Seven Types of Ambiguity
Sir William Empson (27 September 1906 – 15 April 1984) was an English literary critic and poet, widely
influential for his practice of closely reading literary works, a practice fundamental to New Criticism. His
best-known work is his first, Seven Types of Ambiguity, published in 1930.
Jonathan Bate has written[1] that the three greatest English literary critics of the 18th, 19th and 20th
centuries are Johnson, Hazlitt and Empson, "not least because they are the funniest".
He became a pivotal figure in the field of New Criticism with the publication of his seminal book "Seven
Types of Ambiguity" in 1930, which explored the complexities and multiplicities of meaning in poetic
language.
Critical focus
Empson's critical work is largely concerned with early and pre-modern works in the English literary canon.
He was a significant scholar of Milton (see below), Shakespeare (Essays on Shakespeare) and
Elizabethan drama (Essays on Renaissance Literature, Volume 2: The Drama). He published a monograph,
Faustus and the Censor, on the subject of censorship and the authoritative version of Marlowe's Doctor
Faustus. He was also an important scholar of the metaphysical poets John Donne (Essays on
Renaissance Literature, Volume 1: Donne and the New Philosophy) and Andrew Marvell.
Occasionally Empson brought his critical genius to bear on modern writers; Using Biography, for instance,
contains papers on Henry Fielding's Tom Jones as well as the poems of W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot, and
Joyce's Ulysses.
Seven Types of Ambiguity is a work of literary criticism by William Empson which was first published in
1930. It was one of the most influential critical works of the 20th century and was a key foundation work
in the formation of the New Criticism school.[1] The book is organized around seven types of ambiguity
that Empson finds in the poetry he discusses. The second edition (revised) was published by Chatto &
Windus, London, 1947, and there was another revised edition in 1953. The first printing in America was by
New Directions in 1947.
Seven Types of Ambiguity ushered in New Criticism in the United States. The book is a guide to a style of
literary criticism practiced by Empson. An ambiguity is represented as a puzzle to Empson. We have
ambiguity when "alternative views might be taken without sheer misreading." Empson reads poetry as an
exploration of conflicts within the author.
Seven types
1.The first type of ambiguity is the metaphor, that is, when two things are said to be alike which have
different properties. This concept is similar to that of metaphysical conceit.
2.Two or more meanings are resolved into one. Empson characterizes this as using two different
metaphors at once.
3.Two ideas that are connected through context can be given in one word simultaneously.
4.Two or more meanings that do not agree but combine to make clear a complicated state of mind in the
author.
5.When the "author is discovering his idea in the act of writing..." Empson describes a simile that lies
halfway between two statements made by the author.
6.When a statement says nothing and the readers are forced to invent a statement of their own, most
likely in conflict with that of the author.
7.Two words that within context are opposites that expose a fundamental division in the author's mind.
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In "Seven Types of Ambiguity," William Empson delves into the intricate and multifaceted nature of
meaning in poetry, revealing how ambiguity—often seen as a flaw—is in fact a powerful and enriching
element of literature. Empson brilliantly dissects seven distinct forms of ambiguity, each contributing to
the layered complexity and emotional resonance of poetic works. Through his keen analysis and
insightful examples, Empson not only illuminates the nuanced interplay between words and meanings but
also invites readers to explore the depths of literary interpretation. This groundbreaking study, hailed as a
monumental contribution to literary criticism, captivates with its intellectual rigor and passion for
uncovering the hidden dimensions in poetry, making it an essential read for anyone intrigued by the
limitless potential of language.
Chapter 1 | Introduction to Empson's Concept of Ambiguity in
Literature
William Empson's seminal work, "Seven Types of Ambiguity," occupies a pivotal role in the field of literary
criticism. Empson, a distinguished British literary critic and poet, brought a fresh perspective to the
analysis of literary texts through his exploration of ambiguity in language. His contributions extend
beyond the confines of "Seven Types of Ambiguity," as he played a crucial role in shaping the New
Criticism movement and influenced subsequent generations of critics with his rigorous analytical
methods and insightful interpretations.
The central thesis of "Seven Types of Ambiguity" revolves around the notion that ambiguity, far from
being a flaw in a literary work, is a potent tool for enriching the text. Empson posits that ambiguity allows
for multiple interpretations, thereby enhancing the depth and complexity of literature. Through his
detailed examination of seven distinct types of ambiguity, Empson illustrates how ambiguous language
can open various dimensions of meaning, each contributing to the overall richness of a work. By
dissecting these types, Empson shows that ambiguity is not merely an accidental byproduct of language
but a deliberate and sophisticated strategy employed by writers to engage and challenge their readers.
