THE CELL PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF CELLS

CONTENTS:
STEP 1: Feeding definition and types
(i) Meaning and Usefulness of food
(ii) Types of Nutrition: Autotrophic & Heterotrophic
(iii) Nutrient types & elements; Micronutrients [Trace] & Macronutrients [Major]
(iv) Metabolism: meaning and types
STEP 2: Nutrition: Autotrophic Nutrition
(I) Photosynthesis
(ii) Chemosynthesis
STEP 3: Heterotrophic Nutrition
(i) Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition
(ii) Role of enzymes;
Feeding in Amoeba, Spirogyra etc.
STEP 4: Cellular Respiration
(I) Definition of cellular respiration
(ii) Aerobic respiration (catabolism); Krebs cycle
(iii) Anaerobic respiration
(iv) Energy released during respiration
Metabolism: Anabolism - the usefulness of food and Catabolism
STEP 5: Excretion
Excretory organelles in living cells
(i) waste products of metabolic activities of living cells
(ii) forms in which waste products are excreted
STEP 6: Growth:
(i) basis of growth - cell division, enlargement, and differentiation
(ii) regulation of growth by hormones
(iii) mitosis & meiosis: meaning, stages, & significance (importance)
(iv) Regions of fastest growth
(v) factors affecting growth
STEP 7: Cell reactions to its environment
(i) Irritability as basic characteristics of the protoplasm
(ii) Types of responses: Tactic, Nastic, & Tropic
STEP 8: Movement
(i) Cyclosis
(ii) Organelles for movement
(iii) Growth movement as regulated by auxins
STEP 9: Reproduction: Forms of reproduction
(a) Asexual:
(i) Fission
(ii) Budding
(iii) Vegetative propagation
(b) Sexual:
(i) Conjugation
(ii) Fusion of male and female gametes, structure and functions of the male and female
gonads.

PRACTICALS: Modified Stems (Perennating Organs) – Tuber, Rhizome, Corm, Bulbs,

Suckers, Runners, etc.
 1. NUTRITION (Feeding)
Nutrition can be defined as the totality of the processes by which a living thing obtains,
and uses food. We have two types of nutrition; plant and animal nutrition.
In plant nutrition, we have photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. The latter is a process
through which non-green plants use either parasitic or saprophytic modes of nutrition to
obtain their food. It can occur in colorless autotrophic bacteria.
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e., being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, Carbondioxide.
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis (Holophytic).
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which organisms depend directly or indirectly on autotrophs
for food. All animals, fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this group and they
are referred to as heterotrophs.
MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS
Mineral elements are required for normal growth and development of green plants. In
addition to Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, other mineral requirements are discussed
below. Unlike glucose and other carbohydrates made from Carbondioxide and water
by green plants, mineral salts are obtained from the soil.
Macronutrients
These are mineral nutrients that are required by plants in large quantities. They include
the following;
Macronutrients Importance Deficiency

Nitrogen(N) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Stunted growth and

2. Nucleic acid synthesis chlorosis
3. Proper root development 2. Poor flower and fruit
4. Component of chlorophyll and enzymes formation
Phosphorus(P) 1. Formation of co-enzymes and proteins 1.Poor root development
2. Formation of DNA, RNA and ATP 2. Stunted growth
3. Stem, root, fruit and seeds formation
Sulphur(S) Formation of certain proteins in the protoplasm 1. Stunted growth
2. Chlorosis
Potassium(K) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Premature death
2. Cell membrane formation 2. Leaf margin turns yellow
3. Activates respiration and photosynthesis and brown
4. Crop maturation
Magnesium 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
(Mg) 2. Helps in cell division 2. Chlorosis
3. Activates many co-enzymes
Calcium (Ca) 1. Formation of cell wall 1. Death of terminal buds
2. Helps in storage of protein and carbohydrates in roots 2. Roots develops poorly
and tubers 3. Gives rigidity to plants 3. Stunted growth
Iron (Fe) 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
2. Formation of protein 2. Yellowing of leaves
Micro Nutrients
These are mineral nutrients required by plants in small quantities. They include the
following;
Micro nutrients Importance Deficiency
Zinc (Zn) 1. Necessary for the synthesis of the 1. Poor growth
starting material of auxin
2. Activates some enzymes
3. Plays a role in the synthesis of
protein
Copper (Cu) Component of respiratory enzymes Poor growth

Manganese (Mn) Activates some enzymes involved in Death of shoot

cellular respiration
Boron(B) Translocation of sugar and calcium Poor growth of pollen tubes
Chlorine (Cl) Necessary for oxygen release during Affects growth
photosynthesis
Molybdenum 1. Necessary for nitrogen fixation by Poor growth
(Mb) nitrogen-fixing bacteria
2. Activates the enzyme that reduces
nitrate to nitrite

2. RESPIRATION
The process by which complex food substances are broken down in a stepwise series of
reactions, in cells to produce energy with Carbondioxide (Carbon IV Oxide) and Water
as by products is called RESPIRATION.
The energy produced during respiration is used by the organism for the following;
1. Synthesis of proteins, lipids, and protoplasm
2. Germination of plant parts
3. Cell division and enlargement leading to growth
4. Movement or Locomotion
5. Transmission of nerve impulses
6. Active transport
7. Maintenance of Body temperature

Cellular Respiration
Respiration is the enzymatic breakdown of organic food substances, like glucose,
through a series of chemical reactions in the cell to release energy and produce
carbon (iv) oxide and water as by-products. Respiration occurs in all living cells.

Now, the energy released during respiration is used by the organism for such activities
as synthesis of proteins, lipids and protoplasm; germination; cell division and
enlargement leading to growth; movement; transmission of nerve impulses; active
transport and maintenance of body temperature. There is variation in the amount of
energy used by different organisms depending on their activities. A very active
organism like Tiger uses much more energy than a sluggish one, like Chameleon.
The reactions that occur in cellular or tissue respiration are usually represented by the
following equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Carbon
Glucose Oxygen Water
iv oxide

The equation represents only a summary of the raw materials and the end products of
tissue respiration. The complex pathway of cellular respiration is shown below:

Tissue respiration is divided into two main parts. The first is the glycolysis, the stepwise
series of reactions which leads to the breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid. The
process occurs in the cytoplasm in the cells. It consists of step- wise reactions, each
brought about by specific enzymes. Glycolysis is common to, and occurs in the same
general manner in all organisms.

