Cătălin CROITORU

E-mail: c.croitoru@unitbv.ro
Office: Colina UnitBv, room GI23
 Alloy steels symbolization
Low and medium-alloyed steels: SR EN 10084:2008

%C x 100 + symbols of the alloying elements in decreasing order of alloying percentage+ content of alloying elements x a
specific coefficient

Alloying element
Coefficient
Cr, Co, Mn, Ni, Si, W 4
Al, Be, Cu, Mo, Nb, Pb, Ta, Ti, V, Zr 10
Ce, N, P, S, C 100
B 1000
E.g. 25CrMo4 (alloyed steel with C=0.25% and Cr=1 %, Mo=0.4 %)
E.g. 16MnCrB5 (alloyed steel with C=0.16 % and Mn=1.25%, Cr=1.25%, B=0.005%)

High alloy steels (stainless steels):

X + %C x 100 + alloying elements symbols in decreasing order + % alloying elements

E.g: X2CrNiMo18-14-3

Stainless steel with 0.02 % C and 18% Cr, 14% Ni, 3% Mo

 Special low alloy-steels (including those for the automotive industry)
HSLA (high strength low alloy) steels have been developed to improve the
strength to weight ratio of steels.
High strength steels have often tensile strengths in excess of 600 MPa. The steels
with strengths up to 1000 MPa are called high strength steels.
HSLA steels contain carbon in the same range as mild steels (0.15 - 0.25%), but in
addition they have small quantities of alloying elements. The other alloying
elements are aluminium, copper, vanadium, nickel and molybdenum in combined
concentrations.
These steels are ductile, formable and machinable.
HSLA steels are designed to provide better mechanical properties than
conventional carbon steels. The alloying elements in HSLA steels serve the
purpose of increasing the hardenability to some extent.
In normal atmospheres (not exceedingly corrosive), the HSLA steels are more
resistant to corrosion than the plain carbon steels, which they have replaced in
many applications where structural strength is critical (e. g., bridges, towers,
support columns in high-rise buildings, structural safety elements of cars and
pressure vessels).
HSLA steels classification:

• Weathering steels, designated to exhibit superior atmospheric corrosion resistance.

• Control-rolled steels, hot rolled according to a predetermined rolling program. Also called normal
(or traditional) HSLAs
• Pearlite-reduced steels, strengthened by very fine-grain ferrite and precipitation hardening (adding
B and Ti, Nb forms very fine precipitates in the ferrite grains) but with low carbon content.
• Micro-alloyed steels, with very small additions of elements such as vanadium, titanium.
• Dual phase (DP) steels, processed to a microstructure of ferrite containing small uniformly
distributed regions of high carbon martensite, resulting in a product with low yield strength and a
high rate of work hardening, thus providing a high strength steel of superior formability.
DP steels consist of a ferritic matrix containing a
hard martensitic second phase in the form of Type of DP Car part
islands. Increasing the volume fraction of hard steel
second phases generally increases the strength.
Roof outer, door outer, body side outer, package tray,
DP (ferrite plus martensite) steels are produced DP 300/500
floor panel
by controlled cooling from the austenite phase
Floor panel, hood outer, body side outer, cowl, fender,
(in hot-rolled products) or from the two-phase DP 350/600
floor reinforcements
ferrite plus austenite phase to transform some
austenite to ferrite before a rapid cooling Body side inner, quarter panel inner, rear rails, rear
DP 500/800
shock reinforcements
transforms the remaining austenite to martensite.
Due to the production process, small amount of Safety cage components (B-pillar, floor panel tunnel,
other phases (Bainite and Retained Austenite) DP 600/980 engine cradle, front sub-frame package tray, shotgun,
seat),
may be present.
Depending on the composition and process DP 700/1000 Roof rails
route, steels requiring enhanced capability to DP 750/980
resist cracking can have a microstructure DP 800/1180 B-pillar upper
containing significant quantities of bainite. DP 1150/1270
Press-Hardened Steels (PHSs) are Boron added (.001%-.005%) Carbon /Manganese steels that have been in use since
the mid 1980’s for automotive body in white construction.
These steels are also known as HF or Hot Formed Steel. Press Hardened Steel or Hot Formed Steels undergo a unique
manufacturing process where the steel is heated to a minimum temperature of 850 C then formed to a final shape in water
cooled dies that control the rates of cooling / quench to insure desired properties are met.
The high temperature combined with rapid cooling transforms the microstructure to nearly 100% martensite and very high
UTS strengths up to 2000 MPa. This process is commonly referred to as “Hot Stamping”. The finished product qualifies
as advanced high-strength steel, and is three times as stable as the material was prior to undergoing the process. It’s
strength-to-weight ratio is also vastly increased.
The unique properties of this material combine both complexity and strength – and components made with press-hardened
steel can accomplish in one piece what would usually require heavier, thicker parts that are welded together.
The Press-Hardening / Hot Forming process was first put in to practice in the mid 1980’s and is primarily used in the
creation of crash-sensitive safety components in automobiles. The parts created with this process meet several of the
evolving requirements of the automobile industry, such as weight and cost reduction, as well as reduced environmental
impact in its creation. Recent model year vehicles have seen the percentage of these steels rise to 25% of body in white
weight.
Bake-hardened (BH) steels
Bake hardening steels consist mainly of ferrite containing a minute concentration
of carbon (0.002%) in solid solution. They are used in the manufacture of
automobile bodies which after forming into shape are painted. Since they have low
C, these steels are very easy to be shaped/formed.
When the special paint applied on the steel part is heated (”baked”) in the
temperature range of 150–200 C, some carbon from the paint migrates into the
steel enriching it in C. What the supplementary interstitial C does is to pin any free
dislocations introduced during the forming operation of steel (by work-hardening,
e.g., through rolling, forging, drawing, etc.). The resultant bake hardening
response  is a useful design feature of the steel.