Empson's exploration begins with the simplest forms of ambiguity and progresses to more complex and
layered types, each unveiling new avenues for understanding how language functions in literature. This
methodical approach underscores the importance of ambiguity in deepening a reader's engagement with
a text. By recognizing and appreciating the multifaceted nature of language, readers can uncover hidden
meanings and appreciate the intricate craftsmanship behind a literary work.
In summary, the introduction to Empson's concept of ambiguity in literature highlights his significant
contributions to literary criticism and sets the stage for an in-depth analysis of the various ways in which
ambiguity can enrich literary texts. Empson's argument underscores the value of embracing ambiguity as
a means of gaining a deeper and more nuanced understanding of literature.
Chapter 2 | First Type - Simple Metaphor and Double Meanings in
Literature
William Empson's "Seven Types of Ambiguity" delves deeply into the concept of how language can serve
multiple purposes and evoke varied interpretations. The first type of ambiguity he explores is centered on
simple metaphor and double meanings in literature. Empson begins by explaining how a word or phrase
can naturally possess multiple meanings, creating layers of interpretation that enrich the reader's
experience.
For instance, in poetry, a single word can be employed to signify both its literal meaning and a
metaphorical extension simultaneously. This dual capacity adds depth to the poem, making it resonate
on different emotional and intellectual levels. Empson discusses how poets judiciously select words that
encapsulate more than one idea, thereby allowing their works to be interpreted in several ways.
To illustrate this point, Empson presents examples from well-known literary works, demonstrating how
simple ambiguities function. In Shakespeare's "Hamlet," the famous line "to be or not to be" is rife with
simple ambiguity. The phrase can be read straightforwardly as a contemplation of existence versus non-
existence. However, it can also be seen as a reflection on action versus inaction, thereby adding layers of
complexity to Hamlet's philosophical dilemma.
Another example Empson uses is from Robert Frost's poem "The Road Not Taken." The title itself offers a
simple ambiguity—does "the road not taken" imply regret over the path not chosen, or does it suggest an
opportunity to appreciate the uniqueness of the chosen path? Frost's choice of words invites readers to
ponder multiple potential meanings, enhancing their engagement with the poem through personal
reflection.
These simple ambiguities are not random but are deliberately crafted by authors to invite a broader scope
of reader interaction. They compel readers to pause and consider the weight and implications of the
various meanings encoded in the text. This multiplicity of interpretation not only deepens the reader's
connection to the work but also allows for a richer, more nuanced understanding of its themes and
messages.
Empson posits that the effect of simple ambiguities on reader interpretation and engagement is profound.
When a word or phrase can be parsed in multiple ways, it stimulates an active engagement from the
reader, who must navigate these possibilities to derive personal meaning. This active engagement is
central to the literature’s power, transforming reading into a dynamic process of discovery and personal
insight.
By presenting these examples and analyses, Empson sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration of
ambiguity in literature. He establishes that even the most straightforward forms of ambiguity, as
evidenced by simple metaphor and double meanings, significantly contribute to the depth and richness of
literary texts. Through this intricate layering of meaning, literature transcends mere storytelling to
become an evocative and multifaceted art form.
Chapter 3 | Second Type - Ambiguous Comparisons and Analogies
The second type of ambiguity in William Empson's "Seven Types of Ambiguity" pertains to ambiguous
comparisons and analogies, where two or more things are compared, resulting in multiple interpretations.
This form of ambiguity arises when literary texts juxtapose different entities or ideas, creating a space for
varied interpretations depending on the reader’s perspective and context.
Empson illustrates this type of ambiguity by discussing instances where comparisons are not
straightforward but layered with complexity. For example, when a poet likens an emotion to a natural
element, such as comparing love to a rose, the comparison opens a realm of diverse interpretations. A
rose can symbolize beauty, fragility, passion, or even pain due to its thorns. Therefore, the reader’s
interpretation can vary widely based on their personal experiences and existing knowledge.
In poetry, especially, such comparisons are prevalent. Consider William Shakespeare's famous sonnet,
"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" The comparison between the beloved and a summer's day is
ambiguous because it encompasses a range of attributes – beauty, warmth, vibrancy, and transience –
each carrying different emotional weights. Depending on each reader's interaction with the imagery, the
beloved might be perceived in numerous ways, either wholly embodying or merely hinting at these
qualities.
This ambiguous use of analogy extends to prose as well. In Emily Brontë's "Wuthering Heights," the
character Heathcliff is often described with comparisons that evoke both human and animalistic qualities.