Types of Respiration
You already know that we have
- external respiration (gaseous exchange or breathing) and
- internal respiration (tissue or cellular respiration)

While external deals with breathing in and out i.e., inhalation/inspiration and
exhalation/expiration, the internal which takes place in the cell, hence, cellular
respiration is divided into two basic parts:
1. Aerobic Respiration
2. Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration is that type which involve the use of very little or no Oxygen, while
Aerobic Respiration is that type which involves the use of large amount of Oxygen.

Anaerobic Respiration
In anaerobic respiration, pyruvic acid (a derivative of Glucose; and a 3-Carbon
compound) is converted alcohol (ethanol) in plants and lactic acid in animals
Equation for lactic acid formation:

C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + Energy

In plant cell, the products of anaerobic respiration are ethanol and carbon iv oxide.
Formation of alcohol is represented by the equation:

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy

This series of reaction convert glycogen in animal and starch in plant to glucose. The
glucose is then converted by ten steps to pyruvic acid as below:
Converting Food to Usable Energy
Cellular respiration is a complex series of chemical reactions that harvests the energy
trapped in the bonds of glucose sugar molecules and converts it into a chemical form
that can be stored for later use. Humans and other animals obtain glucose sugar
molecules from food, such as the fruits and grains shown here, while plants create
glucose sugars in the process of photosynthesis. Essential to the survival of most
organisms on Earth, cellular respiration yields the energy that makes our bodies function
properly.
Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration is a breaking down process known as catabolism, an aspect of
metabolism. It is represented by the Krebs’s Cycle. Diagram required. In Krebs’s Cycle,
for one molecule of pyruvic acid 15 molecules of ATP are produced. Since a molecule
of glucose produce 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, therefore 30 molecules of ATP are
produced from the 2 molecules of pyruvic acid. Hence, a molecule of glucose
produced a total of 38 molecules of ATP during a complete aerobic respiratory process.
The oxidation of glucose can thus be summarized with the following equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Carbon
Glucose Oxygen Water
iv oxide

Another aspect of metabolism is Anabolism which is a building up process. An example

is an aspect of plant nutrition commonly known as photosynthesis.

Metabolism is the chemical reactions in the body's cells that change food into energy.
Our bodies need this energy to do everything from moving to thinking to growing.
Specific proteins in the body control the chemical reactions of metabolism.

MECHANISM OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration involves two main stages
a. Glycolysis: this occurs in the cytoplasm of the cells. First the glucose molecule is
phosphorylated by the addition of a phosphate group to the glucose to become
glucose-6-phosphate which is carried out by an enzyme known as hexose kinase.
There are ten steps in this pathway that leads to the breakdown of One molecule of
6 – carbon into two molecules of the 3-carbon pyruvic acid by the enzymes in the
cytoplasm. This process does not require oxygen. Glycolysis takes place in the
cytoplasm. At the end of the pathway, 2 ATP is used to produce 4 ATP (2 ATPs from
each pyruvate) so that a net energy of 2 ATP is generated in glycolysis, this is called
“substrate level phosphorylation”.
b. Krebs’s cycle (also known as citric acid cycle CAC or Tricarboxylic acid cycle TCA):
Here, each pyruvic acid is further oxidized completely to carbon dioxide and water
in the mitochondria. The pyruvic acid from the glycolysis is converted to acetic acid
through the removal of one molecule of CO2. The acetic is carried into the Krebs’s
cycle by co enzyme A. The combination of acetic acid and co enzyme A forms
acetyl-coA. Acetyl-coA combines with oxaloacetate acid to form citric acid which
is an important started of the Krebs cycle. Krebs’s cycle takes place in the matrix of
the mitochondrion. Most of the ATP is generated in the cycle. The oxidation process
in Krebs cycle leads to the production of 36 ATPs (18 ATP from each pyruvate). The
 process used in the production of ATP in Krebs cycle is called Oxidative
phosphorylation. A total of 38 ATP is generated from the aerobic breakdown of
glucose. The Krebs cycle is particularly important because it is key pathway that
connects protein, fats and carbohydrates.

MODES OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e., being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide)
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which green plants synthesize organic compounds from inorganic
raw materials in the presence of chlorophyll and light.
light
6C02 + 6H20 C6H12O6 + 602
(Inorganic materials) Chlorophyll (organic compound) (by product)
The main product of photosynthesis is sugar (carbohydrate) while the oxygen given up
is a by-product which is released into the atmosphere.

FEATURES (CHARACTERISTICS) OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

These are as follows:
1. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of cells in the presence of light.
2. The raw materials required are low energy containing inorganic compound i.e.
CO2 and H2O
3. The final product is a high energy containing compound (C6H12O6 )n
Photosynthesis, therefore is an anabolic process (metabolic building up process)
4. The energy required is obtained from solar energy through the chlorophyll (the
green pigment present in the chloroplast of green plants.
5. The carbon dioxide and oxygen diffuse in and out (respectively) between the
surrounding air and leaf passing through the stomata opening on the leaf
surface. These gases are stored in insoluble form until the day is dark. Then, the
sugar is converted and transported to other parts of the plants where it is
needed. The movement of the sugar is called translocation.
6. Leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of the plant although all green parts of a
plant are photosynthetic. The main site of photosynthesis in a leaf is the palisade
mesophyll.

