Unit 2: Density, Atomic

Theory & Nuclear Chemistry

Chemistry
Mr. Gower
 After today, you will be able to...

• Density
• Specific Gravity
 I. Density
mass
A. Density is defined as _________per volume
unit ___________ and
has the symbol ___ ρ
D (or the Greek letter “rho” = ___).
m
B. The formula for density is D = _______
mass
Density = __________ V
Volume
C. Density can have many different units but the most
commonly used units are as follows:
English system Metric system
lb/ft3 for solids & liquids g/cm 3 (kg/m3 in SI)

for gases g/L

D. Converting between units is easy if you use
dimensional
______________ analysis.
 Examples:
Gold has a density of 19.3 g/cm3. What is its density in….
(a) kg/m3 3
19.3 g 1 kg 1 cm 3
= 19300 kg/m
cm3 103 g 10-2 m
= 1.93 x 104 kg/m3
(b) g/mL 19.3 g/mL

(c) lb/ft3
3 3
19.3 g 2.54 cm 12 in 1 lb
cm3 1 in 1 ft 453.6 g
= 1.20 x 103 lb/ft3
 II. Specific Gravity
A. Specific gravity is a measure of the mass of an object
compared to the mass of an equal volume of __________.
water
Density of object (DO)
B. It has the formula: sp. gr. = ______________________
Density of water (DW)
=
mass of object
mass of equal volume of water
C. Since the density of water is 1.00 g/mL, we see that
specific gravity is equal numerically to the
density
______________ but has ______
no __________!!!
UNITS
Example 2: Gold has a density of 19.3 g/mL. Calculate the
specific gravity of gold.

sp. gr. = 19.3 g/mL

= 19.3
1.00 g/mL
 Specific Gravity Cont’d
same value in any system of
D. The specific gravity has the ______________________
units, since it expresses the quotient of the mass of the
substance divided by the mass of an equal volume of
________.
water It is expressed by a pure number
____________.
without units Specific gravity is usually used with
________.
liquids
E. The water standard is sometimes taken at the temperature
where it has maximum density. At typical laboratory values
(0 oC to 30 oC) the density of water does not vary much and
the rounded value _________
1.00 g/mL can be used.
F. Steps to calculate the density of objects:
1. Find the mass (balance).
2. Find the volume (dimensions of displacement).
3. Use the equation D = m / V
 Example 3: Geometric Shapes
Step 1: Measure the mass l =______cm
of the object.
Step 2: Measure the
dimensions of the object.
Volume = ? h =______cm

Step 3: Calculate density

(D = m / V). mass = _____________ g

Volume = l • w • h w =______cm

D = m/V
m
D=
l•w •h
 Example 4: Irregular Shapes
Initial measurement Final measurement
“Water displacement” Object

Step 1: Measure mass of object

Step 2: Put water in a
graduated cylinder and record
initial volume. mass = ________ g

Step 3: Carefully put object in

and record the final volume. V = ________ mL
i Vf = ________ mL

Step 4: Calculate density.

V = Vf - Vi
D = m/V
m
D=
Vf - Vi
 III. Density Calculations
1. An object has a mass of 1.00 kg and a density of 4.00
g/mL. What is its volume in liters?
m = 1.00 kg m
m = 1000 g V=
D
D = 4.00 g/mL 1000 g
m V= = 250 mL
D= 4.00 g/mL
V = 0.250 L

2. What is the mass of a 500 cm3 object that has a specific

gravity of 0.800?
V = 500 cm3 m = DV
sp.gr. = 0.800
D = 0.800 g/cm 3 m = (0.800 g/cm 3
)(500 cm 3
)
m = 400 g
D=
V = 4.00 x 102 g
3. If an object has a density of 7.2 g/mL, what is its sp. gr.?

sp.gr. = 7.2

4. What is the density (g/cm3) of solid 75.84 gram cylinder

that is 4.00 cm tall and 2.00 cm wide?
D=? m
m = 75.84 g D= 2
V = πr2h πr h
m
D= 75.84 g
V D= 2
2.00 cm π(1.00 cm) (4.00 cm)
4.00 cm

D = 6.04 g/cm3
5. Calculate the diameter of a 16.0 pound shot put. A shot
put is a solid metal ball thrown by track athletes and it
has a sp. gr. of 7.78. Calculate the diameter in inches.
m = 16.0 lb m
D=
1 lb = 453.6 g 4 3
m = 7257.6 g πr
sp.gr. = 7.78 3
3m
D = 7.78 g/cm3 r =
3

4 3 4πD
V = πr
3 3m
m r= 3
D= 4πD
V 3(7257.6 g)
r=3 3
d=? d 4 π (7.78 g/cm )
r=
2
r = 6.06 cm d = 4.77 in
 After today, you will be able to...

• Accuracy & Precision

• Absolute error
• Relative (Percent) error
 Å = Angstrom 1 Å = 10 –10 m
IV. Accuracy and Precision:
Methods of expressing laboratory error:
In many of the laboratories done in a science class, you
ultimately end up measuring or determining something
that is already ________.
known For example, a student may
be given an aluminum cylinder and be asked to measure
it so that they can determine its density. Why don’t they
just look up the “accepted” value of the density of
aluminum in the book? Well, the purpose of most
introductory laboratories is to teach you the proper
experimental techniques, not to discover new
information.
Once a student has obtained specific values, how do they
know how close their measurement is to the true
(accepted) value that they are trying to obtain? This is
done most simply by determining absolute
________ and
________
relative (percent) error.
 IV. Accuracy and Precision:

A. Introduction: Chemistry is a quantitative science…it

uses lots of numbers!! These numbers come from
experimental measurements and each measurement
has some degree of uncertainty in it.
1. Reasons for UNCERTAINTY in measurements:
Tolerance
(a) ________________ = Construction of the device.
Human error
(b) ________________ = Incorrect usage of the device.
Conditions
(c) ________________ = Temperature, pressure, etc.
(d) __________________________
Malfunctioning equipment
 IV. Accuracy and Precision:
2. Methods of expressing uncertainty:
(a) +/- notation
(b) Accuracy and Precision: “The Dartboard Analogy”
• • •• •
• ••
• •
• •
accurate but precise but accurate not accurate
not precise not accurate and precise not precise
3. Explain how a student can get precise inaccurate
measurements.
 IV. Accuracy and Precision:
B. Accuracy: The closeness of a measurement
(calculation) to the _____
actual (True or Accepted)
value.
It is expressed in terms of _____.
error
O = ________,
Observed your experimental value
Accepted (True) value
A = ________
1. Absolute error (Ea)
a. Ea = O - A
2. Relative error (Er) (Percent % error)
a. Er = O - A x 100 Ea
(E =
r x 100)
A A
Example # 1: A student measures the length of an object
to be 7.45 cm. If the actual length is 8.000 cm, calculate
the absolute and relative error of his measurement.

Ea = O - A = 7.45 cm – 8.000 cm = 0.55 cm

Ea 0.55 cm
Er = x 100 = x 100 = 6.9 %
A 8.000 cm

Question: Explain why relative error is more useful than

absolute error? Give an example.
Example # 2: Calculate the density of the aluminum block.
Volume = l • w • h 4.95
l =______cm
m
D=
V
m 1.25
h =______cm
D=
l×w ×h 53.62
mass = _____________ g

2.95
w =______cm

D = 2.94 g/cm3

If the accepted value for the density of aluminum is 2.70

g/cm3, calculate the absolute and relative error of this value.
Ea = O - A Ea = 0.24 g/cm3

Ea
Er = x 100 Er = 8.9 %
A
Example # 3: Calculate the density of this steel cylinder:
m = ______
65.32 g d
h = ______
2.67 cm
d = ______
2.00 cm h
V = πr2h
m
D=
V
m
D= 2 = 7.79 g/cm3
πr h
7.87
If the accepted value of this cylinder is __________ g/cm3,
calculate the absolute and relative error of this value.
Ea = O - A Ea = 0.08 g/cm3

Ea
Er = x 100 Er = 1 %
A
Example # 4: Calculate the density of this sphere:
m = __________
99.95 g; d = __________
2.90 cm
4 3
V = πr
3
m m 3m
D= D= D=
V 4 3 4 π r3
πr
3
3(99.95 g )
D= = 7.83 g/cm3
4p (1.45cm)
3

7.87 g/cm3,
If the accepted value of this sphere is _______
calculate the absolute and relative error of this value.
Ea = O - A = 7.83 g/cm3 – 7.87 g/cm3 = 0.04 g/cm3
3
Ea 0.04 g/cm
Er = x 100 = 3
x 100 = 0.5 %
A 7.87 g/cm
 After today, you will...
• Elements
• Learn about Properties of matter.
• Mixtures
• Physical properties vs. Chemical properties
• Physical change vs. Chemical change
 Use the back of your Lecture Notes!!!
IQ 1
To determine the density of ethyl alcohol, a
student pipets a 5.00 mL sample into a empty
flask weighing 15.246 g. He finds that the
mass of the flask + ethyl alcohol = 19.171g.
Calculate the density of ethyl alcohol.
m
D=
V

Mass of ethyl alcohol= 19.171 g – 15.246 g = 3.925 g

Volume of ethyl alcohol = 5.00 mL
Density = 3.925 g/5.00 mL = 0.785 g/mL
 V. Elements:
atoms have the same
A. A substance in which all of the ______
number of protons in the nucleus.
J.J. Berzelius (a Swedish chemist): generally given
B. ____________
credit for creating the modern symbols of elements.
protons
C. Atomic number: Number of _________.
118
D. Approximately _____.
E. 90 elements occur _________
naturally (elements 43 & 61 are
man-made)
man-made transuranium elements.
F. 93 and beyond are __________
G. Names & symbols:
C
1. Carbon – _____; Ca
Calcium – _____; Cl
Chlorine – ______
2. 104 and beyond Unnilquadium (Unq)
 V. Elements:
Latin
3. Elements named after _____________ (old).
a. Sodium _____
Na _______________________
Natrium
b. Gold _____
Au _______________________
Aurum
c. Silver Ag
_____ Argentium
_______________________
d. Potassium_____
K _______________________
Kalium
e. Lead _____
Pb _______________________
Plumbum
f. Antimony _____
Sb _______________________
Stibinite
g. Iron _____
Fe _______________________
Ferrum
h. Tungsten _____
W _______________________
Wolfram
i. Tin _____
Sn _______________________
Stannum
j. Copper _____
Cu Cuprum
_______________________
Hg
k. Mercury _____ Hydrogyrum
_______________________
 V. Elements:
H. States of matter
1. solid (s)
Liquid (ℓ)
2. _________
3. gas (g)
Mixture 2 or more elements or compounds physically
I. _________:
joined.
1. Alloy: Brass: Cu + Zn
_______________
Bronze: Cu + Sn
_______________
Compound 2 or more elements chemically bonded to
J. ____________:
one another.
••