By describing Heathcliff with such dual nature analogies, Brontë leaves his true essence open to reader
interpretation. Depending on how one views the animalistic traits within the human context, Heathcliff
can be seen anywhere from a tortured soul driven by uncontrollable passion to a primal force of nature
devoid of civil restraint.
The effect of ambiguous comparisons in literature relies heavily on the unique interplay between the text
and the reader’s perspective. Each reader brings their own set of knowledge, experiences, and emotional
intelligence to the interpretation process, making every reading experience distinct. For instance, when
T.S. Eliot employs Wasteland imagery, the bleak comparisons can be read through various lenses, either
as reflections of post-war disillusionment or as broader commentary on human existence.
Empson emphasizes that this type of ambiguity serves to create a richer, more textured literary
experience. By engaging with texts through multiple potential interpretations, readers can uncover layers
of meaning that might otherwise remain hidden. This interplay between the static text and the dynamic
interpretation ensures that literature remains a living art form, constantly evolving with each reader's
engagement.
In conclusion, ambiguous comparisons and analogies are integral to literary ambiguity, effectively
broadening the scope for interpretation
Chapter 4 | Third Type - Ambiguity Arising from Multiple Word
Meanings
The third type of ambiguity, as outlined by William Empson, focuses on how a single word can lead to
multiple interpretations based on its context. This form of ambiguity is particularly powerful in literature,
as it allows authors to imbue their works with multiple layers of meaning, enriching the reader's
experience.
To understand this type of ambiguity, consider the word "spring." Depending on the context in which it is
used, "spring" can refer to a season of the year, a source of water, or an elastic device, among other
things. An author might deliberately choose such a word to tap into its various connotations, thereby
deepening the text's complexity. For instance, in a poem, the word "spring" might simultaneously evoke
themes of renewal and mechanical tension, creating a richer tapestry of meaning than a more precise
word could achieve.
Authors often manipulate word meanings to create depth, a technique that requires readers to engage
more deeply with the text to uncover its various nuances. Shakespeare, for instance, was a master at this.
In his play "Hamlet," he uses the word "nunnery" to mean both a convent and a brothel. The dual meaning
of the word adds a layer of complexity to Hamlet's dialogue with Ophelia, suggesting both a desire to
protect her innocence and a scathing commentary on her perceived impurity.
This type of ambiguity not only invites readers to explore different layers of interpretation but also
reflects the multifaceted nature of language itself. Words are not static entities; their meanings can shift
depending on usage, context, and reader perception. This flexibility allows for a dynamic reading
experience where the text can resonate in various ways with different readers, based on their own
perspectives and experiences.
The impact of this type of ambiguity on the richness of a text is profound. It turns reading into an active
process, where interpretation is not merely about uncovering a single, hidden meaning, but about
engaging with a spectrum of possibilities. This opens up the text to a wider range of emotional and
intellectual responses, making it more engaging and thought-provoking.
In summary, the third type of ambiguity in William Empson's "Seven Types of Ambiguity" hinges on the
multiple meanings that a single word can embody. Through careful manipulation of word meanings,
authors can add layers of depth and complexity to their works, enriching the reader's experience and
making the act of reading a more dynamic and engaging process.
Chapter 5 | Fourth Type - Ambiguity of Syntax and Structure
William Empson's fourth type of ambiguity delves into the complexities found within sentence structure
and syntax. This type explores how the arrangement of words within a sentence can lead to various
interpretations, adding layers of meaning to a literary work. Syntactical ambiguities arise when the
structure of a sentence allows for multiple readings, each potentially altering the reader's understanding
of the text.
The syntax of a sentence—its word order, punctuation, and overall structure—can significantly impact its
meaning. For instance, consider the sentence, "Flying planes can be dangerous." This sentence is
ambiguous because it can be interpreted in more than one way: it could mean that the act of flying planes
is dangerous, or it could imply that planes that are flying can be dangerous. The ambiguity arises from the
syntax, making it unclear which interpretation the author intended.
Empson provides numerous examples from various literary works to illustrate syntactical ambiguities.
One such example comes from Shakespeare's "Hamlet," where the ghost of Hamlet's father describes his
murder: "Sleeping within my orchard, / My custom always of the afternoon, / Upon my secure hour thy
uncle stole, / With juice of cursed hebenon in a vial, / And in the porches of my ears did pour / The
leperous distilment; whose effect / Holds such an enmity with blood of man / That swift as quicksilver it
courses through / The natural gates and alleys of the body, / And with a sudden vigour it doth posset /
And curd, like eager droppings into milk, / The thin and wholesome blood. So did it mine."