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis involves two stages
a. Light phase: it takes place during the day. It involves four stages
− Activation of chlorophyll: the chlorophyll trap light energy from the sun and
get energized
− Photolysis of water: splitting of water molecules by light energy
H2O H+ + OH--
OH − H2 O
− Hydrogen transfer by NADP (NADP + H+ NADPH2)
− Formation of ATP from ADP: this takes place to store energy for the dark
phase reaction.
 b. Dark phase: In the dark phase of photosynthesis (occurring in the stroma of
chloroplast in the presence of NADPH and ATP), neither light energy nor chlorophyll
is needed. This stage takes place in the dark or at night.
During this phase, hydrogen ion and carbon dioxide molecule combine chemically
under the control of enzymes to form the simple sugar.
4H+ + CO2 CH2O + H2O
Simple sugar forms the chemical structural basis for other carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins
IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYTHESIS
The enzyme-rich product of photosynthesis is used by plants and animals through:
1. The source of energy for their metabolic activities
2. It is needed in food cycle being the only process that can trap sun energy.
3. All animals and other heterotrophic plants are directly or indirectly dependent
on green plants for food.
4. Photosynthesis assists in the purification of the environment by removing carbon
(iv) oxide from it while oxygen is released into it.
5. Basis for manufacturing other complex organic compounds such as lipids,
proteins

A. PRACTICALS - EXPERIMENTS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The occurrence of photosynthesis in plants can be shown by experiments. Experiment is
carried out to show the importance of Carbondioxide, sunlight energy, chlorophyll.
There is the need to prove that oxygen is given off.
1. Testing a leaf for starch
The leaf to be tested is detached from the plant and put into boiling water for about
10-15mins. This kills the protoplasm of the leaf and makes iodine to easily penetrate the
starch granules. The boiled leaf is put into alcohol. This is to extract the chlorophyll from
the leaf. The leaf becomes white and brittle. It is then dipped into hot water to soften
the tissues. The bleached leaf is spread on a white tile a few drop of iodine is added to
it. The colour of the leaf is then tested against a light source.
If the leaf appears blue-black in colour, it contains starch, if the colour is yellowish-
brown, it contains no starch.
2. To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.
Two potted plants are kept in darkness or 48-72 hours to make it starch-free or carry out
the above experiment in destarching leaves. One of the potted plants remains in
darkness while the other is exposed to sunlight for 4 hours. Leaves from the potted plants
exposed to light turns blue-black when tested with iodine while the leaves kept in
darkness remains brown. This shows that without light, photosynthesis cannot take
place.

3. To show that oxygen is given off as a by-product of photosynthesis

In this experiment, gas is collected in the test tube placed over the green plant and
tested with a glowing splint. If it re-kindles the glowing splint, it shows that oxygen is
given off because it is the only colorless gas that re-kindles a glowing splint.

4. Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

The same experiment in destarching a leaf is carried out here
5. Experiment to show that carbon (IV) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis
In this experiment, the leaves are de-starched. Two potted plants are placed in two bell
jars labeled A and B. Each of the potted plants is place on a Vaseline glass plate to
prevent air containing carbon (iv) oxide from leaking into the bell jar. A dish containing
lime water is placed in one of the jars to absorb carbon (iv) oxide. Both jars are left
exposed to sunlight for about 4 hours and tested for starch.

CONDITIONS (FACTORS) FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The two major conditions necessary for photosynthesis are
a. External factors which include light, water, carbon (iv) oxide and mineral salt.
b. Internal factors include chlorophyll and enzymes.
Temperature is partly external (from sunlight) and partly internal (from the chemical
reactions taking place in plant

CHEMOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which non-green plants (e.g., Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, iron
bacteria etc.) synthesize organic compound from inorganic materials (carbon dioxide
and water). The energy used in this process is got from inorganic substances such as
ammonia and by hydrogen sulphate.
H2S + O2 S + H2O + chemical energy
chemical

H2O + CO2 CH2O

energy

HETEROTROPHIC MODES OF FEEDING

(a) Holozoic Nutrition
This is the mode of feeding in which food is ingested in the form of complex organic
substances which is digested and assimilated into the body. Holozoic organisms
are grouped into carnivores, herbivores, omnivores and scavengers.
(b) Parasitic Nutrition
This is the mode of feeding in which certain organisms (parasites) feed on other
organisms (host). Parasites can be endoparasites (tapeworm, liver fluke) or
ectoparasites (lice, ticks) depending on whether they live inside or outside the
host. Plant parasites include dodder, mistletoe. Parasites have special structures
such as haustoria, sucker, hooks, and muscular lips e. t. c.
(c) Saprophytic Nutrition
This is feeding process in which certain organisms (saprophytes) feed on non-living
organic matter i. e. plant and animal remains. Saprophytes secrete digestive
enzymes into the dead organic matter to digest the food (extracellular digestion)
and the soluble food substances are then absorbed into their body. Examples
include fungi i.e. Mucor, mushroom, yeast and some bacteria
(d) Symbiotic Nutrition
This is a mode of feeding in which two organisms of different species called
symbionts live together and derive mutual benefits e.g. nutrients or food, shelter,
moisture e. t. c from each other. Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria called
Rhizobium leguminosarum, which live in root nodules of legumes, algae and fungi
in a lichen.
(e) Carnivorous / Insectivorous Nutrition
This is a feeding process in which some plants that have special devices trap and
digest insects. These plants grow in poor soil and proteins obtained from the insects
are used to supplement their nitrogenous compound requirement. These plants
secrete enzymes which help in digesting their victim. Examples include;
1. Bladderwort (Utricularia)
2. Pitcher plant (Nepenthes)
3. Sundew (Drosera)
4. Venus fly trap (Dionaea muscipula)
5. Butterwort (Pinguicula)
Feeding Mechanisms in Holozoic Organisms
All animals obtain their food directly from plants or by feeding on other animals. Their
nutritional requirements are obtained from ingested food. Various organisms obtain and
ingest their food in different ways; this is referred to as their feeding mechanism. The
feeding mechanism of an organism depends on the organism’s mode of nutrition and
the type of food on which it feeds. The ingested food is broken down into simple,
soluble and diffusible substances through the process of digestion. The digested food is
then absorbed into the fluids of the organism and transported to the body cells where it
is assimilated (i.e., used). Undigested food is egested from the body.
Feeding mechanism in holozoic organisms include the following;
1. Use of pseudopodia to engulf food e.g., in Amoeba
2. Beating movement of cilia to move food into the oral groove e.g., Paramecium.
3. Sweeping movement of flagella to move food into the mouth e.g., in Euglena.
4. Use of tentacles e.g., Hydra.
5. Filter feeding e.g., Mosquito larvae, whales, oysters, etc.
6. Fluid feeding e.g., Insects, hummingbirds, etc.
7. Saprophytic feeding e.g., mushroom, Rhizopus, etc.
8. Parasitic feeding e.g., Dodder plant, Mistletoe, liver fluke, lice, guinea worm,
tapeworm, etc.
ROLES OF ENZYMES
An enzyme is an organic catalyst. A catalyst is a substance which brings about or
greatly speeds up a chemical reaction and it is not used up or changed during the
reaction. Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions in living cells without changing their
composition in the process. Enzymes are protein molecules and are manufactured by
an organism’s own cells.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ENZYME
Types of Enzymes
Enzymes are classified based on the nature of chemical changes brought about on a
substrate. Examples include:
1. Hydrolases: These bring about the decomposition of a substrate by the
addition of water molecules to it. This process is called hydrolysis. However,
they can also bring about a reverse reaction in which complex substance
are synthesized from simple substances by the removal of water
(condensation). Most digestive enzymes are hydrolysis enzymes.
2. Oxido-reductase: These bring about oxidation of a substrate by the
addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen. This reaction is usually
accompanied by the reduction of another substance. Most respiratory
enzymes such as dehydrogenases, oxidases and catalases belong to this
group.
3. Transferases: These catalyses reversible reactions
4. Isomerases: These usually change the spatial configuration of a molecule
in a living cell. They work on isomers.
5. Lyases: These catalyses the breaking up of bonds by elimination or
addition reactions.
6. Ligases: These catalyses the joining of two molecules with accompanying
hydrolysis of a high energy bond.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES

1. They are proteins in nature.

2. They are soluble
3. Some enzymes require the presence of non-proteinous molecules called co-
enzymes to activate them.
4. Enzymes are specific in action e.g. amylases will only act on starch.
5. Enzymes are organic catalysts i.e. they speed up chemical reactions in the body
but are unchanged at the end of the reaction.
6. They are affected by the acidity or alkalinity of their surrounding and will only
work in specific pH medium.
7. They have a specific temperature range above or below which they become
denatured/ inactive. They work best between 35 to 40ºc.
8. Enzymes can be inactivated by inhibitors like cyanide and mercury.
9. They are usually involved in reversible reactions.
10. Enzymes act in small quantities and catalyzes large amount of substrate.
11. They can function outside organisms producing them.

B. PRACTICALS FOR ANIMAL NUTRITION

Practical Guide on Food Tests

The materials/nutrients present in food can be identified using various types of tests.
These are:
1. Test for carbohydrates
(a) To test for simple sugar e.g., glucose and fructose.
Put a small quantity of glucose solution in a test tube.
Add an equal amount of benedict solution.
Boil the mixture for 4 – 6 minutes. A bricks-red or orange precipitate indicates the
presence glucose.
(b) To test for complex sugar e.g., sucrose, maltose or lactose
Put a small quantity of the sucrose solution in a test-tube
Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid to the solution, (This hydrolyses the complex
sugar to simple sugar). Place the test-tube in a boiling water bath for a few minutes.
Add a few drops of dilute caustic soda (to neutralize the excess acid).
Add an equal amount of feeling’s solution and place the test-tube in a boiling bath. An
orange-red precipitate/yellow precipitate indicates the presence of sucrose.
(c) To test for starch
1. Boil a sample of the starch material (e.g., yam/rice)
2. Add a few drops of dilute iodine solution to it. A blue-black colouration indicates
the presence of starch.
2. To test for proteins
(a) Biuret test
1. Take a small quantity of fresh milk, egg white solution or malt extract in a test-
tube.
2. Add a few drops of water and 1cm³ of dilute sodium hydroxide.
3. Carefully add 1% of copper II sulphate solution in drops. Shake the mixture
thoroughly after each drop.
4. A violet, purple, violet colour indicates the presence of protein
5. A pink colour indicates the presence of peptones.
(b) Millon’s test
1. Put 3cm³ of egg white/colloidal solution of a protein into a test-tube
2. Add 3cm³ of million’s reagent and warm the mixture in a water bath for a few
minutes.
3. A deep red colour or precipitate shows the presence of protein.
(c) Xanthoproteic test
1. Put 2cm³ of egg white or milk solution in a test-tube.
2. Carefully add about 1cm³ concentrated Trioxonitrate (v) acids. A white
precipitate forms which turns yellow on heating.
3. Cool the contents and add about 3cm³ of ammonium hydroxide solution. Heat
the solution and allow it to cool. The colour of the precipitate deepens to orange
indicating the presence of protein.
3. To test for fats and oils
(a) Translucent mark test
1. Drop oil on a spot, on a piece of paper or rub the surface of a fatty food against
the surface of a piece of white paper. A translucent mark shows the presence of
fat.
(b) Sudan III test
1. Add a few drops of Sudan (iii) solution to some oil in a test-tube. A red
colouration is obtained
2. Boil the solution. A black precipitate is formed.
3. EXCRETION
Definition
Excretion is defined as the process by which living things eliminate waste products or
toxic substances from their body through their excretory organs.

Excretory System of Some Organisms

ORGANISM EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Some unicellular organism Contractile Vacuole

Flatworms Flame cells

Crustaceans {crayfishes, crabs} Coxal glands

Annelids {earthworm} Nephridia

Molluscs {Octopuses, Squids, Land snails} Renal or Green glands

Insects Malpighian tubules

Vertebrates Kidneys, lungs, skin, and liver.

