When interviewed by reporters, many cab drivers blamed their actions on fear they
would be robbed or asked to drive to dangerous neighborhoods. Burr, “Television and societal Effects,”
159.

Racial stereotypes are not only an issue in entertainment media; they also find their way into news
reporting, which is a form of storytelling. Journalists, editors, and reporters are still predominately White.
According to a 2000 survey, only 11.6 percent of newsroom staff in the United States were racial and
ethnic minorities. Media Awareness Network, “Ethnic and Visible Minorities in the News,” 2010,
http//www.media-awareness.ca/English/issues/stereotyping/ethnicand minorities / minorities news.cfm

The situation has not improved dramatically during the past decade. According to a 2008 newsroom
census released by the American Society of Newspaper Editors, the percentage of minority journalists
working daily newspapers was a scantm13.52 percent. National Association of Hispanic Journalists,
“NAHJ Disturbed by Figure That Mask Decline in Newsroom Diversity,” news release, 2010,

http//www.nahj.org/nahjnews/articles/2008/april/ASNE.shtml. Because of this underrepresentation

behind the scenes, the news media is led by those whose perspective is already privileged, who create the
narratives about those without privilege. In the news media, racial minorities are often cast in the role of
villains or troublemakers, which in turn shapes public perceptions about these groups. Media critics
Robert Entman and Andrew Rojecki point out that images of African American on welfare, African
American violence, and urban crime in African American communities “facilitate the construction of
menacing imagery.” Clifford G. Christians, “Communication ethics,” in Encyclopedia of science,
technology, and ethics, ed. Carl Mitchum (Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005), 1:366. Similarly, a

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study by the National Association of Hispanic Journalists found that only 1 percent of the evening news
stories aired by the three major U.S. television networks cover Latinos or Latino issues, and that when
Latinos are featured, they are portrayed negatively 80 percent of the time. Media Awareness Network.
“Ethnic and Visible Minorities in the News.” Still others have criticized journalists and reporters for a
tendency toward reductive presentations of complex issues involving minorities, such as the religious and
racial tensions fueled by the September 11 attacks. By reducing these conflicts to “opposing frames”-that
is, by oversimplifying them as two-sided struggles so that they can be quickly and easily understood-the
news media helped create a greater sense of separation between Islamic Americans and the dominant
culture after September 11, 2001. Ginny Whitehouse, “Why Diversity is an Ethical Issues,” The
Handbook of Mass Media ethics, ed. Lee Wilkins and Clifford G. Christians (New York: Rout ledge,
2009), 101. Since the late 1970s, the major professional journalism organizations in the United states-
Associated Press Managing Editors (APME), Newspaper Association of America (NAA), American
society of Newspaper Editors (ASNE), society for professional Journalist (SPJ), Radio and Television
News Directors Association (RTNDA), and others-have included greater ethnic diversity as a primary
goal or ethic. However, progress has been slow. ASNE has sent 2025 as a target date to have minority
representation in newsroom match U.S. demographics. Whitehouse, “Why Diversity is an Ethical Issue,”
102.

Because the programming about, by, and for ethnic minorities in the mainstream media is
disproportionately low, many turn to niche publications and channels such as BET, Univision,
Telemundo, Essence, jet, and others for sources of information and entertainment. In fact, 45 percent of
ethnic-minority adults prefer these niche media sources to mainstream television, radio programs, and
newspapers. Ibid. 103. These sources cover stories about racial minorities that are generally ignored by
the mainstream press and offer ethnic-minority perspectives on more widely covered issues in the news.
Pew project for Excellence in journalism, “Ethnic,” in The State of the News media 2010,
http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2010/ethnic summary essay.php .

Entertainment channels like BET (a 24-hour cable television station that offers music, videos, dramas
featuring predominately Black caster, and other original programming created by African Americans)
provide the diverse programming that mainstream TV networks often drop. Rachel Zellars, “Black
Entertainment Television (BET),” in Encyclopedia of African Culture and History, 2nd, ed. Colin A.
Palmer (Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2006.) 1:259. Print sources like vista, a bilingual magazine
targeting U.S. Hispanic, and Vivid, the most widely circulated African American periodical, appeal to
ethnic minority groups because they are controlled and created by individuals within these groups.
Though some criticize ethnic media, claiming that they erode common ground or, in some instances,
perpetuate stereotypes, the popularity of these media has only grown in recent years and likely continue in
the absence of more diverse perspectives in mainstream media sources. Can Tran, “TV Network Reviews:
Black Entertainment Television (BET),” Helium,

http://www.helium.com/items/884989-tv-network-reviews-black-entertainment-television-bet;Joe Flint,
“No Black-and-White Answer for the Lack of Diversity on Television,” Company Town (blog), Los
Angeles Times, June 11, 2010,

http://latimesblog.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2010/06/diversity-television.html .

Femininity in Mass Media

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In the ABC sitcom The Donna Reed Show (1958-1966), actress Donna Reed plays a stay-at-home mother
who fills her days with housework, cooking for her husband and children, decorating in community
organizations, all while wearing pearls, heels, and stylish dresses. Such a traditional portrayal of
femininity no doubt sound dated to modern audiences, but stereotyped gender roles continue to thrive in
the mass media. Women are still often represented as subordinate to their male counterparts-emotional,
noncompetitive, domestic, and sweet nature. In contrast to these types, other women are represented as
unattractively masculine, crazy, or cruel. In TV dramas and sitcoms, women continue to fill traditional
roles such as mothers, nurses, secretaries, and housewives. By contrast, men in fill and television are less
likely to be shown in the home, and male characteristics are generally characterized by dominance,
aggression, action, physical strength, and ambition. Daniel Chandler, “Television and Gender roles”
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/modules/TF33120/gendertv.html#E.In the mainstream news media, men are
predominately featured as authorities on specialized issues like business, politics, and economics, while
women are more likely to report on stories about natural disasters or domestic violence-coverage that
does not require expertise. Media awareness network, “media coverage of women and women’s issues,”
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/women and girls/women working.cfm.

Not only White male perspective still presented as the standard, authoritative one, but also the media
itself often comes to embody the male gaze. Media commentator Nancy Hass notes that “shows that don’t
focus on men have to feature the sort of women that guys might watch.” Media Awareness Network,
“The Economics of Gender stereotyping.”
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/women and girls/women economics.cfm.

Feminist critics have long been concerned by the way women in film, television, and print media are
defined by their sexuality. Few female role models exist in the media who are valued primarily for
qualities like intelligence or leadership. Inundated by images that conform to unrealistic beauty standards,
women come to believe at an early age that their value depends on their physical attractiveness.
According to one Newsweek article, eating disorders in girls are now routinely being diagnosed at
younger ages, sometimes as early as eight or nine. The models who appear in magazines and print
advertising are unrealistically skinny (23 percent thinner than the average women), and their photographs
are further enhanced to hide flaws and blemishes. Meanwhile, the majority of women appearing on
television are under the age of 30, and may older actresses, facing the pressure to embody the youthful
ideal, undergo surgical enhancements to appear younger. Jennifer L. Derenne and Eugene V. Beresin,
Body Image, Media, and Eating Disorders,” Academic psychiatry 30 (2006),

http://apa.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/30/3/257. One recent example is TV news host Greta Van

Susteren, a respected legal analyst who moved from CNN to Fox in 2002. At the debut of her slow, On
the Record, Van Susteren, sitting behind a table that allowed viewers to see her short skirt, had undergone
not only a hair and wardrobe makeover, but also surgical enhancement to make her appear younger and
more attractive. Media Awareness Network, “media coverage.”

