Geography
Lecture 05: Interior of the Earth
Reasons to study interior of Earth
● Tostudy the genesis of natural disasterssuch as:earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides,
volcanoes, etc
● Toexplore resourceslike:
○ Precious minerals(e.g., iron, gold, uranium)
○ Fuel resources(e.g., coal, crude oil, petroleum)
● Tounderstand geo-dynamo:To comprehend theoriginof the Earth's magnetic field.
● To understandformation of Atmosphere.
● Tounderstand the creation of physical landforms,including mountains, seas, valleys,
deserts
Sources to study interior of Earth
The study of the Earth's interior is based on direct and indirect sources:
Direct Sources:
● Volcanism:Provides material directly from the Earth'sinterior.
● Mining:Extracts materials from deeper layers of theEarth's crust.
○ Example of deepest Mines:Mponeng,South Africa: 4km deep andTautona,South
Africa: 3.9 km deep.
■ Mining operations are typically limited to depths of a few kilometers due to
technological and safety constraints and increasing temperature with
increasing depth.
● Drilling:Studies deeper layers inaccessible throughdirect sources.
● Examples:
○ Kola Superdeep Borehole Project:Located in Kola Peninsula,Russia. It is drilled to
a depth of 12 km.
○ Integrated Ocean Drilling Project:Conducted in Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean.
Example site: Chikya, Japan,drilled to a depth of7 km.
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Indirect Sources:
Temperature and Pressure:
● The Earth's outermost layer cooled, forming a strong, solid lid. Itcreated huge pressure
inside the earth.Due to this, we could not find anygaseous or liquid state inside the
earth.
● Note:Certainly, there are few exceptions.
● As we move deeper into earth temperature and pressure rises.
● Example:Inner core remains in asolid statedespiteextreme heat (~6000°C) due to high
pressure.
Gravity Anomaly:
● Gravity is directly dependent on the mass of an object.
● Different gravitational values(G1, G2, G3, G4, G5)indicatethat the composition of
Earth's interior is not uniform.This results in gravityanomalies, as Earth's density and
material distribution vary across regions.
Meteorites:
● Meteorites arerocky objects from space that manageto reach Earth's surfacewithout
completely burning up in the atmosphere.
● Sinceplanets and meteorites originate from the samenebuladuring the formation of
the solar system, there is a high probability that their interiors share similar
characteristics.
Seismic waves:
Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earth, primarily generated by earthquakes,
volcanic activity, or artificial explosions.
● Focus (Hypocenter):The point within
the Earth where the earthquake
originates. It is the initial point of energy
release.
● Epicenter: The point on theEarth's
surface directly above the focus.It is
the place on earth surface whichreceives
the earthquake waves for the very first
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time.It is typically the location where the earthquake'seffects are most strongly felt.
● Types of Seismic waves:
○ Body Waves:Travel through the Earth's interior andinclude:
■ Primary Waves (P-Waves):
Compressional waves that move
particlesinthesamedirectionasthe
wave travels; they are the fastest
seismic waves and can move through
solids, liquids, and gases.
■ Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Shear
waves that move particles
perpendiculartothewave'sdirection;
they are slower than P-waves and can only travel through solids.
○ Surface Waves: Travel along the Earth's
surfaceandtypicallycausethemostdamage
during an earthquake. They include:
■ Love Waves: Cause horizontal
shearing of the ground.
■ Rayleigh Waves: Produce a rolling
motion, causing both vertical and
horizontal ground displacement.
● Propagationofwaves:Aseismographisascientificinstrumentthatrecordsthevibrations
of the ground during earthquakes and other seismic events. Seismic waves can reflect,
refract, and change direction and speed when passing through different layers of the
Earth's interior.
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○ P-waves: Compressional or
longitudinal waves
(particles move parallel to
the wave's direction).
Fastest seismic wave that
can travel through solids,
liquids, and gases. Changes
speed and direction (refraction) when transitioning between materials with
differentdensities.Speedisapproximately6km/second.P-wavesarethefirstto
reach the Earth's surfaceduring an earthquake.
Speed in solid > Speed in liquid > Speed in gases
○ S-waves:Shearortransversewaves
(particles move perpendicular to the
wave's direction). It reaches Earth’s
surface after P-waves. Slower than
P-wavesandcanonlytravelthrough
solidsandcannotpassthroughliquid
layers, like the Earth's outer core. Speed is approximately4 km/second.
○ Love waves: Cause horizontal
shearing of the ground,
perpendicular to the wave's
direction. They have a snake-like
movement. The wave motion is
perpendicular to the direction of
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wave propagation, resulting in a side-to-side motion. Causes particular damage to
buildings and infrastructure.
○ Rayleigh waves: Move in a
circular motion (like sea
waves), combining both
vertical and horizontal
displacements. Particles move
in an elliptical motion, causing
both up-and-down and
side-to-side movements. These waves carry the most destruction due to their
combinedverticalandhorizontalmotion,causingextensivedamagetobuildingsand
infrastructure.
● In seismology, a shadow zone refers to regions onEarth'ssurfacewherespecificseismic
waves from an earthquake are not detectedbyseismographs.Thesezonesprovidecritical
insights into Earth's internal structure, particularly the nature of its core.
○ P-waves (primary or compressional waves) can travel through both solids and
liquids. However, upon reaching the boundary between the solid mantle and the
liquid outer core, they are refracted (bent) due to the change in material
properties. This refraction results in a zone between 105° and 143° where direct
P-waves are not detected.
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○ S-WaveShadowZone→S-waves(secondaryorshearwaves)cannottravelthrough
liquids. When they encounter Earth's liquid outer core, theyarehalted,creatinga
shadow zone beyond 105°where no direct S-waves areobserved.
Result of study interior of Earth
Old Study
● It is now discarded
● TheEarth was believed to have three distinct layers:
○ SIAL (Silicate + Aluminium):Considered the outermostlayer. Composed mainly of
silicate and aluminium.
○ SIMA (Silicate + Magnesium):Lies beneath SIAL. Denserthan SIAL, as it
contains more magnesium.
○ NIFE (Nickel + Iron):The innermost layer, composedof heavy metals like nickel
and iron.
○ The density of SIMA > density of SIAL.
○ SIAL was thought to "float" over SIMA, explainingwhy continents (SIAL-rich)
rest above oceanic plates (SIMA-rich).
New Study
Based on direct and indirect studies like seismic wave analysis.
Layers of the Earth
● Crust:
○ Outermost layer, divided into:
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■ Continental Crust: Thick and rich in granitic rocks (SIAL composition).
■ Oceanic Crust:Thin and rich in basaltic rocks (SIMAcomposition).
○ Relatively low density.
● Mantle:
○ Lies beneath the crust and extends to a depth of around 2,900 km.
○ Composed of upper mantle and lower mantle:
■ Upper Mantle:Includes the asthenosphere, a semi-moltenlayer that allows
tectonic plates to move.
■ Lower Mantle:Solid but capable of slow flow due tohigh pressure and
temperature.
○ Mainly composed of silicate minerals rich in magnesium and iron.
● Core:
○ Composed of:
■ Outer Core: Liquid state, rich in iron and nickel.
■ Inner Core: Solid state, composed of dense materialslike iron and nickel.
○ The core generates Earth's magnetic field due to the movement of liquid in the
outer core.
● Theasthenosphere in the upper mantle is crucial for tectonic activities.
● Thecore is responsible for Earth's magnetismdue to its metallic composition.
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