Plants Stomata and Lenticels

Excretory Organs and Substances they Excrete in Vertebrates

In Animals
Lungs: Carbon (iv) oxide, and water vapour.
Skin: Sweats, salts and nitrogenous waste.
Kidney: Urea, excess water, excess salts, ammonium compounds, and acids.
Liver: Bile pigments.
In Plants
Stomata: Oxygen, Carbon (iv) oxide and water vapour.
Bark: Tannins, resins and latex.
Leaves: Crystals of calcium oxalate, calcium carbonate and anthocyanin pigments
which give red, blue, and violet colours to many flowers.
Lenticels: Oxygen, Carbon (IV) oxide and vapour.
Main Excretory Organisms found Excretory wastes
Structures/Organs

1 Contractile Vacuole Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Water, CO2, Nitrogenous

Chlamydomonas etc. compounds

2 Nephridium Annelids: Earthworm, Roundworms Nitrogenous compounds, Urea,

etc. Ammonia, CO2

3 Flame Cells Flatworms: Tapeworm, Planaria, Nitrogenous compounds, Urea,

Liver fluke etc. Ammonia, CO2

4 Renal/Green glands Molluscs: Octopuses, Squids, Land Ammonia, Ammonium Chloride,

Snails, Slugs etc. CO2

5 Coxal glands Crustaceans: Crayfishes, Crabs Nitrogenous wastes, CO2

6 Malpighian tubules Insects: Ants, Grasshopper, etc. Uric Acid, CO2

 7 Kidney Vertebrates: Fish, Toad, Lizard, Bile pigments, Excess salts, Excess
Birds, Man etc. Water, Urea, Urine, Ammonia, CO2,

8 Stomata Leaves: Higher Plants Oxygen, Carbon (iv) oxide and

water vapour. Crystals of calcium
oxalate, calcium carbonate and
anthocyanin pigments,

9 Lenticels Stem: Higher Plants Oxygen, Carbon (IV) oxide and

vapour. Tannins, resins, alkaloids,
morphine, cocaine, gums,
mucilage, and latex

4. GROWTH
The Meaning of Growth
Growth is defined as an irreversible increase in size and dry weight (mass) due to
formation/addition/synthesis of a new protoplasm in the cell. Whenever the anabolic
processes proceed at a faster rate than the catabolic process, there will be a supply of
new substances to cause growth.

Growth is the irreversible increase in dry mass, size and complexity of an organism brought about by
the synthesis of new protoplasm. For growth to be effective, building up of materials (anabolism)
must exceed the rate of breaking down (catabolism). In plants, growth is indefinite and apical while
it is definite and uniform in animals.

BASIS OF GROWTH
The basis of growth involves three major phases i.e. cell division (mitosis), cell enlargement and cell
differentiation. Life begins as a single fertilized cell, continuous as the cell divides into two daughter
cells then into four and so on. After cell division, the daughter cells increase in mass and size
(enlargement). Eventually, each cell develops into a special type of cell (specialization) by changing
its shape and structure to carry out a particular function. Most specialized cells, at maturity lose their
ability to divide.

There are three distinct processes that contribute to growth. They are called the BASIS
OF GROWTH and they include;
1. cell division,
2. cell enlargement and
3. cell differentiation.

In cell division, the nucleus and then the cytoplasm of the parent cell divide to form
two daughter cells, then into four and so on bringing about an increase in the number
of cells. The daughter cells then increase in mass and size (i.e. enlarge) and eventually
develop into a special type of cell (i.e. differentiate) by changing its shape and
structure to carry out a particular function. The kind of cell it becomes depends on its
position in the body of the organism. It may develop into a nerve cell in the brain, a
muscle cell in the heart or a ciliated lining cell in the trachea.

Cell division - is the basis for growth in all multicellular organisms. It is divided into two;
- Mitosis [Mitotic Division]
- Meiosis [Meiotic Division]
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
There are two types of cell division:
(a) Mitosis
(b) Meiosis

MITOSIS
Mitosis is a cell division to produce two daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes and
characteristics as those of the parent cell. This cell division takes place only in somatic cells (i.e. body
cells that are not involved in the production of gametes) such as skin, bone marrow and meristematic
tissues in plants.
Mitotic cell division involve five main stages
a. Interphase: This is referred to as the resting stage where the chromosomes becomes
elongated and form a network of fine threads called chromatids
b. Prophase: in early prophase chromosomes become visible, nucleolus shrinks, centrioles start
moving away from each other in opposite direction and the formation of spindle fibers begins.
During the late prophase, chromosomes become shorter, thicker and visible. Each
chromosome now forms two distinct chromatids joined by a centromere. Nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear entirely.
c. Metaphase: paired chromatids arrange themselves along the equator of the spindle and are
attached to the spindle at the centromere.
d. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate and start migrating to the opposite poles of the cell and
eventually reach the poles.
e. Telophase: the cell starts dividing into two by constricting at the equator, nucleolus and
nuclear membrane are reform in each daughter cell, spindle fibers degenerates and
chromosomes eventually regain their threadlike form

Mitosis is the cell division which occurs in the body cell (somatic cells) during which a
parent cell divides to produce two daughter cells having the same number of
chromosomes as itself.
- Mitosis does not occur in all the cells of growing region of the organisms e.g., the
root tips or shoot apices and cambium that undergo mitosis. These growing
regions are described as meristems.
- Cell division by mitosis occurs in a single cycle with four successive phases of
continuous sequence namely interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase. Between the end of one mitosis and the commencement of a new
mitotic division is a period described as interphase or pre-mitotic phase.
- Interphase is not a resting time, but a period during which the young daughter
cells accumulate and synthesize new body materials, thus preparing itself for the
next division.
- Two daughter cells synthesize new structures from the raw materials that they
absorb from their surroundings. This process is called assimilation and results into
cell enlargement. Cell differentiation also occurs as the cell develops into
specialized cells.
- An organism may be said to achieve growth when there is an increase in its dry
weight, size or number of cells.
- Two daughter cells have diploid (46) number of chromosomes
Importance of mitosis

a. It brings about growth, development and specialization especially in multicellular organisms.