Ex. O
••

H H
Cannot be decomposed into simpler
K. Elements: ________________________
substances by chemical or physical means (Excluding
nuclear processes).
 V. Elements:
L. Periodic Table:
Groups or Families (Chemically
1. Vertical columns – ____________________
similar)
Periods
2. Rows - _________
3. Important Group Names:
Alkali metals (except Hydrogen)
a. Group IA(1): _______________
b. Group IIA(2): Alkaline earth metals
Halogens
c. Group VIIA(17): __________
d. Group VIIIA(18): Noble gases
Metals ; Metalloids; ___________
e. _______ Non-metals
solids ( sulfur, carbon, and sodium)
f. Most elements are ________
g. Some are gases, & a few are liquids at room temperature
(i.e. bromine & mercury)
 Noble Gas
2.4

Halogen
Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
 VI. Properties of Matter
A. Substances:
elements or
1. Substances can be either pure _________
___________.
compounds
2. Substances are __________
identified by enumerating
their physical and chemical properties.
3. All specimens of a given substance will have
same chemical and physical properties.
the _______
4. Examples of substances:
elements compounds
Al, C, S, Au NaCl, H2O
 VI. Properties of Matter
B. Mixtures:
substances
1. Mixtures: Two or more pure _____________________.
a. Homogeneous mixtures
uniform, constant composition (solution).
_____________________________________________
b. Heterogeneous mixtures
non-uniform (varying composition).
_____________________________________________
2. Examples of mixtures:
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Salt water, shampoo Granite, sand
C. Physical Properties of substances: Include those features, which
definitely distinguish one substance from another.
m
V ; used for solids.
1. Density- ____________________________
Do
D w ; used for liquids.
2. Specific gravity- ______________________________
3. Hardness- Ability to resist scratching. MOH hardness scale is
used as a basis of comparing the hardness of substances.
soft substances.
a. Low numbers = relatively ________
hard substances.
b. High numbers = relatively ________
MOH scale:
Talc 1 Feldspar 6
Gypsum 2 Quartz 7
Calcite 3 Topaz 8
Fluorite 4 Corundum 9
Apatite 5 Diamond 10
___________
4. Odor-
a. Methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen scent)
Good smells: _____________________________________________
b. Hydrogen sulfide (rotten eggs).
Bad smells: ___________________________________________
5. Cu- Blue-green; Ba- aqua blue.
Color- __________________________________________________
6. Taste- __________________________________________________
Don’t taste: Acids- sour(vinegar); Bases- bitter(soap).
7. Solubility in solvents
Fat soluble vitamins
Example: a. ______
Watersoluble vitamins
b. ______
s, ℓ, g (under certain conditions).
8. Physical state: ______________________________________
M.P. Melting Freezing point
point F.P. _______________
_____________
Boiling point
B.P. _______________
9. Properties of metals-
thin sheet
a. Malleability ______________
wire.
b. Ductility _________
electricity
c. Conduction of heat ___________.
identify a
10. Accidental physical properties: Not used to __________
substance.
mass & volume
Examples: _________________________________
D. Chemical Properties- Describe the ability of a substance to form
other substancesunder given conditions.
___________________
1. Chemical change: A change from one substance into another.
2. Chemical properties may be considered to be a listing of all the
reactions of a substance.
chemical ____________
physical and
E. Changes in Matter: Matter undergoes ____________
chemical
______________ changes.
do work
1. Energy may be defined as the ability to ___________.
2. Forms of energy:
mechanical, heat, light, electrical & chemical
___________________________________________
energy
3. Matter always possesses ______________ in one form or another.
substances is not
F. Physical Change: The composition of a _____________
changed
_____________ retains own identity.
and the substance _________its
Examples: melting
(1) _________ boiling
(2) ________
freezing
(3) _________ cutting
(4) ________
Condensing
(5) ______________
Crushing large crystals into small crystals
(6)_________________________________________
G. Chemical Change: The substance loses its
identity
___________, and the new substance formed has new
chemical
_______________ physical
and _______________ properties.
Example reaction: 2 Mg + O2 à 2 MgO
Evidence of chemical changes:
color
(1) ___________ gas
(2) _________
solid
(3) ___________ heat/temperature change
(4) __________________________

Examples: iron rusting

(1) ___________
photosynthesis
(2) _________________
burning a match
(3) __________________
respiration
(4) ___________
(5) oxidizing metals (oxidation of copper)
__________________________________
spoiling food
(6) _____________
 R. Classification of Matter
MATTER
yes no
Can it be physically
separated?

MIXTURE PURE SUBSTANCE

yes Is the composition no yes Can it be chemically no

uniform? decomposed?

Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Mixture Mixture Compound Element
(solution)

Colloids Suspensions
 Solution Colloids Suspension

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

Small Medium Large

Do not separate Do not separate Separate

Not separated Not separated Separated by
by filtration by filtration filtration

Do not scatter Scatter light Scatter light or

light (Tyndall effect) opaque
 E. Separating Mixtures by Physical
means can be used to separate a mixture
into its pure components
1. A colander is used to separate pasta
from the water in which it was cooked.
This process is a type of filtration.