IF (interstitial-free) steels
These steels have been designed to provide an excellent combination of
drawability and mechanical strength based on their specific interstitial-free (IF)
metallurgy.
These steels are hardened by adding manganese, silicon and phosphorous in
solid solution to the ferrite (0.002%C).
The metallurgy of IF steels optimizes their drawability (no or very low
interstitial C=good plastic deformation ability).
Their low YS/UTS ratio and high strain-hardening coefficient or n-value gives
them excellent suitability for deep-drawing and good strain distribution.
These steels are particularly suitable for complex parts requiring high
mechanical strength at the same time, such as wheel arches, toe-boards,
reinforcements, etc. Their high strain-hardening potential during forming gives
them good dent resistance on deep-drawn parts luggage compartments,
tailgates, doors, linings, wheel arches, chassis components, suspensions, etc.).
High-strength steel alloys cost more to manufacture, so automakers use it sparingly, but as fuel
economy and safety levels continue to be set higher, more of the steel, or more accurately the
metal, in a vehicle is becoming specialized.
Aside from being more expensive as a base material, and also more expensive to work with, the
high-strength steel alloys generally used in a vehicle are not inert, meaning they can and will
rust. So special care in their anti-corrosion preparation is required. This is also the reason why
automakers don’t usually use expensive steel alloys in places prone to rust. Body panels and
floor pans, for example, would be a poor choice for the material.
High-strength alloys are also much harder to reform after an accident. If you find yourself in an
accident that bends the difficult to re-shape A-pillar, the B-pillar, or the roof, the vehicle is very
likely totaled.
 Other iron alloys besides steels and cast irons
• Fernico describe a family of metal alloys made primarily of iron, nickel and
cobalt. It is a heterogeneous alloy, usually fabricated in the form of a wire with
an alloy core and a copper coating. These alloys possess the properties of
electrical conductivity, minimal oxidation and formation of porous surfaces at
working temperatures of glass and thermal coefficients of expansion which
match glass closely. These requirements allow the alloys to be used in glass
seals, such that the seal does not crack, fracture or leak with changes in
temperature.
• Alnico is a family of iron alloys which in addition to iron are composed of
aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co), hence the acronym Al-Ni-Co.
They also include copper, and sometimes titanium. Alnico alloys are used to
make permanent magnets. The composition of alnico alloys is typically 8–12%
Al, 15–26% Ni, 5–24% Co, up to 6% Cu, up to 1% Ti, and the balance is Fe.
• Ferrocerium is a synthetic pyrophoric (that can make sparks when striked)
alloy that produces hot sparks when rapidly oxidized by the process of
striking the rod, thereby fragmenting it and exposing those fragments to the
oxygen in the air.
This property allows it to have many commercial applications, such as the
ignition source for lighters (where it is often known by the misleading name
"flint"), strikers for gas welding and cutting torches, Due to ferrocerium's
ability to ignite in adverse conditions, rods of ferrocerium are commonly used
as an emergency combustion device in survival kits
 Aluminium and its alloys
• Aluminium occupies the third place among commercially used engineering
materials
• It has low density (2.70 g/cm3), low melting point (660 °C) and high electrical
and thermal conductivities
• It has low strength and hardness, but high ductility and malleability.
• On exposure to atmosphere, it forms a strong film of aluminium oxide on its
surface, which prevents further oxidation and corrosion.
• It is employed for lightly loaded structures and for electrical cables and similar
items.
• Aluminium has good machinability, formability, workability and castability. It
adopts a FCC crystal structure
• It is non-magnetic, non-toxic, easily available and less expensive.
• The main drawback is its low strength and hardness.
The International Alloy Designation System is the most widely accepted naming scheme for aluminium alloys. Each alloy is given a
four-digit number, where the first digit indicates the major alloying elements, the second — if different from 0 — indicates a
variation of the alloy, and the third and fourth digits identify the specific alloy in the series. For example, in alloy 3105, the number
3 indicates the alloy is in the manganese series, 1 indicates the first modification of alloy 3005, and finally 05 identifies it in the
3000 series.
• 1000 series are essentially pure aluminium with a minimum 99% aluminium content by weight and
can be work hardened.
• 2000 series are alloyed with copper, can be precipitation hardened to strengths comparable to steel.
Formerly referred to as duralumin, they were once the most common aerospace alloys, but were
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and are increasingly replaced by 7000 series in new designs.
• 3000 series are alloyed with manganese, and can be work hardened.
• 4000 series are alloyed with silicon. Variations of aluminium-silicon alloys intended for casting are
also known as silumin.
• 5000 series are alloyed with magnesium, and offer superb corrosion resistance, making them
suitable for marine applications. Also, 5083 alloy has the highest strength of not heat-treated alloys.
Most 5000 series alloys include manganese as well.
• 6000 series are alloyed with magnesium and silicon. They are easy to machine, are weldable, and
can be precipitation hardened, but not to the high strengths that 2000 and 7000 can reach. 6061
alloy is one of the most commonly used general-purpose aluminium alloys.
• 7000 series are alloyed with zinc, and can be precipitation hardened to the highest strengths of any
aluminium alloy (ultimate tensile strength up to 700 MPa for the 7068 alloy). Most 7000 series
alloys include magnesium and copper as well. They are used in aerospace applications.
• 8000 series are alloyed with other elements which are not covered by other series. Aluminium-
lithium alloys are an example (used for airplanes, rockets and satellites building).
• Aluminium alloys typically have an elastic modulus of about 70 GPa, which is about
one-third of the elastic modulus of most kinds of steel and steel alloys. Therefore, for a
given load, a component or unit made of an aluminium alloy will experience a greater
deformation in the elastic regime than a steel part of identical size and shape. Though
there are aluminium alloys with somewhat-higher tensile strengths than the commonly
used kinds of steel, simply replacing a steel part with an aluminium alloy might lead to
problems.
• Aluminium alloys can be formed through extrusion by a great extent, and particularly the
Al–Mg–Si series can be extruded to form complex profiles.
• In general, stiffer and lighter designs can be achieved with aluminium alloys than is
feasible with steels.
• Aluminium alloys are widely used in automotive engines, particularly in cylinder blocks
and crankcases due to the weight savings that are possible. Since aluminium alloys are
susceptible to warping at elevated temperatures, the cooling system of such engines is
critical. Manufacturing techniques and metallurgical advancements have also been
instrumental for the successful application in automotive engines.
• An important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their lower fatigue strength
compared to steel. In controlled laboratory conditions, steels display a fatigue limit,
which is the stress amplitude below which no failures occur – the metal does not continue
to weaken with extended stress cycles. Aluminium alloys do not have this lower fatigue
limit and will continue to weaken with continued stress cycles. Aluminium alloys are
therefore sparsely used in parts that require high fatigue strength in the high cycle regime
(more than 107 stress cycles).
Aluminium alloys in automotive applications:
• Closures (the highest by weight – doors, hub, back trunk), then shock
towers, other body and closures, while by percentage the highest
increase in use will be at subframe and crossmember, bumpers, body
extrusions and other body castings. Decrease of aluminium content
will occur in motor – block and head.
• With the exception of a few critical areas, such as: roofrail,
longitudinal front and upper, aimed to improve critical points and
safety of passenger cabin, it is now possible to make an entire body-in-
white from aluminium, resulting in significant weight reduction and
performance increases.
• Al alloys can be work-hardened (by plastic de-
formation) and some can be heat-treated, so they
can reach a similar mechanical strength to mild
steels
The average total aluminium content
per car for European cars was 140 kg
in 2012. Its distribution has been
analyzed systematically as:
1) Power-train (engine, fuel system,
liquid lines): 69 kg: in engine block
and cylinder head, transmission
housings and radiators.
2) Chassis and suspension (cradle,
axle): 37 kg in wheels, suspension
arms and steering systems.
3) Car body (body-in-white (BIW),
hoods, doors, wings, bumpers and
interiors): 26 kg in bonnets and doors,
front structure and bumper beams.