b. Asexual reproduction binary and multiple fissions in protozoa, budding in yeasts are result of
mitosis.
c. It ensures the diploid condition of the cells is retained from generation to generation
d. It aids the repair of damaged cells

Life processes involved in mitosis

a. Formation of new cells in Malpighian layer of the skin

b. Production of red and white blood cells in the bone marrow
c. Healing of wounds
d. Growth in meristem
e. Binary fission

MEIOSIS

Meiosis is the cell division that gives rise to gametes and haploid spores. In flowering plants and
animals, it occurs only in the reproductive organs. When a diploid cell undergoes meiosis, the
chromosomes replicate once and the nucleus and cell duplicate (divide equally) twice. This results
in the diploid parent cell giving rise to four haploid cells.
At the start of meiosis, each member of a homologous pair of chromosomes moves to lie side by
side so that all parts of the two chromosomes match exactly. Each chromosome is also made up
of two chromatids while they are thus paired; genetic material is exchanged between the
chromatids. This is known as crossing over and leads to greater variation in the offspring.
When the nucleus divides for the first time the chromosomes in a given pair (not chromatids)
separate and move to opposite ends of the cell. This results in only half the number of the
chromosomes going to each daughter cell.
During the second nuclear division, the chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of each
daughter cell. This gives rise to four gamete cells, each with a haploid number of chromosomes.

Meiosis
Meiosis involves two divisions or cycles of the parental cell resulting into four daughter
cells.
• The mother cell has the diploid (46) number of chromosomes.
• The four daughter cells (gametes) have half the number of chromosomes (haploid -
23) that the mother cell had.
• In the first meiotic division there is a reduction in the chromosome number because
homologous chromosomes and not chromatids separate.
• Each division has four stages; Interphase, Prophase 1, Metaphase 1, Anaphase 1,
Telophase 1, prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, and Telophase 2.
• This type of cell division takes place in reproductive organs (gonads) to produce
gametes.
• The number of chromosomes in the gamete is half that in the mother cell
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Mitosis Meiosis
1. Occurs during the growth of somatic Occurs during gamete production.
cells and asexual reproduction.
2. Two daughter cells (offspring) are Four daughters’ cells (offspring) are
formed. formed.
3. Chromosome number of parent and Chromosome number of daughter
daughter cells is the same. cells is half the number in the parent
cell.
4. The chromosome and their genes in The chromosomes and their genes in
each daughter cell is identical. the four-daughter cell are not
identical.
5. No crossing over occurs Crossing over occurs.
6. Offspring produced by mitosis are Offspring produced by meiosis in
exact replicates or clones of the parent sexual reproduction will show
organism. variations among themselves and
their parents.

ASPECTS OF GROWTH
Growth varies from one organism to another. To measure growth, the following parameters are used:
a. Man: the dry mass is more accurate and reliable than the wet mass
b. size and length e.g. height of man
c. increase in number of cells e.g. budding in yeast cell

REGIONS OF FASTEST GROWTH IN PLANTS

The regions of fastest growth in plants are the root and stem apices. Since growth in plants is apical,
the root and stem apices can be divided into
a. Region of cell division (called the apical meristem) brings about primary growth of a plant
b. Region of elongation
c. Region of cell maturation/specialization

GROWTH CURVE
The growth rate of a living organism is measured using a growth a curve. The growth pattern of man
shows a sigmoid curve. The growth pattern consists of three phases:
1. Lag phase: This is the initial stage where slow growth is experienced. At this stage, the cell
is still accumulating the necessary material to begin the process.
2. Log or exponential phase: This is the phase of rapid of rapid growth.
3. Stationary phase: This is a stage where no observable growth is experienced.
The growth curve of insect is like a step. Each growth phase (instar) is interrupted by a period of
molting (ecdysis)
FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH
a. External factors it includes availability of nutrients, humidity, light, temperature, PH and
accumulation of metabolic products.
b. Internal factors are mainly hormones. The two major growth hormones in plant are auxin
and gibberellins. In animals, the hormones concerned with growth are secreted by the anterior
pituitary gland, thyroid gland and the gonads. Over or under secretion of any of these
hormones leads to abnormal growth.

- The external factors include the following:

1. Nutrient availability: Body substances are synthesized from available nutrient
materials and energy.
2. Accumulation of toxins: byproducts of metabolism may inhibit growth.
3. Temperature: All biological processes including growth are accelerated as
temperature rises from a minimum value at which no growth occur to a certain
point beyond which retardation occurs.
4. Light is essential for the growth of photosynthetic plants because it supplies the
energy by which all new tissues are synthesized.
5. pH – Hydrogen ion Concentration: The pH of the fluid in contact with a cell has a
profound effect on all its activities. Some species grow best in a given PH range.

The main internal factors controlling growth are

1. Hormones: Hormones are chemical substances produced by ductless or
endocrine glands, in minute/little quantities, secreted directly into the
bloodstream and carried down to their target organs.
2. Enzymes: Enzymes are organic catalysts that speed up the rate of
3. chemical reactions in the body. All Enzymes are protein, all proteins are
not enzymes.
Root Tip Showing Apical Meristem
This lengthwise section of the tip of a plant root shows the apical meristem, which, with its
rapidly dividing cells, is responsible for primary growth. Apical meristem can also be found at
the tips of stems.
Cell division (mitosis) is the basis for growth in all multicellular organisms. Mitosis is the cell
division which occurs in the body cell (somatic cells) during which a parent cell divides to
produce two daughter cells having the same number of chromosomes as itself.
Mitosis does not occur in all the cells of growing region of the organisms e.g. the root tips or
shoot apices and cambium that undergo mitosis. These growing regions are described as
meristems.
Cell division by mitosis occurs in four successive phases of continuous sequence namely
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Between the end of one mitosis and the
commencement of a new mitotic division is a period described as interphase or pre-mitotic
phase. Interphase is not a resting time, but a period during which the young daughter cells
accumulate and synthesize new body materials, thus preparing itself for the next division.