In addition to the prevalence of gender stereotypes, the ratio of men to women in the mass media, in and
behind the scenes, is also disproportionate. Surprisingly, though women slightly outnumber men in the
general population, over two-thirds of TV sitcoms feature men in the starring role. Media Awareness
Network, “The Economics of Gender stereotyping,”
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/steretyping/women and girls/women economics.cfm

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Among writers, producers, directors, and editors, the number of women lags far behind. In Hollywood,
for instance, only 17 percent of behind-the-scene creative talent is represented by women.
Communication researchers Martha Lauzen argues that “when women have more powerful roles in the
making of a movie or TV shows, we know that we also get more powerful female characters on-screen,
women who are more real and more multi-dimensional. “Media Awareness Network, “Women Working
in the media,”

http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/steretyping/women and girls/women working.cfm .

Sexual content in public communication

Creators of all forms of media know that sex-named, innuendoed, or overtly displayed-is a surefire way to
grab an audience’s attention. “Sex sells” is an advertising cliché; the list of products that advertisers have
linked to erotic imagery or innuendo, from cosmetics and cars to vacations packages and beer, is nearly
inexhaustible. Most often, sexualized advertising content is served up in the form of the female body, in
part or in whole, featured in provocative or suggestive poses beside a product that may have nothing to do
with sexuality. However, by linking these two things, advertiser are marketing desire itself. Sex is used to
sell not just consumer goods; it sells media, too. Music videos on MTV and VH1, which promote artists
and their music, capture audience attention with highly suggestive dance movies, often performed by
scantily clad women. Movie trailers may flash brief images of nudity or passionate kissing to suggest
more to come in the movie. Video games feature female characters like Lara Croft of Tomb Raider,
whose tightly fitted clothes reveal all the curves of her Barbie-doll figure. And partially nude models
grace the cover of men’s and women’s magazines like Maxim, Cosmopolitan, and Vogue where cover
lines promise titillating tips, gossip, and advice on bedroom behavior. Tom Reichert and Jacqueline
Lambiase, Peddling Desire: Sex and the Marketing of Media and Consumer Goods,” Sex in Consumer
Culture: The Erotic Content of Media and Marketing, ed. Tom Reichert and Jacqueline Lambiase (New
York: Routledge, 2005), 3.

In the 1920s and 1930s, filmmakers attracted audiences to the silver screen with the promise of what was
then considered scandalous content. Prior to the 1934 Hays Code, which placed restriction on “indecent”
content in movies, films featured erotic dances, male and female nudity, references to homosexuality, and
sexual violence (for more information on the Hays Code, see Chapter 8 “movies” and Chapter 15
“Media and Government”). D.W. Griffith’s Intolerance (1916) includes scenes with topless actresses,
as does Ben Hur (1925). In Warner Bros.’ Female (1933), the leading lady, the head of a major car
company, spends her evenings in sexual exploits with her male employees, a story line that would never
have passed the Hays Code a year later. Gary Morris, “public Enemy: Warner Brothers in the pre –code
Era,” Bright Lights Film Journal, September 1996, http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/17/04b warner.php.
Trouble in Paradise, a 1932 romantic comedy, was withdrawn from circulation after the institution of the
Hays Code because of its frank discussion of sexuality. Similarly, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931), which
featured a prostitute as one of the main characters was also banned under the code. Daniel P. Hauser,
“Indecent and Deviant: pre-Hays Code Films You Should See,” indie WIRE, 2007,
http://www.spout.com/groups/Top 5/Re 5 Pre Hays Codefilms/ 190/19210/1/Show.

In the 1960s, when the sexual revolution led to increasingly permissive attitude toward sexuality in
American culture, the Hays Code was replaced with the MPAA rating system. The rating system,
designed to warn parents about potentially objectionable material in films, allowed filmmakers to include

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sexually explicit content without fear of public protest. Since the replacement of Hays Code, sexual
content has been featured in movies with much greater frequency.

The problem, according to many media critics, is not that sex now appear more often, but that it is almost
always portrayed unrealistically in American mass media. Mary Lou Galician, Sex, Love and Romance in
the Mass Media (New York: Routledge, 2004), 5; Media Awareness Network, “Sex and Relationships in
the Media,” Media Awareness Network,
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/women and girls/women sex.cfm. This can
be harmful, they say, because the mass media are important socialization agents; that is, ways that
people learn about norms, expectations, and values of their society. Galician, sex, love and Romance, 82.
Sex, as many films, TV shows, music videos, and song lyrics present it, is frequent and casual. Rarely do
these media point out the potential emotional and physical consequences of sexual behavior. According to
one study, portrayals of sex that include possible risks like sexual transmitted diseases or pregnancy only
occur in 15 percent of the sexually explicit material on TV. Parents Television Council, “Facts and TV
Statistics,”

http://www.parentstv.org/ptc/facts/mediafacts.asp. Additionally, actors and models depicted in sexual

relationships in the media are thinner, younger, and more attractive than the average adult. This creates
unrealistic expectationabout the necessary ingredients for a satisfying sexual relationship.

Social psychologists are particularly concerned with the negative effects these unrealistic portrayals have
on women, as women’s bodies are the primary means of introducing sexual content into media targeted at
both men and women. Media activities Jean Kilbourne points out that “women’s bodies are often
dismembered into legs, breasts or thighs, reinforcing the message that women are objects rather than
whole human beings. “Media awareness Network, “Sex and Relationships in the media.” Adbusters, a
magazine that critiques mass media, particularly advertising, points out the sexual objectification of
women’s bodies in a number of its spoof advertisements, such as the one in Figure 14.3, bringing home
the message that advertising often sends unrealistic and harmful messages about women’s bodies and
sexuality. Additionally, many researchers note that in women’s magazines, advertising, and music videos,
women are often implicitly-and sometimes explicitly-given the messages that a primary concern should
be attracting and sexually satisfying men. Ibid. Furthermore, the recent increase in entertainment
featuring sexual violence may, according to some studies, negatively affect the way young men behave
toward women. Barrie Gunter, Media Sex: What are the Issues? (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 2002),

Sexual objectification: women’s bodies are often headless or dismembered into legs, breasts, or thighs in
a media portrayals. Adbusters, “Spoof Ads,”

http://www.adbusters.org/galler/speefads.

