BIOL 353 – Communities and Ecosystems
Lecture #3
Community change in space I
global patterns of species composition, the
biomes, biogeographic regions and ecoregions
jp.lessard@concordia.ca
Part Seven ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY
• Biogeography is the study of the spatial or
geographical distribution of organisms, both past
and present
• Biogeography works to describe and understand
the processes responsible for patterns in the
spatial distribution of species, species diversity,
and species composition
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Approaches used to map spatial patterns of
community composition
• Biomes
– Large-scale regions describing spatial
variation in plant growth forms and climate
• Ecoregions
– Small-scale regions describing spatial
variation in plant growth forms and climate
• Biogeographic regions
– Large-scale regions describing spatial
variation in species composition (of animals,
plants, microbes, etc…)
The world’s biomes
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Chapter 23 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
• Biome types form in response to a distinctive
climatic pattern
– This was first noted by R. Whittaker (Cornell
University)
• Topography, soil type, and disturbance exposure
can also influence the occurrence of a biome in
a location
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Copyright © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
Chapter 23 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
• Mean annual temperature decreases
from the equator to the poles, while
seasonal variation in temperature
increases
• Mean annual precipitation (generally)
declines with decreasing mean annual
temperature
– A decrease in moisture availability as one moves
from the tropic to the temperate and Arctic regions
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23.1 BIOME DISTRIBUTION
• The classification of terrestrial biomes reflects the
relative contribution (composition) of plant life
forms
– Trees
– Shrubs
– Grasses
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23.1 BIOME DISTRIBUTION
• Leaf longevity: a key trait influencing distribution
– Deciduous leaves live for only a single year or
growing season
– Evergreen leaves live beyond a year
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C
23.1 BIOME DISTRIBUTION
Plant life forms and leaf type are distributed relative
to climate (precipitation and temperature)
e.g. from high to low temperature:
1. Broadleaf evergreen trees (tropical and subtropical forests)
2. Winter-deciduous trees (temperate forests)
3. Needle-leaf evergreen trees (conifer forest or taiga)
4. Trees can no longer be supported, giving rise to tundra
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Why are there consistent patterns in
the distribution and abundance of the
dominant plant life forms that relate to
climate and the physical environment?
– e.g. whereas mangroves all around
the world differ in the composition
of species they harbor, they are
similar in the composition of
“traits” they harbor
– mangrove trees always have very
long roots arching over water
23.2 TROPICAL FORESTS
• The tropical rain forest is dominated by
broadleaf evergreen plants
• Rain forests are restricted to the equatorial zone
between 10º N and 10º S
• Temperatures are warm throughout the year and
rainfall occurs almost daily
– Mean temperature >18ºC
– Minimum monthly precipitation >60 mm
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TROPICAL FORESTS
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24.3 TROPICAL SAVANNAHS
• A savannah describes a range of vegetation
types in the drier tropics and subtropics
characterized by a ground cover of grasses with
scattered trees or shrubs
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24.3 TROPICAL SAVANNAHS
• Savannahs have a two-layer vertical structure
– Grasses
– Trees or shrubs
• Characteristics of savannah:
– Occur on land surfaces of little relief
– Fire-adapted vegetation
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TROPICAL SAVANNAHS
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24.3 TROPICAL SAVANNAHS
•The distribution of savannah vegetation (especially
woody vegetation) is controlled by water availability
– Rainfall seasonality
– Soil texture, structure, water-holding capacity
23.4 GRASSLANDS
• Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is
dominated by grasses and are one of the largest
biomes on earth. They cover 31-43% of the Earth's land
area.
– Natural grasslands have shrunk to less than 12 percent of
their original size
– Grasslands occur in the mid-latitudes in mid-continental regions
where annual precipitation is reduced
– Many grasslands exist through the intervention of fire and
human activity
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Grasslands
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Copyright © 2014 Pearson Canada, Inc.
23.5 DESERTS
• Temperate deserts lie in the rain shadow of
mountain barriers or are located far inland
• The arid regions of the world occupy 25 to 35
percent of the Earth’s landmass
– It is the lack of precipitation that is the distinctive
characteristic of all deserts
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Sahara desert, Africa
DESERTS
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Chihuahuan desert, USA
Horned lizard, USA
Giant desert centipede (Scolopendra heros), USA
23.6 SHRUBLANDS
• A shrubland is an ecosystem in which the
shrub growth is the dominant or co-dominant
plant form
– A shrub is a plant with multiple woody, persistent
stems and a height from 4.5 to 8 m
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Arizona, USA
SHRUBLANDS
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Shrubland in the Fynbos of the Northern Cape, South Africa
Which of these biodiversity hotspots are located in shrublands?