CONCLUSION
Growth is defined as an irreversible increase in size and mass due to formation of new
protoplasm in the cell. Whenever the anabolic processes proceed at a faster rate than the
catabolic process, there will be a supply of new substances to cause growth.
The three distinct processes that contribute to growth are cell division, cell enlargement and cell
differentiation. In cell division, the nucleus and then the cytoplasm of the parent cell divide to
form two daughter cells, then into four and so on bringing about an increase in the number of
cells. The daughter cells then increase in mass and size (i.e. enlarge) and eventually develop
into a special type of cell (i.e. differentiate) by changing its shape and structure to carry out a
particular function. The kind of cell it becomes depends on its position in the body of the
organism. It may develop into a nerve cell in the brain, a muscle cell in the heart or a ciliated
lining cell in the trachea.

C. PRACTICAL- SPEMANN’S EXPERIMENTS

The experiments of Hans Spemann in the early 1900s demonstrated the role of certain
cytoplasmic signaling substances in the amphibian embryo. (Left): By cleaving the fertilized egg
unnaturally, Spemann showed that an area called the gray crescent is essential to embryonic
development. (Right): By the two-cell-layer (blastula) stage, the cells in the embryo have
already been “mapped” to the structures they will form in the complete embryo. Spemann
showed that if the embryo were cleaved at this point, only the section containing the dorsal lip
of the blastopore (once the gray crescent area) would continue to develop.
The daughter cells synthesize new structures from the raw materials that they absorb from their
surroundings. This process is called assimilation and results into cell enlargement. Cell
differentiation also occurs as the cell develops into specialized cells.
An organism may be said to achieve growth when there is an increase in its dry weight, size or
number of cells.

5. CELL’S REACTIONS TO ITS ENVIRONMENT - IRRITABILITY

INTRODUCTION TO IRRITABILITY (SENSITIVITY)
The protoplasm of plant and animal cells is irritable. It can detect and respond to the changes in
their environment. Any change in conditions which is enough to produce a change in the activities
of an organism or its part is called a stimulus.
TYPES OF RESPONSES
The three responses of the cell to its environment are tactic, nastic and tropic responses.
a. Tactic responses (Taxism): It is a response made by a whole organism or its freely
locomotive part in response to an external stimulus. Types of tactic responses are:
• Phototactic (Phototaxis): response to variation and intensity of light e.g. in
free swimming Euglena, Chlamydomonas etc.
• Chemotactic (Chemotaxis): response to the presence of chemical substances
e.g. chemotactic movement of Amoeba away from an acidic environment.
• Aerotactic (Aerotaxis): response to the source of oxygen
• Osmotactic (Osmotaxis): response to variation in osmotic concentration

b. Nastic responses (Nastism): This is a response made by a fixed plant in response to

a non-directional or diffuse stimulus. Various types of nastic responses include the
following:
• Nyctinastic (Nyctinastism): response to changing day and night conditions as
exhibited by some flowers and leaves due to changing conditions of temperature
and light intensity. Nyctinastic movement is a combination of two factors-
temperature and light i.e. thermonastic and photonastic respectively e.g. leaflets
of leguminous plants such as acacia, groundnut and clover.
• Haptonastic (Haptonastism): response due to contact e.g. movement of
leaves of insectivorous plants such as venus flytrap.
• Hydronastic (Hydronastism): response to humidity changes
• Chemonastic: response to presence of specific chemical substances.
 c. Tropic Responses (Tropism): This is a response made by a fixed plant part to a
stimulus. The direction of movement is determined by the direction from which the
stimulus originates. Various types of tropic responses include the following:
1. Phototropism: growth movement in response to the stimulus of light e.g. growth
of plant stems. Shoot is positively phototropic while the root is negatively
phototropic.
2. Geotropism: a growth response to the stimulus of gravity e.g. geotropic response
of root and shoot. Root is positively geotropic while shoot is negatively geotropic.
3. Hydrotropism: a growth response to the stimulus of water e.g. root of plants
grows towards a water source.
4. Chemotropism: response to concentration of chemical substances.
5. Haptotropism (Thigmotropism): a response to the stimulus of touch e.g.
tendrils of climbing plants.

6. MOVEMENT
Livingcells are metabolically very active and their contents are constantly moving because:
i. Materials constantly enter or leave the cell or move from one part of the cell to the other.
ii. Genetical information flows from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and
iii. Protein and other substances which are manufactured or broken down are transported
within or out of the cell. These can be seen as protoplasmic streaming or cyclosis.
1. Cyclosis: is the circulation of protoplasm in the cell where the protoplasm flows around the
cell constantly in one direction.
2. Amoeboid Movement: This is characteristics of the naked non-cellular masses of
protoplasm of many of the protozoan’s, the sliming fungi, some plants and animal gametes
and certain wandering cells in higher animal bodies e.g. leucocytes in man.
Amoeba moves in a slow streaming way by pulling out lobe-shaped extensions of the cell
called pseudopodia.
When a pseudopodia form, a thin plasmosol flows into it and is changed into the semi-solid
plasma gel. As a pseudopodium streams forward at one end of the cell another is withdrawn.
By this means amoeba moves about. Human white blood corpuscles use amoeboid movement
to pursue and capture bacteria in the blood plasma.
3. Organelles for Movement: These include pseudopodia, cilia and flagella. Pseudopodium is
an organelle of locomotion in Amoeba. In some protozoans and tiny aquatic animals,
movement is brought about by cilia and flagella. They are similar in structure composed mainly
of microtubules powered by ATP.