Figure 2.7, page 46

 2. During a distillation, a liquid is
boiled to produce a vapor that is then
condensed into a liquid, takes advantage
of different boiling points.
NaCl boils at 1415 oC

Figure 2.8, page 47

3. Magnetism

magnet
4. Components of dyes such as ink
may be separated by paper
chromatography.
5. Decanting
 Physical or Chemical?
A physical change does not alter the composition
or identity of a substance.
sugar dissolving
ice melting
in water

A chemical change alters the composition or

identity of the substance(s) involved.

hydrogen burns in
air to form water

1.6
 After today, you will...
• Learn about The Atomic Theory.
• Learn the names of key scientists and
the work in the journey to
understanding the atom.
 I. Atomic Theory
“_______
Matter is composed of tiny _________
particles called _______.”
atoms
Chart: Matter

Substance

compound elements atoms

nucleus electrons
p+ n

3 quarks 3 quarks
 I. Historical Perspective:

A. Early Ideas
1. Democritus (400 B.C.)
a. Greek philosopher …
________
b. indivisible_________
Matter is composed of __________ particles called
atoms.
c. indivisible
“atomos” means ___________.
d. His theory was forgotten because …
1) ______ Aristotle disagreed.
Plato and _________
2) experimental _________
He had no ______________ evidence
3) theory not ____________.
a) He used ________ experiments
2. Alchemy
life
a. 2 goals: 1) Elixir of ____.
gold
2) Transmutation: Lead into ___________.
b. Importance of alchemists is that they shifted from
experimentation
thought to observation and _______________!
________
3. 1500’s – 1700’s: With the development of true
scientific methods, scientists discovered many
_________
important things about matter.
a. Such as: electricity, magnetism, chemical reactions;
this information would help establish important scientific
Atomic
principles that would be used to develop the _______
Theory.
4. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
John Dalton re-proposes the atomic
a. ______
theory and supports his ideas
_______
with chemical behavior
________. (Look on study guide for
postulates).
b. 3 Important Laws Dalton based his Atomic Theory:
1) Law ofConservation
____________ of Mass: (Antoine Lavoisier 1789).
Mass is neither created
________ nor destroyed
_________.
2 H 2 + O2 2 H2O (Joseph Proust 1799) (Proust’s law)
Definite Compound
2) Law of Constant Proportions (________):
always contains the same elements in the same
proportions
___________ by mass. H = 1 g 2 g : 16 g
Example: H2O O = 16 g 8 g : 64 g
John Dalton When two
3) Law of Multiple Proportions (____________):
elements can form multiple compounds, the ratio of masses
will remain constant for each compound.
Example: CO : CO2
C = 12 g 12 g : 16 g (CO)
O = 16 g 12 g : 32 g (CO2)
1. Postulates:
a. Elements are composed of small, indivisible
atoms
particles called __________.
b. Each element is made up of atoms that are
identical to each other.
__________
c. Chemical reactions are simple rearrangements
whole number
of atoms in small, _____________ratios.
2. Problems with the Atomic Theory?
Atoms are divisible.
a. _________________________
Atoms of an element are not necessarily
b. _______________________________________
_______________________________________
identical because of isotopes
5. Thomson Model of the Atom Theory
J.J. Thomson discovered that atoms are made of
a. ____
particles
________, in other words they are made of smaller
_______ things.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
b. J.J. did experiments with ___________________
and he found that:
electrons
1) Cathode rays are ___ particles that he called _________.
indivisible
2) This showed that atoms are not __________!
2.2
Cathode Ray Tube

2.2
 charge to massratio of the electron.
3) He determined the _______________
e
= constant
me
neutral
4) He knew atoms were _________
so he proposed a model of the
atom called the
Plum Pudding Model
___________________.
e-
The plums were __.

Millikan
5) Robert A. ________
determined the charge
e- with his
of the ___
drop experiment.
oil ______
 Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C

e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g 2.2
6. Rutherford Model of the Atom Theory
radioactivity led to further advances in
a. The discovery of ____________
the atomic theory.
b. New Zealand physicist Ernest B.Rutherford
__________ and his
associates (Geiger & Marsden) used radioactive ___ a
atom
particles to probe the _____.
+ charged nucleus
c. He discovered the ____________________with alpha
the ______
scattering experiment.
d. Diagram of the experiment: (See Above)
e. His calculations regarding the deflected particles indicated
that atoms have asmall + charged
_____, __________,
“massive” nucleus
__________________.
mile in diameter, the nucleus would be
f. If the atom were a _____
the size of a baseball
________…yet the nucleus contains virtually
mass In other words most of the atom is
all of the atom’s ______.
empty_______.
made up of ______ space
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

a particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)
g. He proposed the still popular (yet wrong) planetary model:
orbit the positive ________.
1) electrons ______ nucleus
planets around the _____.
2) like the ________ sun
h. Problems with a planetary atomic model;
It could not explain…
collapse classical physics theory says that a
1) Electron ________:
charged particle (like an electron) moving in a circular orbit
lose energy and slow down, eventually
would ______
orbit and _______
collapsing out of its ______ crash into the
nucleus
________.
chemicalbehavior.
2) Periodic _________
line spectra.
3) Atomic _____
Bohr model of the atom:
7. The _____ proposed by Danish
Neils Bohr would first explain (sort of) some of
physicist ___________
these problems. Only the H spectrum
 After today, you will...

• Learn about Atomic Structure.