Young women and men especially vulnerable to the effects of media portrayals of sexuality.
Psychologists have long noted that teens and children get much of their information and may of their
opinions about sex through TV, film, and online media. In fact, two-thirds of adolescents turn to the
media first when they want to learn about sexuality. Media Awareness Network, “Sex and Relationships
in the media,” The media may help to shape teenage and adolescent attitudes towards sex, but they can
also lead young people to engage in sexual activity before they are prepared to handle the consequences.

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According to one study, kids with high exposure to sex on television were almost twice as likely to
initiate sexual activity compared to kids without exposure. Rebecca L. Collins and others, “Watching Sex
on Television Predicts Adolescent Initiation of Sexual Behavior,” pediatrics 114, no. 3 (2004)

http://pediatrics.aappublication.org/cgi/content/full/114/3/e280.

Cultural critics have noted that sexually explicit themes in mass media are generally more widely
accepted in European nations than they are in the United States. However, the increased concern and
debates over censorship of sexual content in the United States may in fact be linked to the way sex is
portrayed in American media rather than to the presence of the sexual content in and of itself. Unrealistic
portrayals that fail to take into account the actual complexity of sexual relationships seem to be a primary
concern. As Jean Kilbourne has argued, sex in the American media “has far more to do with trivializing
sex than with promoting it. We are offered a pseudo-sexuality that makes it for more difficult to discover
our own unique and authentic sexuality. “Media Awareness Network, “Sex and Relationships in the
media.” However, despite these criticisms, it is likely that unrealistic portrayals of sexual content will
continue to be the norm in mass media unless the general public stops consuming these images.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 In American mass media, where the white male perspective is still presented as the standards,
stereotypes of those who differ-women, ethnic minorities, and gays and lesbian-are an issue of
ethical concern.
 Racial minorities are often absent, peripheral, or stereotyped in film, television, print media,
advertising, and video games.
 Racial stereotypes occur in news reporting, where they influence public perceptions
 Underrepresentation of women and racial and ethnic minorities is also a problem in the hiring of
creative talent behind the scenes.
 The media still often subordinate women to traditional roles, where they serve as support for
their male counterparts.
 The objectification of women in various visual media has particularly led to concerns about body
image, unrealistic social expectations, and negative influences on children and adolescent girls.
 “Sex sells” consumer products and media such as movie and music videos.
 The issue of sexual content in the media has become a source of concern to the media critics
because of the frequency with which it occurs and also because of the unrealistic way it is
portrayed.
Choose a television show or movie you are familiar with and consider the characters in terms of racial
and gender diversity. Then answer the following short-answer questions

Each response should be one to two paragraphs.

1. Does the show or movie you’ve chosen reflect racial and gender diversity? Why or why not? Explain
why this kind of diversity is important in media.

2. Are there any racial or gender stereotypes present in the show or movie you’ve chosen? If so, identify
them and describe how they are stereotypical. If not, describe what elements would prevent the portrayal
of a female or ethnic minority characters from being stereotypical.

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3. Does the show or movie you’ve selected feature any sexual content? If so, do you think that the content
is gratuitous or unrealistic, or does it serve the story? Explain your answer. Then explain why the use
sexual content in media is a concern for many media critics.

(i) The characteristics of the ethical public communicator

These media ethics are further enhanced by at least seven characteristics of the ethical public
communicator to buttress efforts aimed at safeguarding qualitative democratic communication.
According to White, for a media practitioner to enhance democracy in one’s communication:
 One needs to have the capacity to demand for a democratic public forum
 Take the initiative to speak out on public issues
 Have a sense of moral obligation to build a communicating community
 Have a passion for truthful public communication
 Seek the freedom of expression
 Be committed to the development of a democratic society and national common good
 Have the capacity to facilitate direct citizen participation (Pattyn, 2000, pp.283-298).

Let media practitioners be saturated with ethical values otherwise our culture will continue going
down the road of ethical load-shedding. The fall of Richard Nixon from what some believe to be
the world’s most powerful political office, that of President of the United States of America, in
the wake of the Watergate scandal, attests to the power of the media in general and investigative
reporting in particular. The positive remedial action taken by authorities after the investigative
efforts, serve as proof of the benefits that can accrue to society when the power of investigative
reporting is used for a noble purpose.

According to Kantumoya (2004), in Zambia after the return to multi-party politics in 1991, the
government sought to introduce a Media Council Bill in parliament, thus resurrecting the idea of
a statutory regulatory body for journalists in the country which was abandoned in the 1980s. One
could safely argue that it was primarily the fear of such a government-imposed body which
finally brought the Zambia Independent Media Association (now MISA-Zambia) and the Press

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Association of Zambia (PAZA) to a round-table to agree on a professionally-driven Media Ethics
Council of Zambia (MECOZ)
after years of a mutually acrimonious relationship. MECOZ has since formulated a Code of
Ethics now in operation.

The MECOZ Code of Ethics

1. The public has the right to know the truth. Therefore, journalists have a duty to report the truth
either as representing objective reality or representing what the source says fairly, accurately and
objectively.
2. Newspaper headlines should be fully warranted by the contents of the articles they
accompany. Photographs and telecasts should give an accurate picture of an event and
not highlight an incident out of context.
3. Journalists should respect the confidentiality of sources to whom they have pledged
anonymity.
4. Only fair methods should be used to obtain news, photographs and documents except where
overriding public interest justifies the use of other means.
5. Journalists should regard as a grave professional offence, the acceptance of bribes in any form
in consideration of either dissemination or suppression of information.
6. Journalists shall rectify promptly any harmful inaccuracies, ensure that correction and
apologies receive due prominence and afford the right of reply to persons criticised when the
issue is of sufficient importance.
7. Journalists shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered by the media, and
shall do the utmost to avoid facilitating such discrimination based on among other things, race,
sex, religious, political or other opinions of national or social origins.
8. Secondary employment, political involvement, holding public office, and service in
community organisations should be avoided if it compromises the integrity of journalists and
their employers. Journalists and their employers should conduct their personal lives in a manner
that protects them from conflict of interest, real or apparent. Their responsibilities to the public
are paramount.
9. Plagiarism is dishonest and unacceptable.

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10. Journalists must respect the moral and cultural values of the Zambian society. Journalists
should respect people’s privacy unless the public interest demands otherwise.

1. Social Media

The best way to define social media is to break it down. Media is an instrument on
communication, like a newspaper or a radio, and so social media would be a social instrument of
communication. Unlike the regular media which is usually a one-way street where you can read a
newspaper or listen to a report on television, but you have very limited ability to give your
thoughts on the matter, social media is a type of media that doesn't just give you information, but
interacts with you while giving you that information. This interaction can be as simple as asking
for your comments or letting you vote on an article.

Therefore, social media is the social interaction among people in which they create, share or
exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks (Sanastokeskus, 2010).
It is "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological
foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content”
(Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010, p. 61). Furthermore, social media depend on mobile and web-
based technologies to create highly interactive platforms through which individuals and
communities share, co-create, discuss, and modify user-generated content. They introduce
substantial and pervasive changes to communication between organizations, communities,
and individuals (Kietzmann and Hermkens, 2011, pp.241–251).

