SECOND LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS
Engr. Christian Keith Aldovino
SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
“Entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated system, will always
increase overtime. Changes in entropy in a universe cannot be
negative.”

• ENTROPY - is defined as a measure of randomness or

disorder of a system. This concept was introduced by a
German physicist named Rudolf Clausius in the year 1850.
KELVIN-PLANK STATEMENT
“No process is possible whose
sole result is to take heat from
a reservoir and converted
completely into mechanical
work.”
KELVIN-PLANK STATEMENT
1. It is impossible to construct a heat engine which operates in a
cycle and receives a given amount of heat from a high
temperature body and does and equal amount of work.

2. No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100%.

3. For a power plant to operate, the working fluid must exchange

heat with the environment as well as the furnace.
CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
“No process is possible whose
sole result of which is to take
heat from a colder body and
transfer it to a hotter body.
CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
“It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the transfer of heat form a lower
temperature body to a higher temperature body”.
NOTE:
1. Any device that violates the First law of thermodynamics is called
Perpetual motion machine of the first kind.
2. Any device that violates the Second law of thermodynamics is called
Perpetual motion machine of the second kind.
3. Any device that violates the first and second law of thermodynamics is
called Perpetual motion machine.
HEAT ENGINE
• a system which converts
heat into work by taking heat
from the reservoir (hot body)
to carry out some work.
• There is a discharge of some
heat to the sink (cold body).
𝑾 = 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳
𝑾 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳
𝒆= =
𝑸𝑯 𝑸𝑯
HEAT ENGINE
There are mainly two types of heat engines – external
combustion engines and internal combustion engines.
• External combustion engine
The fuel gets burnt outside the engine or at a far distance from the
engine by which it can produce force and motion. (i.e. steam engine)
• Internal combustion engine
The fuels are burnt inside the chamber. (i.e. car engine)

Note: Internal combustion engines are more efficient than external combustion engines.
HEAT ENGINE PV-DIAGRAM
HEAT ENGINE
• The fluid changes from liquid to vapor isothermally if the source is at
a high temperature. This vaporization process occurs at constant
pressure and increasing volume.
• At the turbine end, the gas expands reversibly and adiabatically, and it
follows the equation of state for an adiabatic and reversible process.
• The fluid changes from a gas to liquid isothermally if the source is at
a low temperature. This condensation process occurs at constant
pressure and decreasing volume.
• At the compressor end, the liquid is compressed reversibly and
adiabatically by increasing its pressure to the original point.
PROBLEMS:
A heat engine absorbs 4500J of heat energy from a hot reservoir and
discards 2500J into the environment. (a) How much work is performed by
this heat engine? (b) Calculate the thermal efficiency of this engine.

Ans. 2000J, 44.4444%

PROBLEMS:
A steam engine performs 6000J of work while discarding 14000J into a cold
reservoir per cycle. (a) How much heat energy is absorbed by the hot
reservoir per cycle? (b) Calculate the thermal efficiency of the steam engine.
(c) What is the power rating of this engine in watts and hp if it takes 0.25
seconds to complete a cycle. (d) How much mechanical work is performed
by this engine in 1 hour?

Ans. 20000J, 30%, 24000W and 32.1716hp, 8.64x107 J

PROBLEMS:
A jet engine has a thermal efficiency of 18%. (a) If it performs 1500J of
mechanical work per cycle, how much heat energy is absorbed from the hot
reservoir per cycle? (b) How much heat energy is discarded to the
environment per cycle? (c) How much mechanical work does it perform over
200 cycles?

Ans. 8333.3333J, 6833.3333J, 300000J

PROBLEMS:
A gasoline engine is burning 1.5kg of fuel per hour. The energy of
combustion of this fuel is 450000 J/g. (a) If the engine goes through a 100
cycles per minute, how much thermal energy is absorbed per cycle? (b) If
30000J of mechanical work is performed per cycle, how much heat energy
us discarded per cycle? (c) What is the power rating of this engine in kW
and hp? (d) Calculate the thermal efficiency of this engine.

Ans. 112500 J/cycle, 82500J, 50kW and 67.0241hp, 26.6667%

 HEAT PUMP
• transfer heat from a cold body
to a hot body at the expense
of mechanical energy supplied
to it by an external agent.
• a heat engine that runs in the
reverse direction
𝑾 = 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳
𝑸𝑳 𝑸𝑳 𝑻𝑳
𝑪𝑶𝑷 = = =
𝑾 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳 𝑻𝑯 − 𝑻𝑳
 HEAT PUMP
Refrigerator
- refrigerate a body with
the help of external work.
- heat is removed from the
low-temperature body and is
rejected to the high-temperature
body.