• Understand how to calculate the
number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
• Understand the difference between
mass # and atomic #.
• Understand isotopes and ions and what
makes them different.
 II. Atomic Structure:
A. 3 particles
1. Proton (p)
nucleus
a. located in the ________
b. unit charge = +__1
c. mass = 1.67265 x 10-24 g (Proton)
d. relative mass = __1 (relative to the other particles)
e. charge = + 1.6022 x 10-19 C (Coulomb)
electron
f. the mass is 1,836 x the mass of a _______.
g. discovered by Rutherford
___________
h. made of __3 quarks:
2 2
+ e u u + e (Proton
3 3
1 )
d - e
3
2. Electron (e)
energy levels (shells).
a. located outside the nucleus in ________
-1
b. unit charge = ___
c. mass = 9.11 x 10-28 g (9.10953 x 10-28 g)
0 (tiny compared to n & p)
d. relative mass = __
e. charge = -1.6022 x 10-19 C (Coulomb)
proton
f. the mass is 1/1,836 the mass of a _______.
g. discovered by Thomson
__________.
3. Neutron (n)
a. located in the nucleus
_______.
0 “neutral”
b. unit charge = __
c. mass = 1.67495 x 10-24 g slightly more massive than a
proton.
1
d. relative mass = __
e. discovered by __________
Chadwick in 1932 (Why so late?
No charge – Harder to detect
_____________________________)
3 quarks:
f. made of ___
2 1
+ e d - e (Neutr
3 3
u 1 on)
d - e
3
B. Nucleus
1. The central core
____ of the atom.
2. Contains the neutrons and protons:
nucleon
_______ = a particle in the nucleus (n or p)
3. Nuclide
_______ = the nucleus of an atom.
mass
4. Contains almost all the _________ of the atom.
5. Has a small total atomic
_____ volume compared to the _____
Astro dome
volume. (Ping pong ball in the ____________).
1013-1014 g/cm3!
6. Density of nucleus = _________
nucleus Why some nuclei
7. Radionuclide: an unstable ________.
radioactive
stable and others are unstable? (___________)
8. Nuclear stability is due to…
a. Nuclear binding energy (strong force)
__________________
*Holds protons and neutrons together.
b. n/p ratio = stable atoms have a favorable n/p ratio.
Examples: Larger atoms Smaller atoms
n>p 56 n=p 4
e.g. Fe e.g. He
26 2
 8. Nuclear Stability
Belt of Stability (Figure 1)

Figure 1: Stable and

unstable nuclides •
C. Atomic Size
1 – 5 Å or 100 – 500 pm
1. Atomic diameters = _______________________
10 -10 m 10 -12 m
1 Angstrom = _______;1 picometer = ______
10-12 chu = 1 picachu
2. Diameter of atomic nuclei = 10 -4 Å = 10-14 m
_______________
3. How many carbon atoms are there in a pencil line
1.00 inch long? (radius = 0.77
Angstroms)(Assume 1 atom wide).
1.00 inx 1 m x 1 Å x 1 atom
39.37in 10-10 m 1.54 Å

= 1.65 x 108 atoms

III. Mass Relationships in atoms
A. Atomic Number (Z)
1. Equal to the number of protons
_______.
a. Equals the number of ________ neutral atom
electronsin a _____________.
1) Example: a) Oxygen
O 8 p+
8 e-
b) Oxide ion (ions: charged particles)
8 p +
O2-
10 e-
element has a specific number of
b. Each type of ________
identity
protons…this determines the element’s ________.
 B. Mass Number (A)
1. Equals the number of protons
_______ + the number of
neutrons
_________.
a. It is the number of nucleons
_________.
2. # of neutrons =
mass # − atomic # (n = A − Z)
____________________________________
3. Correct notation:

X
Mass # A Charge

Atomic # Z
 atomic number but
C. Isotopes: Atoms with the same _______
mass numbers.
different _____
protons
1. Same number of ___________
neutrons
2. Different number of _____________.
mass #
3. Isotopes are named by their _______.
a. Carbon-14 b. Uranium-238
14 238
C U
6 92
4. Example: The three isotopes of Hydrogen
5. Example: The three oxygen isotopes
chargedatoms (or groups of atoms) that have lost
6. Ions: ________
or gained electrons.
Examples:
18 27 3+
O 2- (gained 2 e-) Al (lost 3 e-)
8 13
 n=A-Z
Protium Deuterium Tritium
1 p+, 0 n, 1 e- 1 p+, 1 n, 1 e- 1 p+, 2 n, 1 e-

15 16 18
O O O
8 8 8
(7 n) (8 n) (10 n)
 After today, you will...
• Learn about the “5” different types of
Radioactivity.
• Learn to determine the new isotope
formed resulting from the specific type
of radiation that occurred.
 IQ 2
1. Who shifted the trend of science from thought to
experimentation? Alchemists
2. Who discovered the charge of the electron and
what experiment was used?
Robert A. Millikan/Millikan oil drop experiment
3. Who discovered the protons in the nucleus and
what experiment was used?
Rutherford/Gold foil experiment
4. What is the circumference (in inches) of a 0.35 lb
lead ball if the specific gravity is 11.3?

3.7 inches
 Nuclear Chemistry:
p +
n + ___).
Chemistry of the nucleus (___
A. Radioactivity: Thespontaneous
____________ emission of particles
_________
Electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus.
or EMR (_________________________)
1. Henri Becquerel: Discovered radioactivity (1896) using
photographic plates and uranium ore.
____________________
2. Types of Radioactivity: 4
a He
a. Alpha (_____): Nucleus of a helium atom. (_________)
2
b
b. Beta (_____): High speed electron emission from the
0
e 0
nucleus -1
________. (_________) g
c. g 0
Gamma ray (______): Photon of high energy light. (____)
3. Penetrating power of radiation:
a. paper
Alpha can go through ______.
b. 3 mm Al
Beta particles can go through _________.

g
c. 3 cm Pb
Gamma rays can go through __________.
b a
________>________>________
B. Nuclear equations: Must obey Law of Conservation of
mass (top line) and Law of Conservation of _______
______ charge
(bottom line). 4
He
2
1. Alpha emission (__________)
236 4 232
U® He + Th
92 2 90

226 4 222
Ra ® He + Rn
88 2 86

210 4 206
Po ® He + Pb
84 2 82
 0 0
e b
-1 -1
2. Beta emission (________or________)
nucleus
a. Electron is formed in the ________.
neutrons
b. Nucleus has too many _________.
1 1 0
n® p + e
0 1 -1 proton which
c. Neutron spontaneously becomes a _________,
causes a high energy electron to be ejected from the
nucleus.
14 0 14
C® e + N
6 -1 7
6 p+ 7 p+
8n 7n
Net: n ® p + e-
3 0 3
H® e + He
1 -1 2
 0 0
e b
+1 1
3. Positron emission: (________or________)
a. Positron is formed in the ________.
nucleus
b. Nucleus has too many _________.
protons
1 1 0
p® n + e
1 0 +1
c. Proton spontaneously becomes a _______,
neutron which
causes a high energy positron to be ejected from the
nucleus.