Social media technologies take on many different forms including magazines, Internet forums,
weblogs, social blogs, microblogging, wikis, social networks, podcasts, photographs or pictures,
video, rating and social bookmarking. Technologies include blogging, picture-sharing, blogs,
wall-posting, music-sharing, crowdsourcing and voice over IP, to name a few. Social network
aggregation can integrate many of the platforms in use.

According to Kaplan and Haenlein, (Business Horizons, 2010) there are many types of social
media. Some of these are:

 collaborative projects (for example, Wikipedia)

 blogs and microblogs (for example, Twitter)
 Social news networking sites (for example, Digg and Leakernet)
 content communities (for example, YouTube and DailyMotion)
 social networking sites (for example, Facebook)

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  virtual game-worlds (e.g., World of Warcraft)
 virtual social worlds (e.g. Second Life)

1.1. Mobile social media

Mobile social media refers to the combination of mobile devices and social media. This is a
group of mobile marketing applications that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated
content. Due to the fact that mobile social media run on mobile devices, they differ from
traditional social media by incorporating new factors such as the current location of the user
(location-sensitivity) or the time delay between sending and receiving messages(time-
sensitivity).

According to Nigel Morgan, Graham Jones and Ant Hodges (2012) some of the characteristics of
the social media are as follows:

 Quality: The main challenge posed by content in social media sites is the fact that the
distribution of quality has high variance: from very high-quality items to low-quality,
sometimes abusive content.
 Reach: Social media technologies provide scale and are capable of reaching a global
audience. Social media are by their very nature more decentralized, less hierarchical, and
distinguished by multiple points of production and utility.
 Accessibility: Social media tools are generally available to the public at little or no cost.
 Usability: Most social media production requires only modest reinterpretation of existing
skills; in theory, anyone with access can operate the means of social media production.
 Immediacy: The time lag between communications produced by social media can be
capable of virtually instantaneous responses.
 Permanence: Social media messages can be altered almost instantaneously by comments
or editing.
 Public Relations in work places: Social media have also been recognized for the way they
have changed how public relations professionals conduct their jobs. They have provided
an open arena where people are free to exchange ideas on companies, brands, and
products. Social media provides an environment where users and PR professionals can
converse, and where PR professionals can promote their brand and improve their
company's image by listening and responding to what the public is saying about their
product.

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1.2. Managing social media

There is an increasing trend towards using social media monitoring tools that allow marketers to
search, track, and analyze conversation on the web about their brand or about topics of interest.
This can be useful in PR management and campaign tracking, allowing the user to measure
return on investment, competitor-auditing, and general public engagement. Tools range from
free, basic applications to subscription-based, more in-depth tools.

The honeycomb framework defines how social media services focus on some or all of seven
functional building blocks. These building blocks help explain the engagement needs of the
social media audience. For instance, LinkedIn users are thought to care mostly about identity,
reputation, and relationships, whereas YouTube's primary features are sharing, conversations,
groups, and reputation. Many companies build their own social containers that attempt to link the
seven functional building blocks around their brands. These are private communities that engage
people around a more narrow theme, as in around a particular brand, vocation or hobby, rather
than social media containers such as Google+, Facebook, and Twitter. PR departments face
significant challenges in dealing with viral negative sentiment directed at organizations or
individuals on social media platforms (dubbed "sentimentitis"), which may be a reaction to an
announcement or event.

2. Advantages and disadvantages of social media

2.1. Advantages of Social Media

Some of the advantages of social media are as follows:

 Identity: This block represents the extent to which users reveal their identities in a social
media setting. This can include disclosing information such as name, age, gender,
profession, location, and also information that portrays users in certain ways Kietzmann
and Hermkens (2011).
 Conversations: This block represents the extent to which users communicate with other
users in a social media setting. Many social media sites are designed primarily to
facilitate conversations among individuals and groups. These conversations happen for
all sorts of reasons. People tweet, blog, et cetera to meet new like-minded people, to find
true love, to build their self-esteem, or to be on the cutting edge of new ideas or trending
topics thereby supplying raw news and not just report but also interpret so that it makes
sense to the average person. Yet others see social media as a way of making their
message heard and positively impacting humanitarian causes, environmental problems,
economic issues, or political debates. Hence, they play a bigger role as watchdogs and

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 voice of the voiceless. They help the public to know what government would rather hide
and make government officials answerable, accountable and transparent Kietzmann and
Hermkens (2011).
 Sharing: This block represents the extent to which users exchange, distribute, and
receive content. The term ‘social’ often implies that exchanges between people are
crucial. In many cases, however, sociality is about the objects that mediate these ties
between people—the reasons why they meet online and associate with each other
Kietzmann and Hermkens (2011).
 Presence: This block represents the extent to which users can know if other users are
accessible. It includes knowing where others are, in the virtual world and/or in the real
world, and whether they are available Kietzmann and Hermkens (2011).
 Relationships: This block represents the extent to which users can be related to other
users. By ‘relate,’ we mean that two or more users have some form of association that
leads them to converse, share objects of sociality, meet up, or simply just list each other
as a friend or fan Kietzmann and Hermkens (2011).
 Reputation: This block represents the extent to which users can identify the standing of
others, including themselves, in a social media setting. Reputation can have different
meanings on social media platforms. In most cases, reputation is a matter of trust, but
since information technologies are not yet good at determining such highly qualitative
criteria, social media sites rely on ‘mechanical Turks’: tools that automatically aggregate
user-generated information to determine trustworthiness Kietzmann and Hermkens
(2011).
 Groups: This block represents the extent to which users can form communities and sub
communities. The more ‘social’ a network becomes, the bigger the group of friends,
followers, and contacts Kietzmann and Hermkens (2011).

 Documentation: Social media is used to document memories, learn about and explore
things, advertise oneself and form friendships (Wellman and Barry, 2012).
 Privacy: Through internet based services, a lot of activities can be done more privately
than in real life (Wellman and Barry, 2012).
 Participation: Everybody has the possibility to become a content creator. Content
creation provides networked individuals opportunities to reach wider audiences. What is
important is that networked individuals create, edit and manage content in collaboration
with other networked individuals. This way they contribute in expanding knowledge.
Wikis are examples of collaborative content creation (Wellman and Barry, 2012).
 Image creation: It can positively affect the social standing of the users and gain political
support. This can lead to influence on issues that are important for someone. As a
concrete example of the positive effects of social media is the Egyptian revolution in
2011, where people used Facebook to gather meetings, protest actions (Wellman and
Barry, 2012).

