Bahir Dar University
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Refrigeration and Air conditioning (Meng 5281)
For 5th year Mechanical Engineering Students
Chapter 10– Heating and cooling load calculations
Instructor: Mr. Abraham Adera 3rd January, 2025
Outlines
• Solar heat gains through glazing
• Heat gains through roofs, walls, floor
etc.
• Heat gains from occupants
• Heat gains from appliances
• Heat gains from lighting
• Cooling load Calculations
• Heating load Calculation
2
Introduction
The reason behind carrying out cooling and heating
load calculations is to ensure that the cooling and
heating equipment designed or selected serves the
intended purpose of maintaining the required
conditions in the conditioned space.
Heating load calculations are carried out to
estimate the heat loss from the building in winter so
as to arrive at required heating capacities.
• Design and/or selection of cooling and heating
systems involve decisions regarding the required
capacity of the equipment selected, type of the
equipment etc.
3
• For carrying out load calculations it is essential
to have knowledge of various energy transfers
that take place across the conditioned space,
which will influence the required capacity of
the air conditioning equipment.
• Cooling and heating load calculations involve
a systematic step-wise procedure in which one
can estimate the various individual energy
flows and finally the total energy flow across
an air conditioned building.
4
Cooling Load Components
5
• In practice, a variety of methods ranging from
simple rules-of-thumb to complex Transfer
Function Methods are used to arrive at the
building loads.
• For example, typical rules-of-thumb methods
for cooling loads specify the required cooling
capacity based on the floor area or
occupancy.
• Table below shows typical data on required
cooling capacities based on the floor area or
application. 6
7
• Such rules-of-thumb are useful in preliminary
estimation of the equipment size and cost.
• The main conceptual drawback of rules-of-
thumb methods is the presumption that the
building design will not make any difference.
• Thus the rules for a badly designed building
are typically the same as for a good design
8
In the study of air conditioning systems it is important to understand
the various aspects of solar radiation because:
1. A major part of building heat gain is due to solar radiation,
hence an estimate of the amount of solar radiation the building is
subjected to is essential for estimating the cooling and heating loads
on the buildings.
2. By proper design and orientation of the building, selection of
suitable materials and landscaping, it is possible to harness solar
energy beneficially. This can reduce the overall cost (initial and
operating) of the air conditioning system considerably by reducing
the required capacity of the cooling and heating equipment.
9
• It is possible, at least in certain instances to
build heating and cooling systems that require
only solar energy as the input. Since solar
energy is available and is renewable, use of
solar energy for applications such as cooling
and heating is highly desirable.
10
Solar constant
• This is the flux of solar radiation on a surface
normal to the sun’s rays beyond the earth’s
atmosphere at the mean earth-sun distance. The
currently accepted value of solar constant is 1370
W/m2. Since the earth’s orbit is slightly elliptical,
the extra-terrestrial radiant flux varies from a
maximum of 1418 W/m2 on January 3rd to a
minimum of 1325 W/m2 on July 4th.
11
Radiation
Diffuse Radiation:sunlight that has been scattered by the Earth's
atmosphere before reaching the surface. As a result, the light is
dispersed in various directions, creating a more evenly distributed
illumination. Diffuse radiation is responsible for the soft, shadowless
light experienced on cloudy days or in shaded areas.
• Direct Radiation also known as beam or direct normal radiation,
refers to sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface without any
scattering or obstruction. It travels in a straight line from the sun to
the point of measurement, providing a concentrated and intense form
of solar energy. Direct radiation is responsible for the bright, well-
defined shadows experienced on clear, sunny days.
12
Total solar irradiation:
In order to calculate the building heat gain due to solar radiation, one
has to know the amount of solar radiation incident on various surfaces
of the building.
The rate at which solar radiation is striking a surface per unit area of
the surface is called as the total solar irradiation on the surface. This is
given by:
13
14
The first term on the RHS, i.e., IDN cos θ, is the
contribution of direct normal radiation to total irradiation.
On a clear, cloudless day, it constitutes about 85 percent of
the total solar radiation incident on a surface. However, on
cloudy days the percentage of diffuse and reflected radiation
components is higher. The objective of solar radiation
calculations is to estimate the direct, diffuse and reflected
radiations incident on a given surface. These radiations and
the angle of incidence are affected by solar geometry.