𝑸𝑳 𝑸𝑳 𝑻𝑳
𝑪𝑶𝑷 = = =
𝑾 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳 𝑻𝑯 − 𝑻𝑳
PROBLEMS:
A heat pump uses 300 J of work to remove 400 J of heat from the
low-temperature reservoir. (a) How much heat is delivered to a
higher-temperature reservoir? (b) Calculate the coefficient of
performance.

Ans. 700J, 1.3333

ENTROPY
• the greater disorder will be seen in an isolated system;
hence, entropy also increases.
• when chemical reactions take place, if reactants break into
more products, entropy also gets increased.
• a system at higher temperatures has greater randomness
than a system at a lower temperature.
• increases with a decrease in regularity.
• Entropy order: gas>liquid>solids
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE
PROCESSES
Reversible Process
• a process in which the system and environment can be
restored to exactly the same initial states that they were in
before the process occurred, if we go backward along the
path of the process.
• it is quite easy to restore a system to its original state; the hard
part is to have its environment restored to its original state
at the same time.
• almost never happens in real life.
• theoretical, ideal process
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE
PROCESSES
Irreversible Process
• system and its environment cannot be restored to their
original states at the same time.
• it is also called a natural process.
• processes that proceed spontaneously in one direction but
not the other.
• irreversibility of any natural process results from the second
law of thermodynamics.
• process where the entropy increases.
CARNOT ENGINE
• a theoretical engine that operates on the Carnot cycle.
• Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot developed the basic model for
this engine in 1824.
• estimates the maximum possible efficiency that a heat
engine during the conversion process of heat into work and,
conversely, working between two reservoirs can possess.
• any system working between T1 (hot reservoir) and T2 (cold
reservoir) can never have more efficiency than the Carnot
engine operating between the same reservoirs.
CARNOT CYCLE
an ideal reversible closed thermodynamic cycle. Four
successive operations are involved: isothermal expansion,
adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression, and adiabatic
compression.
CARNOT CYCLE
Following are the four processes of the Carnot cycle:
• In (a), the process is reversible isothermal gas expansion. In this process,
the amount of heat absorbed by the ideal gas is qin from the heat
source at a temperature of Th. The gas expands and does work on the
surroundings.
• In (b), the process is reversible adiabatic gas expansion. Here, the system
is thermally insulated, and the gas continues to expand and work is
done on the surroundings. Now the temperature is lower, Tl.
• In (c), the process is a reversible isothermal gas compression process.
Here, the heat loss qout occurs when the surroundings do the work at
temperature Tl.
• In (d), the process is reversible adiabatic gas compression. Again the
system is thermally insulated. The temperature again rises back to Th as
the surrounding continue to do their work on the gas.
CARNOT CYCLE
CARNOT CYCLE
CARNOT CYCLE
Note:
1. High temperature source is known as a temperature source.
2. Low temperature source is known as a temperature sink.
3. Heat is added during constant temperature process.
4. Heat is rejected during constant temperature process.
5. The process is two constant temperature and two
isentropic process.
6. The efficiency of the cycle is a function of temperature.
7. If the temperature difference increases, its cycle efficiency
will increase.
PROBLEMS:
A Carnot cycle operates between the temperature limits of 300ºK
and 1500ºK, and produces 600 KW of net power. The rate of
entropy change of the working fluid during the heat addition
process is:

Ans. 0.5 KW/K

PROBLEMS:
A Carnot cycle has a maximum temperature of 550ºF and
minimum temperature of 100ºF. If the heat added is 4200
Btu/min, find the horsepower output of the engine.

Ans. 44.1341 hp
PROBLEMS:
A Carnot engine has an efficiency of 30%. Its efficiency is to be
increased to 50%. By what must the temperature of the source
be increased if the sink is at 300 K?

Ans. 171.4286 K
PROBLEMS:
Which of below heat engine can be possible operating between
the temperature T1=1400 and T2=300?
(a) W = 1000 J, Q = 1083 J
(b) W = 800 J, Q = 1600 J
(c) W = 400 J, Q = 705 J
(d) W = 600 J, Q = 750 J

Ans. (d) W=600 J, Q=750 J

REVERSED CARNOT
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
FOR A SYSTEM OPERATES IN A
HEAT PUMP
PROBLEMS:
A reversed Carnot cycle ha s refrigerating COP of 2.5. Determine
the ratio TH/ TL ?

Ans. 1.4
PROBLEMS:
A Carnot refrigerator operates in a room in which the temperature
is 25ºC and consumes 2kW of power when operating. If the food
compartment of the refrigerator is to be maintained at 3ºC,
determine the rate of heat removal from the food compartment.

Ans. 1626.2727 kJ/min