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2.2. Criticisms of social media

Despite the many advantages of social media, it is regrettable that there are also a number of
disadvantages which sometimes are dangerous. Some of these are:

 Social media are ease to use for specific platforms and their capabilities (Flanigin and
Metzger, 2007).
 There is disparity of information available which sometimes makes people doubt the
trustworthiness and reliability of information presented (Flanigin and Metzger, 2007).
 The impact of social media use on an individual's concentration, ownership of media
content, and the meaning of interactions created by social media may have serious
implications (Aliyas, Baker & Cochran, 2012).
 Although some social media platforms offer users the opportunity to cross-post
simultaneously, some social network platforms have been criticized for poor
interoperability between platforms, which leads to the creation of information silos-
isolated pockets of data contained in one social media platform (Berners, 2011).
 The youth in particular use social media to the point of addiction, and that using social
media services may lead to a "fear of missing out," also known as the phrase "FOMO" by
many students (http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2011/04/14/fomo-addiction-the-
fear-of-missing-out/, accessed on 16/06/2014).
 Facebook has created issues among getting hired for jobs and losing jobs because of
exposing inappropriate content. Facebook is a place on the Internet where users can
update their statuses and express their personal opinions about life issues to their friends.
This is controversial because employers can access their employee’s profiles, and judge
them based on their social behavior. According to Silicon Republic’s statistics, 17,000
young people in six countries were interviewed in a survey. 1 in 10 people aged 16 to 34
have been rejected for a job because of comments on an online profile (Ahlqvist, Bäck,
Halonen & Heinonen, 2008).
 It is through this process of "building social authority" that social media becomes
effective. One of the foundational concepts in social media has become that you cannot
completely control your message through social media but rather you can simply begin to
participate in the "conversation" expecting that you can achieve a significant influence in
that conversation. That may have serious implications because some people may not care
about the quality and truthfulness of their messages (Dennings, Horning, Parnas, and
Weinstein, 2005). What belongs to all in the end belongs to nobody.
 Due to the increase in social media websites, there seems to be a positive correlation
between the usage of such media with cyber-bullying, online sexual predators, and the
decrease in face-to-face interactions. Social media may expose children to images of
alcohol, tobacco, and sexual behaviours. In addition, the extended use of social media has

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 led to increased Internet addiction, cyber bullying, sexting, sleep deprivation, and the
decline of face-to-face interaction (Munni, 2013).
 The social media is also criticized for ushering in an era whereby it is the survival of the
loudest and most opinionated. Under these rules, the only way to intellectually prevail is
by infinite filibustering” (Keen, 2012). This is also relative to the issue "justice" in the
social network.
 Social media in the form of public diplomacy create a patina of inclusiveness that covers
traditional economic interests that are structured to ensure that wealth is pumped up to the
top of the economic pyramid, perpetuating the digital divide and post Marxian class
conflict (Ehrmann, 2011).
 Another disadvantage of the social media is that there is a trend that finds social utilities
operating in a quasi-libertarian global environment of oligopoly that requires users in
economically challenged nations to spend high percentages of annual income to pay for
devices and services to participate in the social media lifestyle (Ehrmann, 2011).
 Social media will increase an information disparity between winners – who are able to
use the social media actively – and losers – who are not familiar with modern
technologies (Ehrmann, 2011).
 Since large-scale collaborative co-creation is one of the main ways forming information
in the social network, the user generated content is sometimes viewed with skepticism;
readers do not trust it is as a reliable source of information. It is said that one reason why
researchers do not trust the Wiki content is not because it is inherently mutable, but
because of the lack of available information for judging trustworthiness."To be more
specific, the reasons for distrusting collaborative systems with user-generated content,
such as Wikipedia, include a lack of information regarding accuracy of contents, motives
and expertise of editors, stability of content, coverage of topics and the absence of
sources (Dennings, Horning, Parnas, and Weinstein, 2005).
 Media making now has become a participation work, which changes communication
systems. The centre of power is shifted from only the media (as the gatekeeper) to the
peripheral area, which may include government, organizations, and out to the edge, the
individual. These changes in communication systems raise empirical questions about
trust to media effect. Prior empirical studies have shown that trust in information sources
plays a major role in people’s decision making because “the media is the message”.
People's attitudes more easily change when they hear messages from trustworthy sources.
In the new social media communication environment, the civil or uncivil nature of
comments will bias people's information processing even if the message is from a
trustworthy source, which bring the practical and ethical question about the responsibility
of communicator in the social media environment (Rosen, 2006).
 Some have said that "fast (social) media and deep slow thought don't mix well." "As
media theorist Marshall McLuhan pointed out in 1960s, media are not just passive
channels of information. They supply the stuff of thought, but they also shape the process

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 of thought. And what the Net seems to be doing is chipping away the capacity for
concentration and contemplation” (Carr, 2012).
 It is also said that participants use social media to fulfill perceived social needs, but are
typically disappointed. Lonely individuals are drawn to the Internet for emotional
support. This causes problems as it interferes with “real life socializing”. Indeed, social
media provides more breadth, but not the depth of relationships that humans require.
People tend to act differently online and are less afraid to hurt each other’s feelings.
Some online behaviours cause stress and anxiety, much of this associated with friends
and the permanence of online posts (Turkle, 2012).
 Social Isolationism: The largest form of social isolationism is caused by social
networking websites, when the marketers affiliated with these websites actually limit the
visibility of users to develop “artificial marketing.” Artificial marketing is something that
occurs because of social media platforms, where marketers can follow users through their
activities on the web and their individual searches. They are fed information that they
already have some interest in, and therefore, automatically use this to feed them more
information, products, or sources that are all similar. This is a form of isolationism
because people are not being exposed to different information, and are constantly trapped
into thinking they need more of similar information. At times they don’t even see what
else is out there, because of over exposure to the same kind of things (Turkle, 2012).
 While it is important to supply raw news to the society, yet news which is not factual may
just alarm the society for nothing. A whistle blower is not an empty alarmist but a factual
alarmist (Bwalya, 2014).
 There is simply too much hate and vulgar language meant to destroy some people. While
it is appreciated that every media has its own gatekeeping and agenda setting, yet hatred
cannot be used in setting the agenda or as a door bouncer of the media. Hatred and vulgar
language are very different from justice. Even if journalists behind these articles are not
known, they should know that every journalist is bound to observe and respect the dignity
of an individual human person and to respect the human rights of the people. Civility is
needed (Bwalya, 2014).
 Most of the articles are not well researched and lack depth and quality (Agichtein et al.,
2008).
 Mass media refers to “the organised means of communicating openly and at a distance to
many receivers within a short space of time”. Thus messages can be diffused to many
places and many people almost instantaneously so and at the same moment (Thompson,
149). These innovations in the means of communication have also revolutionalised not
only the speed but also the amount of information and quality that is sent out or received
at one time. This also implies that the people who are in authority have to deal with more
information because they are in contact with many people, though remotely. Hence, they
are under the influx of information and so there is need to deal with this information at a
fast pace. However, access to more information does not necessarily and automatically
translate into better policy decisions or greater national security. Even though
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 governments have global communication networks which might assist them to collect
and analyse vast quantities of information to inform their decisions, yet this does not
necessarily mean that all the intelligence networks analyse pieces of information
accurately. Within the intelligence network system there might be spin doctors who
might twist the analysis to fit the hidden agenda of their governments. For example,
despite confident claims by the USA and British leaders that Iraq was poised to unleash
weapons of mass destruction, up to date no weapons of mass destruction have been found
(Aronson, 2005). It is necessary to understand that this information overload may also
leave less room for consultation, advice, conscience consultation, intuition, trust and
secret understandings that were so cardinal in the traditional community set up and
helped leaders to come up with wise decisions which guided people and helped them to
live harmoniously (Aronson, 2005). Thus this information overload has turned out to be a
double edged sword: on one hand it is a blessing to be informed and know what is going
on so that timely decisions can be taken, yet on the other hand it turns out to be a curse if
those responsible for taking decisions make inhuman decisions that are detrimental to
human life, dialogue, friendship, love, peace, harmony, respect for the freedom of the
people, human dignity, justice, creativity and flexibility. In the words of the Catholic
Pope, Pope Francis, “the speed with which information is communicated exceeds our
capacity for reflection and judgement. The world of communications can help us either to
expand our knowledge or to lose our bearings” (Icengelo Christian Magazine, 2014,
Vol.44, No.6, p.5).