15
Solar geometry
• The angle of incidence θ depends upon
• i. Location on earth/ latitude/
• ii. Time of the day/ hour angle/, and
• iii. Day of the year/ declination/
16
Solar heat gains through glazing/
fenestration
/
Fenestration refers to any glazed (transparent) aperture in a
building, such as glass doors, windows, skylights etc. Fenestration
is required in a building as it provides:
a) Daylight, heat and outside air
b) Visual communication to the outside world
c) Aesthetics, and
d) Escape route in case of fires in low-rise buildings
17
• Figure below shows an unshaded window
made of clear plastic glass. As shown in
the figure, the properties of this glass for
solar radiation are:
transmittivity (τ) = 0.80,
reflectivity (ρ) = 0.08 and
absorptivity (α) = 0.12.
• Thus out of 100% of solar radiation
incident on the glass, 80% is directly
transmitted to the indoors, 12% is
absorbed by the glass (which increases
the temperature of the glass) and the
remaining 8% is reflected back.
18
Fig.: Radiation properties of clear plate glass
19
• Of the 12% absorbed by the glass which leads
to increase in its temperature, about 4% is
transferred to the indoors by convection heat
transfer and the remaining 8% is lost to the
outdoors by convection and radiation.
• Thus out of 100% radiation, 84% is
transmitted to the interiors of the building. Of
course, these figures are for a clear plate glass
only. For other types of glass, the values will
be different.
20
• Assuming the transmittivity and absorptivity of the
surface same for direct, diffuse and reflected
components of solar radiation, the amount of solar
radiation passing through a transparent surface can be
written as:
21
• In the above equation, the total incident radiation consists
of direct, diffuse and reflected radiation, and it is assumed
that the values of transmittivity and absorptivity are same
for all the three types of radiation. Under steady state
conditions it can be shown that the fraction of absorbed
radiation transferred to the indoors, i.e., N is equal to:
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, which takes
into account the external heat transfer coefficient, the
conduction resistance offered by the glass and the internal
heat transfer coefficient, and ho is the external heat transfer
coefficient.
22
23
• Thus SHGF is the heat flux due to solar radiation through the
reference glass (SS). The maximum SHGF values for
different latitudes, months and orientations have been
obtained and are available in the form of Tables in ASHRAE
handbooks. For example, Table below taken from ASHRAE
Fundamentals shows the maximum SHGF values in W/m2
for 32o N latitude for different months and orientations
(direction a glass is facing).
24
25
• The first column in the table gives the
maximum SHGF values of a north facing
glass or a glass shaded from solar radiation
and oriented in any direction.
• Again it can be observed that, a glass facing
south is desirable from cooling and heating
loads points of view as it allows maximum
heat transfer in winter(reduces required
heating capacity) and minimum heat transfer
in summer (reduces required cooling
capacity). Similar tables are available for
other latitudes also in ASHRAE Handbooks.
26
Effect of external shading:
The solar radiation incident on a glazed window can be
reduced considerably by using external shadings. The
external shading reduces the area of the window
exposed to solar radiation, and thereby reduces the heat
transmission into the building. A very common method
of providing external shading is to use overhangs. The
principle of overhangs for solar heat gain control is
known for thousands of years. Fixed overhangs are
among the simplest, yet an effective method to control
the solar heat gain into a building. By
proper design of the overhangs it is possible to block the
solar radiation during summer and allow it into the
building during winter. 27
Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality
The quality of air inside the conditioned space should be
such that it provides a healthy and comfortable indoor
environment. Air inside the conditioned space is polluted
by both internal as well as external sources. The
pollutants consist of odours, various gases, volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter. The
internal sources of pollution include the occupants(who
consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide and also emit
odors), furniture, appliances etc, while the external
sources are due to impure outdoor
air. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) can be controlled by the
removal of the contaminants in the air or by diluting the
air. The purpose of ventilation is to dilute the air inside
the conditioned space 28
• Ventilation may be defined as the “supply of fresh
air to the conditioned space either by natural or by
mechanical means for the purpose of maintaining
acceptable indoor air quality”.