The Center for Automotive Research (CAR), in a recent 2017 report, estimated that while the use of high strength steels
(HSS) is peaked at around 15 % of total vehicle weight composition by 2020, it will gradually fall to roughly 5 % by 2040
as other lightweight materials gain ground.
• 6111 aluminium (Al+Mg+Si) and 2008 aluminium (Al+Cu) alloy are extensively
used for external automotive body panels, with 5083 and 5754 (Al+Mg) used for
inner body panels.
• Bonnets have been manufactured from 2036, 6016, and 6111 alloys. Truck and
trailer body panels have used 5456 aluminium.
• Automobile frames often use 5182 aluminium or 5754 aluminium forged sheets,
6061 or 6063 extrusions.
• Wheels have been cast from 3560 aluminium (Al+Mn) or formed by forging
from 5xxx sheet (Al+Mg).
• Cylinder blocks and crankcases are often cast made of aluminium alloys. The
most popular aluminium alloys used for cylinder blocks are 3xxxx and to a minor
extent 2xxx.
• Aluminium alloys containing cerium (8xxx class) are being developed and
implemented in high-temperature automotive applications, such as cylinder
heads and turbochargers. The strength of these alloys come from the presence of
an Al11Ce3 intermetallic phase which is stable up to temperatures of 540 °C, and
retains its strength up to 300 °C, making it quite viable at elevated temperatures.
Aluminium-cerium alloys are typically cast, due to their excellent casting
properties.
 Hardening of aluminum alloys
• Precipitation hardening (durificarea prin precipitare), also called age hardening
(îmbătrânire) or particle hardening, is a heat treatment technique used to increase the
yield strength of malleable materials, including most structural alloys of aluminum,
magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some steels and stainless steels.
• Most aluminium alloys present at room temperature a structure comprised of a solid
solution (called ) of Al with the alloying element (Al is completely miscible with
most alloying elements upto 1 or 2 %) and chemical compounds (intermetallic AlxEy,
where E: alloying element, called ) precipitated at the grain boundaries, which are
formed with the excess alloying element.
• If the aluminium alloys are heated at a high temperature (called solvus temperature)
then the solubillity of the alloying element in Al will increase until all of the alloying
element will be found in solid solution form at high temperature. If this solid solution
is cooled very rapidly (quenched) then it can be retained to some extent at room
temperature also. This is called a supersaturated solid solution
• The supersaturated solid solution will be unstable and will have the tendency to
precipitate out very finely-dispersed chemical compounds with time (called natural
ageing- ro: îmbătrânire naturală) or this precipitation can be accelerated by
normalization annealing of the sample (called artificial ageing- ro: îmbătrânire
artificială)
 The structure of an Al alloy Supersaturated solid solution
at room temperature (obtain at equilibrium)
Solid solution 