Given this scenario, what then is the best way to prevent our society from falling into this
trap?

3. Ethics

According to the dictionary (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ethics, accessed on

17/06/2014), ethics is a branch of Philosophy that looks at:

 A system of principles which guides actions

 A system of principles guiding people on the right actions to take
 A standard of conduct that indicates how one should behave based on moral duties
 Values which guide a person, organisation or society
 Value system by which a person determines what is right or wrong, fair or unfair, just
or unjust, honest or dishonest.
 In a nutshell, Ethics is a branch of Philosophy that seeks to use rational and systematic
principles, values and norms to determine what is good or bad, correct or incorrect,
right or wrong, as far as human actions are concerned.

4. The policy and legal framework regarding adherence to media ethics in Tanzania

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The policy and legal framework regarding the adherence to media ethics in Zambia is there in
three categories: the Penal Code, Media Organisations and Individual personal codes.

4.1. Penal Code (Cap. 87)

 Seditious libel: this law prohibits the publication of seditious words (Section 57 (1).
 Publication of false news : any person who publishes any statement, rumour or report,
which is likely to disturb the public peace, knowing or having reason to believe that such
statement, rumour or report is false, is guilty of an offence and is liable to imprisonment
Section 67 (1).
 Criminal defamation: any person who by print, writing, painting, effigy or by any means
unlawfully publishes any defamatory matter concerning another person with intent to
defame that other person, is guilty of the offence of libel (Section 191).
 Obscenity and Pornography: this is meant for the protection of society’s morals
(Section177 (1).

4.2. Media Organisations have developed and adopted codes of ethics and guidelines
which:

 Prohibit media practitioners from accepting anything of less value from sources.
 Limit activities which may pose conflicts of interest.
 Stress the responsibility of the media practitioner to society and the obligation to be
accurate, impartial and independent (African media barometer: Zambia, 2013).
4.3. Individual personal code
 Compassion for the poor and the physically challenged
 Moral indignation when the powerless are victimised
 Willingness to place responsibility for the failures of policies on those who made them
 Commitment to the improvement of their skills (Makungu, 2005)

As we wind up on this point, it should be stated that a media practitioner must have an
individually defined mission for doing what they do otherwise they will be lost. For example, a
media practitioner who is committed to the open society and to democratic values, has a moral
campus to follow such things as an alertness to institutions and their activities that threaten the
right of everyone to take part justly, equally and freely in a meaningful community life. Hence,
the media practitioner must reveal any word or deed that denies this way of life to people for
whatever reason. This is because a media practitioner’s obligation is to serve the public – not the
profession of journalism, not a particular newspaper or radio or television station, not the
government, but the public. According to White (2000), in order for a media practitioner to be
able to do this, he or she must have the following characteristics:

 Loyalty to facts. Bearing in mind that devotion to facts, to the truth, is a necessary moral
demand.

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  An involvement in the affairs of men and women that requires experiencing or
witnessing directly the lives of human beings.
 The ability to distance oneself from experience to generate understanding.
 A detached curiosity, an exploratory attitude towards events and ideas. Detachment
requires the media practitioner to be bound by evidence and reasonable deductions.
 A reverence for shared values, rules, codes, laws and arrangements which give a sense
of community.
 Faith in experience when intelligently used as a means of disclosing some truths.
 An avoidance of a valueless objectivity.
 A willingness to hold belief in suspense in order to doubt until evidence is obtained, to
go where the evidence points instead of putting first a personally preferred conclusion.
 An awareness of our responsibilities and limitations.
 A moral vision of the future.
 An understanding that our words have consequences and that we have some
responsibility for their consequences.

Indeed, media practitioners should only seek to give voice to all groups in society; always
bearing in mind that the public’s need to know is an immanent value. In determining what shall
be reported and what shall be included in a news story, media practitioners should consider the
relevance of the material they have to the real needs of the audience.

5. Challenges in the effectiveness of media ethics

There are a lot of challenges that media practitioners face in the effectiveness and
implementation of media ethics:

 Some of those employed as media practitioners may not love journalism as a vocation:
being a media practitioner is a risky job that requires only people with a passion for it,
people who feel it in their blood. To be employed as a media practitioner simply because
one cannot be employed elsewhere may bring bad seeds in the industry. Such employees
may not perform as expected.
 Political interventions: Government officials such as politicians because they use
authority that intimidates media practitioners. Media practitioners are divided between
keeping their jobs and observing media ethics.
 Corruption through junkets, freebies and perks. These are wrapped up forms of
corruption which require shrewd and experienced media practitioners to see them and
avoid them.
 Advertisers and funders may also influence media practitioners against certain media
ethics if they feel that they are not helping them to realise their agenda.
 Culture versus ethics
 Issues of bread and butter

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  Revenge and hate journalism: using the media as a weapon to get at some people because
they had offended you.
 Freedom without responsibility: some media practitioners who do not adhere to media
ethics think that press freedom means that it is freedom to say anything and everything.
There is not freedom without responsibility. That is anarchy and being irresponsible and a
de-service to the same society we claim to be serving.
 Lack of respect to human rights and human dignity: anything in the media that has no
respect to human rights and human dignity is a de-service to humanity and the media
industry.

Conclusion

The media, as Ifeanyi E. Okonkwo, Managing Director of Allied Bendix in Nigeria says, can
easily be described as “the child of enlightenment”, and all those that attack it also attack,
sometimes unconsciously, the values of enlightenment. In this sense, media practitioners are the
merchants of enlightenment and so no definition of the media can be accepted unless it addresses
the role of the media practitioners as agents of enlightenment.

The importance of journalism training in promoting ethical reporting, therefore, cannot be more
emphasized. This is because the media do not exist in isolation. The media exist to serve the
public: the public, in turn, relies upon the media for much of its information about what is going
on in society. There is, therefore, a mutually inclusive relationship between the media and the
public.