• Though the minimum amount of air required for
breathing purposes is small (about 0.2 litres per
second per person), the actual ventilation air required
is much larger as in addition to supplying oxygen to
the occupants, the ventilation air must:
A. Dilute the odors inside the occupied space to a
socially acceptable level
B. Maintain carbon dioxide concentration at a
satisfactory level
C. Pressurizing the escape routes in the event of fire
– Ventilation is one of the major contributors to total
cooling and heating load on the system. 29
Estimation of minimum outdoor air
required for ventilation:
Ventilation is one of the major contributors to total cooling
and heating load on the system. From energy conservation
point of view, it is important to select the ventilation
requirements suitably. The amount of air required for
ventilation purposes depends on several factors such as:
application, activity level, extent of cigarette smoking,
presence of combustion sources etc.
The ventilation requirement increases with the occupancy.
The required amount of OD air increases significantly if
smoking is permitted in the conditioned space.
See fig below 30
31
• Infiltration may be defined as the uncontrolled entry of untreated,
outdoor air directly into the conditioned space. Infiltration of outdoor air
into the indoors takes place due to wind and stack effects.
• The wind effect refers to the entry of outdoor air due to the pressure
difference developed across the building due to winds blowing outside
the building.
• The stack effect refers to the entry of outdoor air due to buoyancy
effects caused by temperature difference between the indoor and
outdoors.
• Infiltration is specified in terms of number of air changes per hour
(ACH).
– It is the number of times that the total air volume in a room or space is completely
removed and replaced in an hour.
• The ACH values are related to the outside wind velocity and the
temperature difference between the indoor and outdoors.
• Ranges from 0.5 to 2 ACH for well tight buildings to loose and poorly
sealed ones.
Elaborate wind effect and stack effect
32
• The stack ventilation is driven by difference between
outdoor and indoor air density which are caused by
thermal discrepancy.
• However, the direction and velocity of the wind have
an important effect on it.
• In the most favorable situation, when a light wind
blows in such way that the exhausted air is sucked out
at the outlets of ventilation ducts, simultaneously fresh
air flows through air inlet vents inside the rooms, which
increases the air change rate.
• However, in high wind speed, the stack ventilation can
work in an uncontrollable manner, e.g. a reverse draft
may occur, drawing inside the building unmanageable
stream of cold, unpurified outside air.
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34
35
Heating and cooling loads due to ventilation
and infiltration:
• Due to ventilation and infiltration, buildings
gain energy in summer and loose energy in
winter. The energy gained or lost consists of
both sensible and latent parts, as in general the
temperature and moisture content of indoor and
outdoors are different both in winter and
summer.
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37
Fabric Heat gain/Loss
• Whenever there is a temperature difference between the
conditioned indoor space of a building and outdoor ambient,
heat transfer takes place through the building structure
(walls, roof, floor etc.). This is known as fabric heat gain or
loss, depending upon whether heat transfer is to the building
or from the building, respectively.
• The fabric heat transfer includes sensible heat transfer
through all the structural elements of a building, but does
not include radiation heat transfer through
fenestration.
38
• Fabric heat gain or loss is heat gain/loss through
opaque surfaces roofs, walls and floor when there is
temperature difference between the conditioned space
and the environment.
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and A is
the heat transfer area of the surface on the side of the
conditioned space. CLTD is the cooling load
temperature difference
39
• Exact analysis of heat transfer through building structures
is very complex, as it has to consider:
A. Geometrically complex structure of the walls, roofs etc.
consisting of a wide variety of materials with different
thermo-physical properties.
B. Continuously varying outdoor conditions due to variation
in solar radiation, outdoor temperature, wind velocity and
direction etc.
C. Variable indoor conditions due to variations in indoor
temperatures, load patterns etc.
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Other Heat gains/Internal loads/
1. Load due to occupants: The internal cooling load due
to occupants consists of both sensible and latent heat
components. The rate at which the sensible and latent
heat transfer take place depends mainly on the
population and activity level of the occupants. Since a
portion of the heat transferred by the occupants is in
the form of radiation, a Cooling Load Factor (CLF)
should be used similar to that used for radiation heat
transfer through fenestration. Thus the sensible heat
transfer to the conditioned space due to the occupants
is given by the equation:
41
Table 35.3 shows typical values of total heat gain from the
occupants and also the sensible heat gain fraction as a
function of activity in an air conditioned space.