40 0 40
K® e + Ar
19 1 18
 0
g
4. Gamma emission (_________) 0
excitedenergy state (excess energy
a. Nucleus is in an _______
from another decay).
gamma ray is emitted.
b. As nucleus loses energy, a ____________
c. Asterisk (*) is used to symbolize
excited energy level
____________________.
64 0 64
Cu ®
*
g + Cu
29 0 29

22 0 22
Ne ®
*
g + Ne
10 0 10
5. Electron Capture
a. An electron from the innermost energy level “falls” into
the nucleus.
b. Electron capture is more common with large
_____ nuclei.
positronemission.
c. The product is the same as that of ________

82 0 82
Rb + e® Kr
37 -1 36
 6. General examples:
a. b, b decay
238 0 238 0 238
U® e + Np ® e + Pu
92 -1 93 -1 94
b. Uranium decay series: Radon-222 - a,a,b,b,a decay
Uranium in soil
1 2 3
4 0
222
86 Rn ® 2
He + 218
84 Po ® 4
He +
214
82 Pb ® - 1e +
2
4 5
0
214
83 Bi ® e + 214 Po ® 4 210
He + 82 Pb
-1 84 2
Half-lives: 1. 3.8 d 2. 3 min. 3. 27 min. 4. 20 min.
5. 180 μs
210
82 Pb = 22y Removed from lungs
 Bad Company
Corrupts Good
Character!
Pick your friends
wisely!
 After today, you will understand...
• Stability of Nuclei
• Binding Energy
• Half life
 D. Nuclear Stability
1. Belt of Stability (Figure 1)

n
io
n®p + e-

is s
m
β - emission

-e
α

p®n + e+
e- capture
β + emission Figure 1: Stable and
unstable nuclides •
 C. Decay Series:
A radioactive decay often results
daughter nucleus that
in a ___________
is also radioactive. A
decay ______
radioactive ________ series
refers to successive decays
which starts with one parent
isotope and proceeds through
a number of daughter
isotopes. The series ends
when a stable,
non-radioactive
______________ isotope is
produced.
2. Binding Energy per Nucleon versus Atomic Mass (Figure 2)
Figure2: A plot of nuclear binding energy per
nucleon versus mass number. Nuclei with large
binding energies per nuclei are the most stable.

•
•
•
 3. Why are some nuclei stable and others are not?
Rule 1: The greater the binding energy per nucleon (energy
holding the nucleus together), the greater the stability.
(See Figure 2). 56
Which isotope is the most stable, according to Fig. 2? ______ Fe
Rule 2: Nuclei of low atomic numbers with a 1:1 ratio of
neutrons to protons are very stable. (See Figure 1)
Example: Carbon-12 Helium-4
12 4
+
C 6 p , 6n He 2 p+, 2n
6 2
β -
a. Isotopes decay with ___.
α
b. Isotopes decay with ___. Refer to Figure 1
β+, E.C.
c. Isotopes decay with ______.
** Radioactive isotopes decay until they reach the “Belt of
Stability.”
even
Rule 3: The most stable nuclei tend to contain an ______
number of both protons and neutrons.
Example: Iron-56 56 Oxygen-16 16
Fe 26 p , 30n
+
O 8 p+, 8n
26 8
D. How is Binding Energy determined?
1. Nuclear binding energy: The energy required to break up
neutrons
protons and ________
a nucleus into its component _______
(nucleons).
2. Binding energy comes from the mass defect of the nucleus.
3. Mass Defect: The total mass of the stable nucleus
less than the sum of the masses of the nucleons. The
_________
“missing” mass has converted into energy! (____________)
E = mc2
Note: When Masses of subatomic particles
calculating e- 0.00054858 amu NOTE: The
masses, p+ 1.007276 amu whole atom is
include the NOT the sum
n 1.008665 amu of its parts.
mass of the
electrons (p+ + e-) 1.007825 amu MISSING
because the MASS
mass of the Mass defect = Atomic mass of the isotope - S
whole atom mass of subatomic particles.
includes
electrons. Relationship between mass and energy: E =
mc2
4. Information for conversions between mass and
energy:
kg × m 2
1 g = 6.022 x 10 amu
23 1 Joule (J) = 2
c = 3.00 x 108 m/s E = mc2 s
Example 1: Determine the energy in Joules of a mass defect
of 1.00 amu.
1g 1 kg
1.00 amu x x = 1.6606 x 10 -27 kg
23
6.022 x 10 amu 103 g
E = mc2 = (1.6606 x 10-27 kg) (3.00 x 108 m/s)2
kg × m 2
= 1.49 x 10-10 s2
= Joule (J)

\ 1 amu = 1.49 x 10-10J

 Binding Energy, Cont’d
Example 2: Determine the mass defect of Fluorine-19.
(The atomic mass is 18.9984 amu).
Mass of 199F á 9p + ,10n, 9e -
+ æ1 ö
9p + 9e = 9çç H ÷÷ = 9 (1.007825 amu) = 9.070425
-

è1 ø
10(n) = 10(1.008665 amu) = 10.086650
+_____________

19.157075
Mass Defect = 18.9984
- 19.157075
_________
- 0.1587 amu
b. Calculate the binding energy in J (use conversion factor
between mass and energy). (-) = energy is released
1.49 x 10-10 J
- 0.1587 amu x = - 2.365 x 10-11 J
1 amu

c. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon.