In this passage, the structure of the sentence—particularly the placement of phrases and clauses—can
lead to different interpretations of who is doing what and when. Is the ghost describing a continuous
action, or is there a shift in time and agency within the sentence? The ambiguity here is created by the
complex syntax, forcing the reader to navigate multiple possible meanings.
Poetry, in particular, often leverages syntactical ambiguity to enrich its meaning. Consider the opening
lines of John Keats' "Ode on a Grecian Urn": "Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness, / Thou foster-child of
Silence and slow Time." The structure of these lines invites several interpretations: is the urn still and
unravished, associated with quietness? Or is it an unravished bride belonging to quietness? The syntax
allows for multiple readings, each adding to the poem's depth and complexity.
Effective literature often strikes a balance between clarity and ambiguity. While too much ambiguity can
render a text incomprehensible, a certain degree of syntactical ambiguity can enrich a work by engaging
readers in the process of interpretation. Authors like James Joyce, in "Ulysses," and Virginia Woolf, in
"Mrs. Dalloway," use syntactical ambiguity to reflect the complexities of thought and perception, mirroring
the often fragmented and multifaceted nature of human experience.
Chapter 6 | Fifth Type - Authorial Ambiguity and Unresolved Irony
William Empson's fifth type of ambiguity delves into the realm of authorial ambiguity and unresolved irony,
which adds another layer of complexity to literary analysis. This form of ambiguity arises when the
author's intentions are unclear or when irony within the text remains unresolved, leading to multiple
interpretations and engaging the reader in a deeper exploration of meaning.
Case studies of literary works demonstrate how authorial ambiguity can significantly enhance the
narrative. For instance, in Henry James's "The Turn of the Screw," the ambiguity surrounding the
governess's reliability creates a haunting tension that drives the story. Readers are left questioning
whether the governess is a trustworthy narrator or if her perceptions are distorted by madness. This
uncertainty opens up a myriad of interpretations regarding the nature of the ghosts and the psychological
state of the characters, making the narrative richer and more compelling.
Another notable example is Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness." The ambiguity in the motivations and
moral stature of Kurtz, as well as the unresolved irony in Marlow's reflections on civilization and savagery,
invites readers to ponder the complexities of imperialism and human nature. Conrad’s deliberate
vagueness forces readers to confront the darkness within themselves, as they struggle to delineate
between the noble and the barbaric.
The interplay between irony and reader perception is pivotal in interpreting such texts. Irony often hinges
on an implicit contradiction between the surface meaning and the underlying message, which can be
inherently ambiguous. When irony remains unresolved, readers have to negotiate their own
understandings and biases to arrive at a personal interpretation. For example, in Jane Austen's "Pride and
Prejudice," the ironic portrayal of Mr. Collins can be seen as both comedic and tragically pitiable,
depending on one’s perspective. Austen’s subtle use of irony encourages readers to continuously
reassess their judgments, thus deepening their engagement with the text.
Authorial ambiguity and unresolved irony are powerful tools that can transform a straightforward story
into a complex, multi-faceted narrative. They compel readers to engage actively with the text, question
their interpretations, and consider alternative viewpoints. This type of ambiguity underscores the dynamic
relationship between the author, the text, and the reader, highlighting the subjectivity of literary experience.
Through these instances of authorial ambiguity, Empson reveals how literature can function as a mirror,
reflecting the diverse and often contradictory aspects of human experience. This ambiguity is not a flaw
but a feature that invites endless exploration and reinterpretation, ensuring that literary works remain
relevant and thought-provoking across different contexts and eras.
Chapter 7 | Sixth and Seventh Types - Deep Symbolism and Complex
Images
In the final part of William Empson's "Seven Types of Ambiguity," the sixth and seventh types of ambiguity
are explored, delving into the realms of deep symbolism and complex images. These types of ambiguity
represent the pinnacle of Empson's analysis, highlighting the intricate and often elusive ways that
literature can convey multiple layers of meaning.
The sixth type of ambiguity arises from the use of symbols that carry profound and often multiple
interpretations. Unlike the simpler ambiguities discussed earlier, which might involve straightforward
double meanings or syntactical ambiguity, symbolic ambiguity invites readers to delve into the rich, often
elusive depths of a text. Symbols are potent precisely because they encapsulate complex and sometimes
contradictory meanings within a single image or word. For example, in Joseph Conrad's "Heart of
Darkness," the Congo River serves as a powerful symbol. It represents not just the journey into the
unknown physical terrain but also a descent into the human psyche's deepest, most primal parts. The
river's dark, winding nature can be seen as a metaphor for the murky, uncharted waters of the human soul
and the nebulous moralities that govern it.