However, it should be noted that the fraction of the total
heat gain that is sensible depends on the conditions of the
indoor environment. If the conditioned space temperature
is higher, then the fraction of total heat gain that is sensible
decreases and the latent heat gain increases, and vice versa
42
The value of Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for occupants depends on the
hours after the entry of the occupants into the conditioned space, the total
hours spent in the conditioned space and type of the building. Since the
latent heat gain from the occupants is instantaneous the CLF for latent heat
gain is 1.0, thus the latent heat gain due to occupants is given by:
43
2. Load due to lighting: Lighting adds sensible
heat to the conditioned space.
Since the heat transferred from the lighting
system consists of both radiation and convection,
a Cooling Load Factor is used to account for the
time lag. Thus the cooling load due to lighting
system is given by:
The usage factor accounts for any lamps that are installed but
are not switched on at the time at which load calculations are
performed.
The ballast factor takes into account the load imposed by
ballasts used in fluorescent lights. A typical ballast factor
value of 1.25 is taken for fluorescent lights, while it is equal to
44
1.0 for incandescent lamps.
3. Internal loads due to equipment and
appliances:
• The equipment and appliances used in the
conditioned space may add both sensible as well
as latent loads to the conditioned space. Again,
the sensible load may be in the form of radiation
and/or convection. Thus the internal sensible load
due to equipment and appliances is given
by:
45
• The installed wattage and usage factor depend on the type of the
appliance or equipment. The CLF values are available in the
form of tables in ASHARE handbooks.
The latent load due to appliances is given by:
46
• For other equipment such as computers, printers etc, the load
is in the form of sensible heat transfer and is estimated based
on the rated power consumption.
• The CLF value for these equipment may be taken as 1.0 as the
radiative heat transfer from these equipment is generally
negligible due to smaller operating temperatures.
• When the equipment are run by electric motors which are also
kept inside the conditioned space, then the efficiency of the
electric motor must be taken into account.
47
• Though the estimation of cooling load due to appliance
and equipment appears to be simple as given by the
equations, a large amount of uncertainty is introduced on
account of the usage factor and the difference between
rated (nameplate) power consumption at full loads and
actual power consumption at part loads.
• Estimation using nameplate power input may lead to
overestimation of the loads, if the equipment operates at
part load conditions most of the time.
48
• If the conditioned space is used for storing
products (e.g. cold storage) or for carrying out
certain processes, then the sensible and latent
heat released by these specific products and or
the processes must be added to the internal
cooling loads.
• The sensible and latent heat release rate of a wide
variety of live and dead products commonly
stored in cold storages are available in air
conditioning and refrigeration handbooks. Using
these tables, one can estimate the required cooling
capacity of cold storages.
49
• In order to find the required cooling capacity
of the system, one has to take into account the
sensible and latent loads due to
ventilation,
leakage losses in the return air ducts and
heat added due to return air fan (if any).
50
Fig: A typical summer air conditioning system with a cooling coil of non-zero
by-pass factor and return fan power consumption
51
Load on the system due to ventilated air:
The above figure shows a schematic of an air
conditioning system with the cooling coil, supply and
return ducts, ventilation and fans. The cooling coil has a
by-pass factor X. Then the cooling load on the coil due
to sensible heat transfer of the ventilated air is given by
where Wo and Wi are the humidity ratios of the ambient and
conditioned air, respectively and hfg is the latent heat of 52
Load on the coil due to leakage in return air duct and
due to return air
The amount of sensible and latent heat transfer rates due to air leakage from
or to the system depends on the effectiveness of the sealing provided and the
condition of the outdoor air and return air. Since the load due to return air
duct including the return air fan (Qreturn duct) are not known a priori an
initial value (e.g. as a fraction of total building cooling load) is assumed and
calculations are performed. This value is modified at the end by taking into
account the actual leakage losses and return fan power consumption.
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