Media practitioners, have certain responsibilities towards society. This is because journalists
have a social responsibility, or social contract, with members of the public. This social contract
is translated into a set of rules by which journalists must operate to fulfill their mandate to the
general public. According to the International Center for Journalists (2003), the following
constitute a consensus about what journalists must offer and what citizens should expect.

a) Truthfulness, fairness, objectivity

b) Proof that the journalists’ first loyalty is to citizens
c) That journalists to maintain independence from those they cover
d) That journalists will monitor power and give voice to the voiceless
e) A forum for public criticism and problem solving
f) News that is proportional and relevant

There is, therefore, no legal requirement or statutory processes in its enactment. Rather, media
self-regulation is a social contract between media practitioners and society at large. This
contract entails the promotion of a vibrant media that is professional and accountable to the

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public. This contract calls upon the media practitioners to set up rules for the media, by the
media and of the media to self-regulate themselves in their day-to-day conduct with the public.

Self-regulation is distinguished from state or statutory regulation (i.e., regulation by law or by a

statutory regulatory authority). The means of self-regulation include dispute resolution
procedures, rating boards, codes of conduct, and at the level of the user, technical measures such
as filtering, encryption, and pin numbers that regulate children's and others’ behaviour (MISA,
2013).

6. Recommendations on promoting media ethics in Tanzania and elsewhere

 Emphasise on the conscience of an individual media practitioner. All of us in the media
industry should act with a conscience so that we beat corruption. Even if it means the
worst to come, better to go with integrity, dignity and human rights. Once you uphold
these tenets, you never know the world has a better way of rewarding people who are
faithful.
 Uphold our culture: a society without culture is a finished society. Our culture promotes
and upholds civility and it’s important that our media practitioners uphold this culture.
 Journalism as a vocation: being a media practitioner is a risky job that requires only
people with a passion for it, people who feel it in their blood. That is why to do this job
and in order to promote media ethics, media practitioners need to possess the following
characteristics:
 A person who demands for a democratic public forum
 A person who takes the initiative to speak out on public issues
 A person with a sense of moral obligation to build a communicating community.
 A person with a passion for truthful public communication, fairness, objectivity
and no vengeance
 A person who seeks freedom of expression
 A person committed to the development of a democratic society and nation’s
common good
 A person who facilitates direct citizen participation
 Government should avoid regulating the media at all costs: a lesson should be learnt from
the Wiki Leaks in the USA by Snowden. That was pure and outright espionage and the
government could have gone in with a heavy hand to censor and regulate the media, but
instead President Barak Obama never did that. Instead government should emphasise on
respect for human rights and human dignity even when we have online media where there
are invisible authors. Let everybody know that there are no rights without responsibilities.
 One fun thing about technology is that it beats even its own inventors. If government
comes up with some media regulation laws, it may just be a matter of time before pirators
and rebels come up with superior and sophisticated ways to circumvent government laws
– beating it to its own game.