Chemical compound 

Heat at solvus temperature

Cool rapidly (quench)

Age-hardened Al alloy (or precipitation hardened)

Solid solution 

Ageing (naturally or by
annealing)

Supersaturated solid solution

Fine-dispersed  at room temp
 If the material is aged
too long then the
precipitate
phase coarsens (gets
bigger) and
agglomerates, leading
to the decrease in the
mechanical properties.
The agglomeration of
the fine theta phase
particles
at longer ageing times
The yield strength increases with time of ageing. is called Ostwald
The very fine  precipitates embedded in the  solid solution ripening.
impede the dislocation movement inside the grains, therefore
a strenghthening of the material is observed
Basic aluminium temper designations: in addition to the numbering system
classification of Al alloys, the type of hardening mechanism that can be applied
to the aluminium alloy is designated by several codes which can be found after
the alloy number. These additional symbols are called temper designations:
• F: as fabricated, is not hardened in any way after it is cast in ingots (usually
the letter is omitted)
• H: it is strain-hardened by plastic deformation (forging, rolling, extrusion)
• 0: the alloy was heat-treated (homogenization annealing)-applied to casing
alloys
• T3: heated above the solvus temperature (contains supersaturated solid
solution) and cold-worked
• T4: the Al alloy is naturally-aged to a stable condition
• T6: the Al alloy is artificially-aged to a stable condition. Subsequent plastic
deformation does not affect the mechanical properties of the alloy
 Magnesium and its alloys
Physical properties
Crystal structure HCP
Atomic diameter 0.320 easily alloyed with Al, Zn, Ag, Zr
Density (g.cm-3) 1.74 (the lightest engineering metal)
Melting point (oC) 650
• It is lighter and less ductile than aluminium
• It is relatively brittle, has poor resistance to wear, fatigue and creep. In pure form does not
do well when plastically deformed. It can only be casted when in pure form
• Its response to strengthening mechanisms also is relatively poor
• Addition of aluminium to magnesium increases strength, hardness and castability.
• Addition of manganese to magnesium has very little effect on the mechanical properties, but
it improves the corrosion resistance.
• Magnesium-aluminium-zinc alloys have higher mechanical properties and good corrosion
resistance. Cast magnesium alloys dominate 85-90% of all magnesium alloy products, with
Mg-Al-Zn system being the most widely used.
Symbolizatio n of magnesiu m allo y s

No international code, but can use the American standard (ASTM) system designated by two capital letters followed by
two or three numbers.