23.7 TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS
• Climatic conditions of the humid mid-latitude
regions give rise to the temperate forests
dominated by broadleaf deciduous trees
• Deciduous forests in most parts of the Earth
have largely disappeared, cleared for
agriculture
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TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS
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23.8 CONIFEROUS FORESTS
• Coniferous forests are found primarily in a
broad circumpolar belt across the Northern
Hemisphere and on mountain ranges
• Low temperatures limit the growing season to a
few months each year
– Dominated by needle-leaf evergreen trees
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Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia
Siberian tiger in the coniferous forest of eastern Russia
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23.8 TEMPERATE CONIFEROUS FORESTS
• Coniferous forests in Canada are also
known as « Boreal forests »
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Boreal forest (wetland) in the Northern Territories, Canada
Taïga
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River in the boreal forests of the Laurentians
Peat bog
Taïga (lichen woodland)
23.8 TEMPERATE CONIFEROUS FORESTS
• The treeline is the geographic limit beyond
which forest does not grow. It essentially
delineates the transition zone between the
coniferous forest and the tundra
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Université Laval field station is located on
Rivière Boniface at the limit between the
boreal forest and the tundra
23.10 TUNDRA
The tundra is the biome where tree growth is hindered by low
temperatures and short growing seasons. Tundra vegetation is
composed of dwarf shrubs, sedges, grasses, mosses and lichens.
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23.10 TUNDRA
• The permafrost is the perennially frozen
subsurface that develops where the ground
temperatures remain below 0ºC
• Because the permafrost is impervious to water, it
forces all water to remain and move above it
– The ground stays soggy even though precipitation is
low
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Permafrost melting as a result of rapid climate change is
causing infrastructure to collapse in northern villages
Approaches used to map spatial patterns of
community composition
• Ecoregions
– Small-scale regions describing spatial
variation in plant growth forms and climate
• Biogeographic regions
– Large-scale regions describing spatial
variation in species composition (of animals,
plants, microbes, etc…)
The world’s ecoregions
from Olson et al. 2001; Bioscience
Ecoregions are finer-scale biomes, largely
defined by plant cover
– Ecoregions are useful to identify unique
ecosystems, and priority areas for conservation
Approaches used to map spatial patterns of
community composition
• Biogeographic regions
– Large-scale regions describing spatial
variation in species composition (of animals,
plants, microbes, etc…)
The world’s zoogeographic regions
(mammals only)
Alfred R. Wallace –
in the book The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876)
The world’s zoogeographic regions
Wallace’s approach:
1. 6 regions each divided in 4 sub-regions
2. Different regions tend to have different families and/or
genera
3. Different sub-region may only differ in species
composition
4. Taxonomic hierarchical approach
Mapping the natural world
World divided in grid cells. Colored polygons show the range of a hypothetical species
Mapping the natural world
World divided in grid cells. Colored polygons show the range of a hypothetical species
Mapping the natural world
1 2
World divided in grid cells. Colored polygons show the range of a hypothetical species
Integrating distributional and phylogenetic data to
produce a new biogeographic map
Distribution data
• 20 years of data gathering
• data on >20,000 species of vertebrates
• birds, mammals, amphibians
• modern statistics (multivariate)
Mapping the natural world
Kreft and Jetz 2010 Map
New approach for mapping the natural world
Clustering of beta diversity; mammals
Kreft and Jetz 2010
An update of Wallace’s map 137 years later
Ben Holt
+ 13 international collaborators
Holt, Lessard et al. 2013, Science
Integrating distributional and phylogenetic data to
produce a new biogeographic map
Phylogenetic data
Mapping the natural world
Kreft and Jetz 2010 Map
Phylogenetic information adds a new dimension to the
grouping of communities into biogeographic regions
Species turnover Phylogenetic turnover
100% 90%
100%
30%
100%
80%
Symbols are species and
colors indicate phylogenetic membership
An update of Wallace’s map 137 years later
Combined map including data on 20,137 species of amphibians, birds and mammals
Holt, Lessard et al. 2013, Science
Greater levels of phylogenetic differentiation in the
southern hemisphere
Combined map including data on 20,137 species of amphibians, birds and mammals
Holt, Lessard et al. 2013, Science
Biogeographic regions take different names
depending on what they describe
• Zoogeographic regions
– Spatial patterns of animal species composition
• Phytogeographic regions
– Spatial patterns of plant species composition