Because symbols carry such weighty significance, they often require readers to bring their own
experiences and interpretations to the text. This adds a layer of personal engagement but also leaves
room for vastly different readings. The symbol of the river in "Heart of Darkness" could be interpreted
through various lenses—psychological, historical, post-colonial—each bringing a unique perspective that
enriches the overall understanding of the narrative.
The seventh type of ambiguity involves complex images that, much like symbols, carry multi-faceted
meanings. However, they differ in that they often weave together different senses, emotions, and ideas
into a single, intricate tapestry. These complex images create a web of interconnected meanings that can
be disentangled in various ways, depending on the reader's perspective. One can observe this in T.S.
Eliot's poetry, particularly in "The Waste Land." The imagery in Eliot's work is laden with historical, cultural,
and emotional significance that overlaps and intersects to create a deeply layered and multifaceted
poetic experience.
In "The Waste Land," the recurrent image of the wasteland itself is not just a barren, desolate landscape
but also a reflection of contemporary society's spiritual desolation and moral decay. It draws connections
between the brokenness of the land and the fragmentation of individual and collective psyche. This image
becomes a canvas onto which many interpretations can be projected, each contributing to a more
comprehensive understanding of the poem's themes.
Both the sixth and seventh types of ambiguity underscore the immeasurable depth and richness that
literature can achieve. They highlight how deeply layered meanings contribute to the overall literary
experience, engage
Chapter 8 | Seven Types of Ambiguity by William Empson Review
William Empson's "Seven Types of Ambiguity" fundamentally reshaped the landscape of literary criticism
by elucidating the multifaceted nature of ambiguity in literature. Throughout the book, Empson
meticulously dissects seven distinct types of ambiguity, each providing unique insights and intricate
layers to literary texts.
First, Empson introduces the idea that a word or phrase with multiple meanings can offer straightforward
yet profound ambiguities. These simple metaphors and double meanings compel readers to engage
actively with the text, making their own interpretations and thus enriching their experience. For instance,
in poetry and prose alike, a singular word can conjure various images and emotions, prompting readers to
delve deeper into the text’s potential implications.
Moving forward, Empson discusses ambiguous comparisons and analogies, where multiple
interpretations arise from the comparison between two or more entities. Here, the reader's perspective
becomes crucial in navigating through these layers, as the seemingly clear analogies open up to broader,
more complex interpretations upon closer examination.
Expanding upon this, Empson explores how a single word can vary in meaning depending on its context.
This third type of ambiguity showcases the depth authors can achieve by manipulating word meanings,
providing a richer texture to their narratives. The varied interpretations of words based on context
subsequently enhance the overall reading experience, as readers uncover different facets of the text.
In discussing the fourth type, Empson delves into how syntax and sentence structure contribute to
ambiguity. The arrangement of words within a sentence can create multiple meanings, challenging
readers to decipher the intended message. This syntactical ambiguity balances clarity and complexity,
ensuring the text remains engaging and thought-provoking.
The fifth type of ambiguity arises from authorial intent and unresolved irony. Empson examines how
deliberate ambiguities and ironic undertones woven by the author can add depth to the narrative. Such
ambiguities often leave readers pondering the true intentions behind the text, thereby enhancing the
engagement and interpretive richness.
The final two types of ambiguity address deeper symbolic meanings and complex imagery. Here, Empson
highlights how intricate symbols and images can bear profound ambiguities, often challenging readers
and demanding thorough contemplation. These types of ambiguities play a crucial role in adding layered
meanings to literature, ensuring a text’s enduring impact and significance.
Through this comprehensive exploration, Empson's work emphasizes the inherent value of ambiguity in
literature. Each type of ambiguity he identifies serves to augment the literary experience, compelling
readers to embrace the complexity and richness of texts. Empson's contributions to literary criticism
have left a lasting legacy, encouraging a more nuanced and engaged approach to reading and
interpretation.
In conclusion, "Seven Types of Ambiguity" offers an invaluable framework for understanding the depth
and beauty of literary texts. Empson’s insightful analysis and categorization of ambiguities not only
provide a roadmap for literary criticism but also celebrate the intricate dance between authorial intent and
reader interpretation. Embracing ambiguity, as Empson champions, is not merely an academic exercise
but a vital tool for deepening our connection with literature, inviting readers to perpetually explore and re-
explore the multifaceted dimensions of texts.