•The letters stand for the names of the first two major alloying elements
- first letter  the highest amount element
- second letter  the second highest amount element
The numbers stand for the amount of the two major alloying elements
- first number following the letters stands for the wt% of the first letter element.
- second number stands for the wt% of the second letter element.
A – Aluminium F – Iron M - Manganese
S – Silicon
B – Bismuth G – Magnesium N – Nickel
T – Tin
C – Copper H – Thorium P – Lead
W –Yttrium
D – Cadmium K – Zirconium Q - Silver
Z - zinc
E – Rare earths L – Lithium R - Chromium

E.g., AZ91: The magnesium alloy contains 9 wt% aluminium,

and 1 wt% zinc
Cast magnesium alloys
Al - Zn - Mn Zn - E - Zr Ag - E - Zr Y - E - Zr Nd - Gd - Zn - Zr
AZ81 EZ33 QE22 WE43 Elektron 21 (EV31)
AZ91 ZE41 EQ21 WE54
AZ92 ZE63

Al - Zn - Mn 1930s mid 1980s

Zn - RE - Zr late 1940s-early1960s
Ag - RE - Zr early 1960s
Y - RE - Zr late 1980s
Elektron21 late 1990s
 Wrought (plastically-deformed) magnesium alloys

• More workable at elevated temperatures (300-500oC) rather than at

RT.
• Magnesium alloys are normally produced in sheets, plates, extruded
bars, shapes, tubes, and forgings.

Laminated parts
Forged parts

Extruded parts
Magnesium alloys applications for automotive components
magnesium forged wheel (ZK30)
Examples of automotive components made of Mg alloys (a: Engine block, b: Steering column module, c: Door frame /
Key lock housing, d: Oil pan, e: Steering wheel, f: Transfer case/Transmission housing, g: Seat frame, h: Wheel)
Producers of Mg alloy component and applications on car models
Titanium and its alloys
• Ti (as alloys) gives a wide variety of lightweight strong materials with good fatigue and
corrosion resistance.
• Ti alloys are used as substitute of Al alloys in aircraft structure in the temperature range 200-
500 °C.
• Two allotropic forms of Ti exist:
1) Alpha (α) Ti = HCP up to 882 °C.
2) Beta (β) Ti = BCC, stable above 882 °C.

• It is a strong, ductile and light weight metal, density of pure Ti is 60% of steel.
• High corrosion resistance and high strength at elevated temperatures and widely used as a
structural material in aircraft and aerospace-related applications.
• Suitable for cold and hot working and has good weldability.
• Machinability is much less than that of steel (rather brittle at room temp, due to the HCP
phase)
Effect of alloying elements addition:
• Al is an α stabilizer, when Al is added, the α to β transformation temperature is raised.
• Cr, Mo, V, Mn and Fe are β stabilizers, when these are added the α to β transformation
temperature is lowered.
• The relative amount of α and β stabilizing elements in Ti-Alloys, and the heat treatment
(full annealing, normalization) determine whether its microstructure would be mainly
single α or single β or mixture of α –β over the range of desired temperature.

• On the basis of phases present, Ti alloy may be of three (3) basic types namely, α, β and.
α-β
1. α- Alloys show excellent weldability, good strength at high and low temperature, and
stability at moderate temp: for sufficient long duration.
2. α-β Alloys are two phase alloy at room temperature and are stronger than α- Alloys .
3. β-Alloys retain their structure at room temp: and can be heat-treated to give high strength.
4. Other is near-α Alloy containing mainly α-stabilizing elements + less than 2% β-
Stabilizing elements.
Ti-Alloys: Composition, Properties and Uses (percentage of alloying elements before each alloying element
symbol)
Alloy Type Form UTS Yield Elongation Uses
(MPa) (MPa)
α- Alloys Sheets, bars & 800 760 10 Compressor Blades and
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn Forgings Welded assemblies

Near α- Alloys Bars & Forgings 1200 6 Compressor Blades and Dies
Ti-6Al-3Mo-1Zr-Si

α-β Alloys Sheets, bars & 1200 1060 8 Pressure Vessels, air frame
Ti-6Al-4V Forgings and engine part

α-β Alloys Bars & Forgings 1400 1250 10 Air frame structural Forging
Ti-4Al-4Mo-4Sn-Si

β-Alloys Sheets, bars & 920 850 10 Fasteners, rivets, sheet metal
TI-13V-11Cr-3Al Forgings part and tubing.