2.365 x 10-11 J J
= 1.245 x 10 -12

19 nucleon

5. As nuclear binding energy per nucleon increases, the

increases
stability of the nucleus ___________.
6. The56element with the greatest binding energy per nucleon
26 Fe
is ______.

Mass defect ↑, Binding energy ↑, Stability ↑

 half of the
E. Half Life: The average time it takes for _____
unstable atoms in a sample to decay.
1. Exponential decrease of atoms
Independent of the amount of the sample
_____________________________________.

x
N æ1ö
= ç ÷
No è2ø
 E. Half- Life
2. How much of a 500 g sample of Uranium-235 would be left
after five half-lives? 5
æ 1ö 1
Fraction left after 5 half-lives = ç ÷ =
x è2ø 32
N æ1ö
= ç ÷
No è2ø æ1ö
ç ÷(500 g ) = 15.6 g
(x = # of half-lives) è 32 ø
3. A 16.00 mg sample of Radon-222 decays to 0.250 mg after
24 hours. Determine the half-life.
16→ 8 → 4 → 2 → 1 → 0.5 → 0.25 = 6 half lives
x
0.250 æ 1 ö
24 h =ç ÷ 0.0156 = 0.5x
= 4 h = 4.0 h 16 è2ø log 0.0156 = x log 0.5
6
-1.806 = x(-0.301)
x=6
4. The half-life of molybdenum-99 is 67 hours. How much
of a 1.000 mg sample is left after 335 hours?
x
335 N æ1ö
=5 = ç ÷
67 No è2ø
5
N æ1ö
=ç ÷
1.000 è 2 ø
5
æ1ö
ç ÷ (1.000) = 0.03125 mg
è2ø
N = 0.03125 mg
 After today, you will...
• Transmutation
• Fusion
• Fission
• Reactors
 IQ 3
1. Balance the following equations:
237
93 Np ® 4
2 He + 91 Pa
233

212 0 212
84 Po + e ® Bi
-1 83
2. Determine the half life of a sample that decays from
300 g to 37.5 g in 10 h.
300 g ÷ 2 = 150 g ÷ 2 = 75 g ÷ 2 = 37.5 g
1 2 3
3 T1/2 = 10 h T1/2 = 3.3 h or 3 h 20 min
 F. Transmutation Reactions
1. Bombardment: Bombard a target nucleus with other
particle
______ or nuclei. 4 0 1 1 2
a b n r d
Example particles: 2 1 0 1
___,___,___,___,___ 1
2. Particle + nucleus usually more than one
product
_______ formed.
3. Examples:
1
(a) 7 N +
14
n ®
0
1 14
1
C H+ 6

(b) 4 Be + 4 He ® 1 n + 12C
9
*Chadwick – Discovery
2 0 6 of the neutron
(c)
14
7 N + 24 He ® 11 r + 17
O *Rutherford (1919)-First
8 artificial transmutation
(d)
208
82 Pb +3686 Kr ® 01 n + 293
118 Uuo
4. Shorthand notation:
2 3
1H H
(d = deuterium = ; T = tritium = )

( )
1
(a) 14 1 1 14
7 N 0 n,1 H 6C

(b) 9
4 Be(a , n ) C 12
6

(c)
14
7 N (a , r ) O 17
8

(d)
208
82 Pb ( 86
36 Kr , n ) 293
118Uuo
 H. Fusion: Combining smaller nuclei to
larger nuclei.
form _______
1. The combining of small nuclei to form larger nuclei increases
binding energy per nucleon.
the _______________
increases
Therefore, stability _________.(See Figure 2: binding energy)
56
Fe
2. Nuclei smaller than _____________ will give off energy when
they fuse together.
3. Example: Sun reactions (made up mostly of H and He; temp in
interior »15 million °C)
2
1
1 H+ H® e +
1
1
0
1 1
______
H
3
1
1
H+ H ®
2
1
He
______
2
4
3
2 He+ He ®2 H + ______
3
2 2
1
He
1
4. When products are formed in a fusion reaction, mass is
lost This mass defect
_____. energy
______ turns into ________.
temperature
5. Fusion reactions take place at very high _____________.
thermonuclear rxns
6. They are often called ______________________.
7. Reasons for high temperature:
repel one another.
a. Positive nuclei ______
KE or speed needed to fuse the elements to
b. High ___
overcome the repulsion.
KE = High temperature (Millions of degrees
c. High ___
Celsius)

Fusion reactors? Cold fusion

 Nuclear Fusion

Fusion Reaction Energy Released

2H + 2H 3H + 1H
1 1 1 1 6.3 x 10-13 J
2H
1 + 13H 4He
2 + 10n 2.8 x 10-12 J
6Li + 12H 2 42He 3.6 x 10-12 J
3