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 Pope Francis talking about the control measures in the new media technologies as a result
of the drawbacks has this to say, “while these drawbacks are real, they do not justify
rejecting social media; rather, they remind us that communication is ultimately a human
rather than technological achievement” (Icengelo Christian Magazine, 2014, Vol.44,
No.6, p.5). therefore, it is the human person who should be educated to be responsible.
 The worst and best form of state regulation is one that just promotes self regulation.
When and if journalists step out of their way, the government should just use the courts
of law.
 Government officials, politicians and financial barons should refrain from giving freebies
(something given without charge or cost such as free parties), junkets (free trips paid for
by a news source and lodging) and perks (being given automatic permission to places
where the public has no right to go or they have to queue up).
 Several colleges and universities such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins, Columbia and
Stanford among others have even introduced classes on best social media practices,
preparing students for potential careers as digital strategists. In this way, youths are better
prepared to use social media positively.
 We are particularly concerned about the cultural dimensions of what is now taking place.
Precisely as powerful tools of the globalization process, the new information technology
and the internet transmit and help instil a set of cultural values- ways of thinking about
social relationships, political, social, cultural, economic, family, religion, the human
condition – whose novelty and glamour can challenge and overwhelm traditional
cultures. Intercultural dialogue and enrichment are of course highly desirable. Indeed,
dialogue between cultures is especially needed today more than before because we are in
a global world. But this has to be a two way street. Cultures have much to learn from one
another and merely imposing the world view of one culture upon another is not dialogue
but cultural imperialism. Cultural domination is an especially serious problem when a
dominant culture carries false values inimical to the true good of individuals and groups.
As matters stand, the internet, along with the other media of social communication, is
transmitting the value-laden message of Western secular culture to people and societies in
many cases ill-prepared to evaluate and cope with it. The question of freedom of
expression on the social media is similarly complex and gives rise to another set of
concerns. We strongly support freedom of expression and the free exchange of ideas.
Freedom to seek and know the truth is a fundamental human right and freedom of
expression is a cornerstone of democracy. In the light of these requirements of the
common good, we deplore attempts by public authorities to threaten and block access to
information – on the internet or in other media of social communication – because they
find it embarrassing. The internet is highly effective instrument for bringing news and
information rapidly to people. But the economic competitiveness and round-the-clock
nature on internet journalism also contribute to sensationalism and rumour-mongering, to
a merging of news, advertising, and entertainment, and to an apparent decline in serious
reporting and commentary. The sheer overwhelming quantity of information on the
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 internet, much of it unevaluated as to accuracy and relevance, is a problem that should
not be ignored. The medium’s implications for psychological development and health
likewise need continued study, including the possibility that prolonged immersion in the
virtual world of cyberspace may be damaging to some. Although there are many
advantages in the capacity technology gives people to assemble packages of information
and services uniquely designed for them, this also raises an inescapable question. What
would become of solidarity and what would become of love in a world like that? Honest
journalism is essential to the common good of nations and hence we call upon journalists
themselves to understand that they need to respect the dignity of the human person and
human rights. Let them do their work with a conscience. We call upon journalists to
promote an authentic community, the common good and solidarity (Vatican documents,
2002).
 Government should think of introducing computer literacy subjects. This subject should
not just be about the technical skills, but to form the children in such a way that they will
be able to evaluate the content.
 There is also improved technology which is able to delay a call until the station is sure
that the caller has not said anything slanderous that’s when the call is allowed so it is
not live as such. These are countries that we even extol for their defense of freedom of
expression. They do that to protect themselves against peddlers of lies and people who
always want to use media channels to attack others.
 Media owners should consider paying practitioners more and improve their conditions.
This in turn will remove the vulnerability faced by the average journalist when faced with
financial ‘carrots’ dangled inn their face.
 Advertisements have worked very hard and continue waging a ferocious war to convert
more and more clients to the culture of consumerism in order for it to make more profits.
Whether the morals of the people are corrupted or not, it cares less as long as it reaps
more profits. It makes the advertisements irresistible by tying them so cunningly to the
products people buy and the reasons why they buy them. “They offer everything from
sexual gratification to power and control, from fulfilling personal relationships to
pleasure and fantasy. These are the things that people want, and marketers have created
pathways of association that tie consumer goods to the promise of contentment and well-
being”. However, even though advertising is the magnet that ties happiness and freedom
to consumption, yet it is doubted whether real happiness comes from material things
alone. If that was the case, then the developed countries would be swimming in
happiness. Sut Jhally made a research in the USA about happiness and discovered that
there was a very weak correlation. The discoveries showed the following: If the elements
of satisfaction were divided into social values (love, family and friends) and material
values (economic security and success), the former outranks the latter in terms of
importance. What people said they really wanted out of life was autonomy, control of
life, good self-esteem, warm family relationships, tension-free leisure time, close and
intimate friends, romance and love. These form a component of a good quality of life
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 (Jhally, 2003). Indeed then materialism and consumerism are not the real zones for
satisfaction and happiness as the advertisements portray. The real fountains of happiness
are not in the market place of advertisement since markets cannot sell real love, warm
family relationships, good self esteem, dignity, freedom, human rights, self confidence,
control of life to mention but some. Advertising makes its commodities attractive by
connecting them to the social life of the people. It does so by striking a marriage of
convenience between popular characters in society such as sportsmen, artists, musicians
with commodities and display powerful images of a deeply desired social life that people
really want in life. This is what makes advertising to be so compelling, attractive,
irresistible, so powerful and so seductive. What it does is “to offer images of the real
sources of human happiness such as family life, romance, love, sexuality and pleasure,
friendship and sociability, leisure and relaxation, independence and control of life”. It is
at this point that advertising becomes a real trickster and master dribbler. It displays its
falsity by tricking and dribbling the audience into believing that the place to find human
happiness is the market and the accumulation of commodities. “The falsity of advertising
is not in the appeals it makes, but in the answers it provides. People want love, friendship
and sexuality, and advertising points the way to them through objects”. The truth of the
matter is that advertising does not show the true world of how people are living, but a
fantasy dream world. However, it lobbies by tapping into the real emotions of the people
and repackages them back by connecting them now to the world of things. It translates
the desires of the people such as love, family, friendship, adventure and sex into their
dreams. What advertising does in effect is to draw people away from the real direction
that would offer them real fulfilment and happiness. By hypnotising people into believing
in the market as the place where to find real fulfilling joy, advertising reduces the ability
and momentum of the society to establish and build institutions that would foster social
relationships rather than endless material accumulation. There is need for a communal
approach which advertising systematically suffocates by painting a trouble-free society
where everybody can buy happiness in the market. This is nothing but the death to
respond to the real needs which help to bring about happiness in society (Jhally, 1990).
 Access to more information does not necessarily and automatically translate into better
policy decisions or greater national security. Even though governments have global
communication networks which might assist them to collect and analyse vast quantities
of information to inform their decisions, yet this does not necessarily mean that all the
intelligence networks analyse pieces of information accurately. Within the intelligence
network system there might be spin doctors who might twist the analysis to fit the hidden
agenda of their governments. For example, despite confident claims by the USA and
British leaders that Iraq was poised to unleash weapons of mass destruction, up to date no
weapons of mass destruction have been found. Thus, even in the presence of massive
important information, it may not be easy to locate and find it within the prescribed time
so that disasters can be averted. It is necessary to understand that this information
overload may also leave less room for consultation, advice, conscience consultation,
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 intuition, trust and secret understandings that were so cardinal in the traditional
community set up and helped leaders to come up with wise decisions which guided
people and helped them to live harmoniously (Aronson, 2005). Thus this information
overload has turned out to be a double edged sword: on one hand it is a blessing to be
informed and know what is going on so that timely decisions can be taken, yet on the
other hand it turns out to be a curse if those responsible for taking decisions make
inhuman decisions that are detrimental to human life, dialogue, friendship, love, peace,
harmony, respect for the freedom of the people, human dignity, justice, creativity and
flexibility. In theory, these global networks are supposed to bring about democracy so
that the opinions of the people are aired and listened to freely. But in reality, more power
has been usurped and centralised and the decision-making is just within the rank and file
of government who care little about some inhuman decisions they make as long as their
hidden agendas are fulfilled while plunging the rest of the society in chaos.
 If government starts regulating the media, it is possible that those who feel aggrieved and
see no alternative but at the same time wish to make an end to the hegemony of the
powers that be, may also turn out to be terrorists who on the other camp too may use the
media to ferment their anarchical chaos. In both cases, innocent lives may be lost, chaos,
violence and jungle law becomes the order of the day.
 In principle, the goodness of globalisation and global networks is supposed to promote
economic growth through increased trade and investment thus leading to development.
This is especially advantageous to the countries and companies which enjoy the
monopoly of information and technology. Since capitalism thrives on the fast flow of
information, it also means that the more the country enjoys global communications, the
more wealth it has. On the other hand, the less global communication facilities a country
has, the less wealth it has. Thus ‘the haves and the have nots’ continue expanding.
However, sometimes some of these global firms are involved in illegal businesses. The
implication is that if a global firm with more and faster communication facilities and
networks is involved in financial laundering in a country where the communication
facilities are fewer and slower, it will be hard for the national monetary authorities to
handle and control this illegal business. The authorities would be getting information late
and hence unable to make timely decisions to crack down these criminal activities.
Instead the criminals would be ahead of the national monetary authorities thereby eluding
justice. Thus, national governments are challenged as they try effectively to manage
global firms and markets. While more and more people in developed countries are having
access to digital information and mass media, poor countries instead suffer from
information blackout. The consequences of such information starvation are that if large
parts of the population in poorer countries are deprived of the right to have access to
information in this new global economy, they will also stand up to claim for their share
even if it is by illegal means. A lesson should be learnt from licensed shops and street
vendors. While governments through their financial ministries and councils are busy
formulating prohibitive taxes and licenses for the businesses, those who feel left out start
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 street vending. The same is happening even with communication networks. Blogs and the
social media in general are often some form of reaction against the mass media where
feedback is rare and the average person’s views are rarely considered. In such a situation,
people exaggerate their new found freedom and hence act with total impunity; respecting
no man, no law. Indeed, such activities can cause confusion in a country, undermine the
legitimacy and stability of governments and the civic culture, and if the worst came to the
worst, it can lead to the sabotage of the rule of law, the collapse of state authority which
can result into chaos, violence, civil unrest and usher in jungle law. Coups and civil
disobedience sometimes are organised underground along these same lines. The
continuous denial of space by mass media to the average person continues to be a recipe
by the social media to ferment volcanic illegal consequences. Hence another way of the
state regulating the media is to give more space to the average person so that their views
are taken care of. It is said that the worst form of poverty is not lack of food or materials,
but not having anybody to listen to you. The social media is a good instrument that
unfortunately is being abused to avert this type of poverty so that people are heard even
over useless things.
 If academicians allow government to regulate the media, this will be the death of
democracy for which society will pay dearly.

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