Ti-6Al-4V is the most widely used alloy, accounting for

about 45% of total titanium production.
 Mill annealed samples (deformed and annealed for 2–4 h
between 700 and 900 °C)
The application of titanium alloys as engine Automotive engine valves made of titanium alloy not only reduce
connecting rods (ro: biele) was first quality and extend service life but also reduce fuel consumption and
demonstrated on the new Italian Ferrari sedan increase vehicle reliability. Titanium valve compared with the steel valve,
3.5LV8 and the Acura NSX engine. Ti-6Al- the quality can be reduced by 30% to 40%, the engine speed limit can be
4V, Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al, Ti-3Al-2V, and Ti-4Al- increased by 20%. For the current application, the material of the intake
4Mo-Sn-0.5Si are the main materials used for valve is mainly Ti-6Al-4V, and the material of the exhaust valve is
the titanium alloy connecting rod. mainly Ti-6242S.
Usually, Sn and Al are added together to obtain lower brittleness and
higher strength. Mo addition can improve the heat treatment of titanium
alloys, strengthening the strength of quenching and aging titanium alloy,
while increasing the hardness.
The valve spring seat must have the performance such as high Turbochargers can improve the combustion efficiency of the
strength and fatigue resistance, beta-titanium alloy heat engine and enhance the power and torque of the engine.
treatment alloy can obtain high strength by heat treating Turbocharger turbine rotors need long-term work in the high-
(ageing). the corresponding more suitable materials are Ti-15V- temperature exhaust gas above 850 ℃, so require good heat
3Cr- 3Al-3Sn and Ti-15Mo-3Al-2.7Nb-0.2Si. resistance. Traditional light metals, such as aluminum, cannot
be used because of their low melting point.
Mitsubishi Motors uses Ti-22V-4Al titanium alloy valve spring Although ceramic materials are used on turbine rotors due to
seat in its large-scale production vehicles to reduce the mass of their lightweight and high-temperature resistance, their
42% compared with the original steel lock, the valve application is limited due to their high cost and unspecified
mechanism reduces the inertial mass by 6%, and the maximum shape. In order to solve these problems, Tetsui developed the
engine speed increases with 300 rpm. TiAl turbine rotor. After several experiments, it not only has
good durability and performance but also improved engine
acceleration. This design has been successfully commercialized
on the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution line of vehicles.
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Aerospace applications
By combining light weight with high strength, titanium helps to reinforce airframes and enable higher performance in jet
engines. In the case of the space shuttle, titanium is used for many critical parts, including the exterior paneling of the fuel tank
and wing parts.
Aircraft and Jet Engines
Aircraft use a large amount of titanium alloy because it is light and extremely strong at high temperatures. Titanium is used to
strengthen the frame structure and contributes towards the technical advancement of jet engines.
Spacecraft
Titanium alloy, which has high corrosion resistance, high specific strength, and good heat resistance, is used for different
spacecraft parts including outer fuel tank sheathing and wings.
Chemical Industrial Production Plants
• Seawater desalination plants
• Petroleum refineries
• Nuclear power plants
Tanker Trucks
Tanker trucks that carry sodium hypochlorite and sodium chromate use titanium because it is light, resistant to corrosion, and
extremely strong.
Heat Exchangers
Titanium is a safe and economical material that is perfect for heat exchangers, which are used in extreme high-temperature and
high-pressure conditions.
Biomedical applications
The main benefits of Titanium, enabling it as a primary implant material are:
+ Strength
+ Corrosion Resistant
+ Non-toxic
+ Biocompatible (non-toxic AND not rejected by the body)
+ Osseointegrated (the joining of bone with artificial Ti implant)
+ Flexibility and elasticity rivals that of human bone

Two of the greatest benefits of titanium are its high strength-to-weight ratio and its corrosion resistance. Coupled with its non-
toxic state and its ability to effectively withstand corrosion from bodi fluids titanium has become the main implant metal in the
field of medicine. Titanium is also very durable and long-lasting. When titanium cages, rods, plates and pins are inserted into
the body, they can last for upwards of 20 years. And dental titanium, such as titanium posts and implants, can last even longer.
Another benefit to titanium for use in medicine is its non-ferromagnetic property, which allows patients with titanium implants
to be safely examined with MRIs and NMRIs.
Osseointegration is a unique phenomenon where your body’s natural bone and tissue actually bond to the artificial implant.
This firmly anchors the titanium dental or medical implant into place. Titanium is one of the only metals that allows for this
integration.
Titanium Dental Tools
In the field of dentistry, titanium alloy, which is lighter than conventional steel, is now commonly used for tools. These
titanium tools have higher corrosion resistance and strength than stainless steel tools.
Artificial Dental Implants
Titanium has high biocompatibility and does not harm the human body. Therefore, it is ideal for use in dental implants.
 Copper and copper alloys
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum). It is a
soft, malleable, and ductile metal (it has a FCC crystal structure) with very
high thermal and electrical conductivity. Cu has a density of 8.96 g/cm3, even
higher than that of steel!!
A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color. With
time this surface evolves to black, due to the formation of a thin oxide layer
(CuO). Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green
verdigris (or patina).
Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material,
and as a constituent of various metal alloys.