Tokamak magnetic
plasma
confinement

23.6
 I. Fission: broken into smaller
Large nucleus is ________
nuclei + one or more neutrons
________.

1. Example: n + U ®3 n + Ba +
1 235 1 141 92
0 92 0 56 Kr 36
2. Many fission products are formed. More than 30 different
elements have been found among the products.
3. Diagram 1 235 143 90 1
n+ U ® Xe + Sr + 3 n
0 92 54 38 0
 neutrons formed in the initial stages can induce
4. The _________
fission in other .
_______
5. Nuclear fission takes place for elements with very large
56
nuclei. Elements larger than ______ Fe can undergo fission.
(See Figure 2).
6. Practical applications of fission: naturally occurring
235 239
U
_______ and artificial Pu
_____.
7. The mass of the starting material is ___ > the sum of the
masses of the products. The mass defect (missing mass)
energy
turns into ________.
self-sustaining sequence of
8. Nuclear chain reaction: a _______________
nuclear fission reactions.
Critical mass: the minimum mass of fissionable material
self-sustaining chain
needed for a ________________
reaction.
Subcritical mass: Less than the minimum mass. Too many
neutrons will escape (will not be absorbed by the fissionable
no chain rxn will occur.
material), so ___
9. Applications:
a. Atomic Bomb: Self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
i. Must contain ___> critical mass of Uranium-235 (or
Plutonium-239).
separate places before
ii. Critical mass must be kept in _________
detonation!
iii. Neutrons originate from a source at the center of the
initiate the rxn.
bomb ________
b. Nuclear Reactors: Controlled fission reaction. (Currently
19.7% of electricity in the U.S.).
1) Advantage: Source of energy other than fossil fuels. No
global warming gases.
2) Disadvantages: Produces highly radioactive products.
a) Strontium-90 (radioactive) = chemically like calcium
_________.
bones
(concentrates in the ______).
thyroidcancer.
b)Iodine-131 = _______
(within 10 mile radius of nuclear power plants --> iodine pills)
J. Nuclear reactors: A device in which the controlled
fission of a certain substance is used to produce new
_______
substances and Energy
_______!!!
1. __________:
Chain rxn Using the neutrons released during
fission to cause other nuclei to undergo fission.
chain reaction keeps on going once it
2. Self-sustaining ______
has begun.
3. The neutrons released in a typical fission can be
used to cause other nuclei to fission. If enough
_____
235
U or 239
_____
Pu is available, it is possible to
self-sustaining chain rxn The
create a ______________________.
minimum amount of fissionable material required
for a self-sustaining chain reaction is known as the
critical _____.
_______ mass
The critical mass depends on a number of factors,
among the factors:
Moderator
a. ___________: slows neutrons down which
increases the # of favorable collisions. The most
graphite
common are ________(Chernobyl) and
Heavy water
_____________: (D2O)(Used in Canada)(No need
for enriched uranium).
b. Fuel type ie. 235U & 239Pu
__________
c. Enriched fuel The % of fission material is increased (by
_______________:
diffusion or centrifugation)(Natural U = 0.7 % 235U).
d. In Nuclear
________ Reactors
________ the chain reaction is controlled and the
energy is released gradually, In an “atomic bomb”, the chain
reaction is uncontrolled and the energy release occurs in a few
moments of time.
4. Nuclear
_______ Power Plant
a. Control rods
_____________(Cadmium/Boron) = Absorb neutrons (Stops
rxn—Applying the brakes).
b. Many use Uranium-235 for fuel; fuel rods contain fissionable
material.
c. Where does the electricity come from? (diagram)
Fission
_______ occurs in the nuclear reactor core energy_______ is
produced heat causes liquid water to turn to steam _______
turbine to turn _electricity
causes the ________ _________ is generated steam
is turned back into liquid water in the condenser
__________ _(which uses
cold water from a river, lake, or ocean) warm water (non-
radioactive) is sent back into the river, lake or ocean.
Demo: Turn turbine — electricity is generated.
Nuclear Fission

Schematic
diagram of a
nuclear
fission reactor

23.5
5. Breeder
_______ Reactor: One in which fissionable material is
produced at a greater rate than it is consumed.
239
238
U into _____
a. Converts _____ Pu
238 1 239 0 239 0 239
92 U + 0 n ® 92 U ® -1 b + 93 Np ® -1 b + 94 Pu
neutron come from?235U
b. Where does the _________
6. Problems of nuclear power.
a. Thermal pollutions: Hot water exits into the ocean.
b. Leakage of fission fragments: Highly radioactive.
Examples: Chernobyl (Ukraine), Three Mile Island (USA)
c. Spent fuel disposal: Yucca Mtn, NV.
d. Only lasts for 30 years. Why?
radioactivity
i. The build up of ___________.
weakens
ii. The structural materials __________.
 K. Radioactive Dating:
1. If the half-life of a radioactive isotope is known, an
age of an object often times can be
estimate of the ____
made. For example, the ratio of Carbon-14
__________ to carbon-
12 in a living object is relatively constant. However, a
stops ____________
living object ______ absorbing carbon-14 when it
dies. Thus, knowing the half-life of carbon-14
5730 yrs. and the object’s 14C/12C ratio, an estimate of
(_________)
the object’s age can be made.
Libby won the 1960 Nobel Prize in chemistry
Willard ________
for development in 1947 of radiocarbon dating.
2. Formation of Carbon-14:
Cosmic Ray Bombardment (p+n)
_______________________________

14 1 14 1
N + n ® C + H
7 0 6 1
3. Beta minus decay of Carbon-14:
14 0 14 40 0 40
C ® e + N K ® e + Ar
6 -1 7 19 1 18
50,000
4. Useful for dating objects about __________ years old.
Potassium-40
5. How about older things? ___________________
238
6. Geologists determine the amount of ______U remaining in a
rock relative to the amount of daughter nuclei present to
estimate the passage of time since the rock solidified from
molten material.
 Radioisotopes in Medicine
• 1 out of every 3 hospital patients will undergo a nuclear
medicine procedure
• 24Na, t½ = 14.8 hr, b emitter, blood-flow tracer
• 131I, t½ = 14.8 hr, b emitter, thyroid gland activity
• 123I, t½ = 13.3 hr, g-ray emitter, brain imaging
• 18F, t½ = 1.8 hr, b+ emitter, positron emission tomography
• 99mTc, t½ = 6 hr, g-ray emitter, imaging agent

Brain images
with 123I-labeled
compound

23.7