Freshly-cut pure copper Oxidized copper Copper patina

There are mainly three types of copper alloys:
• Brasses (ro: alame, alloys of Cu and Zn, plus other alloying elements in
case which we have alloy brasses)
• Bronzes (ro: bronzuri, traditionally, alloys of Cu and Sn, but nowadays
there are also Al bronzes, Be bronzes, etc.)
• Copper-nickel alloys
They can be used as cast (at high alloying element contents) or in wrought
form (forged, laminated,...) at low alloying elements compositions.
Because some brasses also might contain alloying elements such as Sn, Al,
etc., as bronzes do, nowadays the distinction between the two of them is
purely conventional, i.e., it has only a historical value. Many so called brass
artefacts have been found to have a composition and structure more related to
bronze and vice versa. Today, the name “copper-zinc alloys” is preferred
instead of brass. Likewise, for bronze, “copper-tin alloys”.
Brasses
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions which can be varied to achieve varying
mechanical and electrical properties. It is a substitutional alloy: atoms of the two constituents may
replace each other within the same crystal structure.
Brass may include small proportions of a range of other elements including arsenic, lead,
phosphorus, aluminum, manganese, and silicon.
• Up to 35 % of zinc by weight, a solid solution is formed, which is called α-solid solution and
the brasses are said to be monophasic or alpha-brasses. This type of solid solution is soft and
ductile, so alpha-brasses can be shaped very well by plastic deformation.
• Above 35 % of zinc, another solid solution, called the β-solid solutions begins to form up to 47
% of zinc. In this concentration range, brasses are said to be biphasic (i.e., they contain two
distinct phases,  and , which form mechanical mixtures). This brass is called - brass.
• Between 47% and 50% Zn, the brasses are again monophasic, and they contain only the -
phase.
• Above 50 % of zinc until 79%, an intermetallic chemical compound, Cu5Zn8 called γ – phase
forms. This  phase makes the material brittle, so there are not many applications of brasses with
a higher Zn content than 50%. These brasses are called -brasses.
Brasses set the standard by which the machinability of other materials is judged and are also
available in a very wide variety of product forms and sizes to allow minimum machining to
finished dimensions. Brass does not become brittle at low temperatures like mild steel.
Brass also has excellent thermal conductivity, making it a first choice for heat exchangers
(radiators). Its electrical conductivity ranges from 23 to 44% that of pure copper.
Alpha brasses: depending on the Zn content, they can be classified in:
• Yellow alpha brasses of low brasses (<15% Zn)
• Red alpha brasses or high brasses (>15%Zn)
Alpha brasses are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in pressing, forging,
or similar applications. They contain only one phase, with face-centered cubic
crystal structure. With their high proportion of copper, these brasses have a more
golden hue than others.
The alpha phase is a substitution solid solution of zinc in copper. It has a FCC cubic
structure like that of pure copper, is malleable and somewhat difficult to machine.
Best formability is with 32% of zinc. They have a higher corrosion resistance than
copper.
The bactericidal properties of brass have been observed for centuries, particularly in
marine environments where it prevents biofouling (adhesion of microorganisms,
algae and other marine organisms to materials). Depending upon the type and
concentration of pathogens and the medium they are in, brass kills these
microorganisms within a few minutes to hours of contact.
Alpha brasses transmit sound vibrations very good, so they are used for musical
instruments obtaining.
Name Cu & Zn % Properties Uses
respectively

Cartridge 70 & 30 Good strength and Cartridge case, radiator cores,

brass ductility tanks,
flash light shells
Yellow brass 65 & 35 Good strength and Reflectors, fasteners and springs
ductility

Admiralty 71 & 23 & 1 Good strength and Condensers and tubing in

brass Sn corrosion resistance steam power plants

Gilding metal 95 & 5 Gold color Making coins, medals,

jewellery base for gold plating
Red brass 85 & 15 Good corrosion Condensers and heat sinks,
resistance electrical
sockets
Low brass 80 & 20 - Musical instruments, flexible hoses
and pipes
Alpha-beta brasses: Also called duplex brasses, these are suited for hot
working. They contain both α and β phases; the β-phase is BCC, with
zinc atoms in the center of the cubes, and is harder and stronger than α.
Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot. The higher proportion of
zinc means these brasses have a silvery tinge. At 45% of zinc the alloy
has the highest strength.
Name Cu & Zn % Properties Uses
respectively

Muntz metal 60 & 40 Cant be rolled Condenser tube, valve stems, brazing
or forged rods.

Naval brass 60 & 39 & 1 Good salt Marine hardware, propeller shaft, piston
Sn water road and valve stems
corrosion
resistance
Leaded brass Additional 1- Good Machine stock and gears
3% lead machinability
Beta brasses: Beta brasses can only be worked hot, and are harder,
stronger, and suitable for casting. The high zinc-low copper content
means these are some of the brightest and least-golden of the common
brasses (they have a silvery-white appearance).
Alloy brasses:
• Aluminium brass contains 76% Cu, 22%Zn, 2% Al and 0.04% As.
It is widely used in marine applications as it forms a self-healing
corrosion-resistant film on the surface of the material (like stainless
steel).
• Leaded brasses: lead increases the machinability of brass as well as
increasing its strength and resistance to corrosion. The addition of lead also
seals shrinkage pores to provide pressure tightness. Brasses can contain up to
3.5 percent in lead contents, and are classified as low, medium, or high-
leaded. Leaded brass may be used to make screws, valves, fittings, bearings,
specialty fasteners, architectural hardware, and general purpose machine
parts.
• Nickel brass (nickel silver, ro: alpaca): is a copper alloy with nickel and
often zinc. The usual formulation is 60% copper, 20% nickel and 20% zinc.
Nickel silver is named due to its silvery appearance, but it contains no
elemental silver. Nickel silver first became popular as a base metal for silver-
plated cutlery and other silverware, notably the electroplated wares called
EPNS (electroplated nickel silver). It is used in zippers, better-quality keys,
costume jewelry, for making musical instruments (e.g., flutes, clarinets)
Bronzes

• The term bronze was previously applied for a copper alloy, with tin as
major alloying element.
• The simplest bronze contains 88% Cu with 12% tin (Sn, or stannium).
• Bronze is basically any copper alloy containing other alloying element
than zinc or nickel.
• Other alloying elements like phosphorous, lead, nickel etc. are also added
to obtain favorable properties.
• Other than tin, elements like aluminum, silicon or beryllium are also
alloyed with copper producing different bronzes.
• Zinc also may be present in these alloys in relatively smaller amounts.
• Bronzes are softer and weaker than steel. Comparing to brass, they are much
harder and tougher.
• Corrosion resistance, heat and electric conductivity are also better than steel,
while the cost is higher than steels.
• Bronzes are able to conduct sound vibrations better than brass, especially when
heavily alloyed. High Sn-containing bronzes are used to cast bells.
• Compared to brasses, bronzes have a lower coefficient of friction, higher
strength, toughness, corrosion resistance and also higher cost.
• Bronze has good castability and anti-friction or bearing properties.
• Bronzes are widely used for different purposes like bearings, springs, industrial
castings, bells and statues.
• Traditional bronzes are based on Sn: The solubility of Sn in Cu is 1% at room
temperature (α-solid solution). Above this value, Sn forms with Cu several chemical
compounds which are dispersed in the α-solid solution. Bronzes with Sn contents higher
than 8% can only be casted or hot-worked, while above 15% Sn, only casting is
available as a forming process for this material.
• Gun metal: an alloy of copper (88%), tin (10%), and zinc (2%). Originally used chiefly
for making guns
• Aluminium bronze: contains 4 – 11% aluminum. It has finest color and also called
imitation gold. It is very corrosion resistant. It is used for bearings, flanges, tools for
cutting and shaping non-metals (plastic, wood,…). Also used for dental crowns in
medical applications.
• Silicon bronze: is an alloy that is generally composed of 96% copper. The remainder
can be made from silicon and a variety of other alloys such as manganese, tin, iron, or
zinc. Silicon bronze is known for its easy pouring ability, appealing surface finish and
superior corrosion resistant properties, even when submerged in liquids and chemicals.
Silicon bronze was originally developed for the chemical industry but later expanded
due to its good casting characteristics.
• Beryllium bronze: contains up to 2.5% of beryllium. It has much higher tensile strength
than other bronzes. It is used for toolmaking, springs, spring wire, load cells, and other
parts that must retain their shape under repeated stress and strain. It has high electrical
conductivity, and is used in low-current contacts for batteries and electrical connectors.
• Cupronickel or copper-nickel (CuNi) is an alloy of copper that contains nickel
and strengthening elements, such as iron and manganese. The copper content
typically varies from 60 to 90 percent. Despite its high copper content,
cupronickel is silver in color. Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion by salt
water, and is therefore used for piping, heat exchangers and condensers in
seawater systems, as well as for marine hardware. It is sometimes used for the
propellers, propeller shafts, and hulls of high-quality boats. Other uses include
military equipment and chemical, petrochemical, and electrical industries.
Another common modern use of cupronickel is silver-coloured coins
• Constantan is a proprietary name for a copper–nickel alloy consisting of 55%
copper and 45% nickel. Its main feature is the low thermal variation of its
resistivity, which is constant over a wide range of temperatures. Constantan is
used for electrical resistance heating and thermocouples (high temperature
measuring devices).