Cilia are short hair-like structures. They are usually numerous and packed closely together.
They move in a co-ordinate way to bring about movement. In the paramecium, the action of
the cilia moves the whole organism at the same time it also directs a current of water
containing food into the paramecium gullet. In the cells lining the human wind pipe, the
beating of the cilia causes mucus to more up towards the throat.
Flagella are at least ten times longer than cilia and are fewer in number. It is a whip-like
structure which can send waves of movement along its length. Flagella help to move the
organisms like Euglena and Chlamydomonas and motile parts of organisms like human
sperms.
GROWTH MOVEMENT REGULATED BY AUXINS
Auxins are produced at the apices of shoots and roots but move to the region of sell elongation
to bring about their effect. Auxin functions as hormones or chemical messengers.
1. Phototropism: When a shoot receives light from all sides, the auxins produced at the
shoot apex pass down and exert a stimulating effect on the region of cell elongation,
causing the shoot to grow evenly and vertically. When a shoot receives light from one
side only, it bends and grows towards the light. If the shoot tip is covered, the shoot
continues to grow vertically. This shows that somehow, one sided lighting causes less
auxins to gather on the shaded side. This makes the cells on the shaded side grow and
enlarge faster, causing the shoot to bend toward the light.
2. Geotropism: If a young plant is placed horizontally more auxins seem to collect on the
lower sides of the shoot and root. In the shoot the high auxin concentration in the lower
side stimulates growth and tends to make the side grow rapidly, so that the shoot bends
and grow vertically upwards.
In the root, the high auxin concentration on the lower side inhibits growth and tends to
make this side grow slowly so that the root bends and grows vertically downwards.

7. REPRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce offspring’s i.e. new individuals of their
type. It is the only way in which each kind of organism can continue to live on forever although
the individual must eventually die. The two forms of reproduction are sexual reproduction and
asexual reproduction

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In asexual reproduction, an individual produces an offspring by itself i.e. only one parent is
present. There is no fusion of nuclei and the cells that give rise to the offspring usually divide by
means of mitosis. As a result, asexual reproduction often produces clones-Offspring which are
identical to the parent. In rare cases the offspring may not be identical due to mutation.
Asexual reproduction is common among simple organisms and flowering plants. Forms of asexual
reproduction include the following:
• Fission: It is commonly found in Bacteria and Protists. The parent organism simply
divides into two or more parts, each of which can exist by itself. e.g. binary fission in
bacteria.
• Budding: In budding the offspring develops as an outgrowth of the parent. The bud
may form on an internal or external surface of the parents. Internal buds are formed in
some sponges and released when the parent dies. External buds occur in Hydra and
Coral polyps. The buds break off from the parent without causing any injury and lead an
independent life.
• Spore Formation: Spore are small unicellular bodies which are produced in large
numbers. They are small, light and easily dispersed by air. Under favorable conditions
each spore can develop into an independent organism. Spores are commonly produced
by Bacteria, Fungi, Protists, Algae, Mosses and Ferns.
• Fragmentation: In this process a part of an organism breaks up or fragments from the
parent organism and give rise to a new individual. It is a form of regeneration that
occurs in simple organisms like algae, coelenterates and sponges.
• Vegetative propagation: It occurs mainly in higher plants where a new plant grows
from any portion of an old one other than the seeds. This is the formation of new
 individuals or plants by vegetative portion of the plant such as roots, stems and leaves.
They are tubers, corns, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers and runners.
• Root tubers are modified roots which grow under-ground and act as food
storage organs. New plants may develop from buds which arise near the point of origin
with the stem e.g. cassava, sweet potato and carrots.
• Corms: These are modified underground stem which grow vertically. They produce
lateral shoots which are capable of growing into new plants when detached e.g.
cocoyam
• Bulbs: There are modified underground leaves adapted for food storage. New bulbs in
the axils of the scale leaves. Examples of bulbs are onions and lilies.
• Parthenogenesis: This is the development of an egg without fertilization. It occurs in
honey bee drones and aphids.

2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction involves two parents of different sexes (Male and female). Each parent
produces gamete male and female gametes respectively. There is meiosis during which the
chromosomes number is halved i.e. from diploid to haploid in the formation of gametes. The egg
cell (female gamete is large and non-motile). The sperm (male gamete) is motile and small.
During fertilization, the two haploid gametes (male and female) fuse to form a diploid zygote.
The zygote undergoes repeated cell division and forms an embryo. The embryo undergoes
repeated cell division and differentiation and develops into a young organism similar to the
parents.
In lower animals and plants such as protozoa, fungi and algae, there is no formation of specialized
reproductive organs. In this case, whole individuals from different strains become differentiated
into male and female organisms. They join together and exchange nuclear materials.
In paramecium, after the exchange of nuclear materials they separate and each cell divides to
form four daughter animals.

CONJUGATION IN SPIROGYRA
In spirogyra, two filaments lie close to each other and outgrowths appear on the walls of the cell
lying opposite one another. The cells meet and their walls break and a conjugation tube is formed.
One of the gametes passes through the conjugation tube and merges with the gamete in the
other cells and their nuclei unite. This results into formation of a zygospore.
The zygospore can withstand dry conditions and can germinate into a new individual when
moisture is available. This process of reproduction is called conjugation. It also occurs in mucor.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF MALE GONAD

A typical male gonad consists of a pair of testes, which are enclosed in a fold of skin known as
scrotum (scrotal sac). The scrotum hangs behind the spongy, muscular and erectile structure
called penis. The scrotum, testes and penis are situated externally in the pubic region. Each testis
consists of numerous tubules called seminiferous tubules.
The cells of these tubules divide repeatedly to form sperm cells in a process called
spermatogenesis. A set of profusely coiled tubule known as epididymis connects each testis to
the vas deferens, which conveys the sperm cells to the seminal vesicle for storage until there is
the need for ejaculation. Seminal fluid secreted by the prostate gland provides a medium for
sperm cells to swim and be nourished. On ejaculation, the sperms are discharged to the outside
through the urethra.
The testes produce the sperm-the male gametes. It also secretes the hormones testosterone,
which is responsible for producing secondary sex characteristics in males as well as stimulating
sperm production.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE GONAD
The female mammalian gonad consists of a pair of ovaries suspended by connective tissues at
the lower dorsal portion of the abdominal cavity. Ovaries produce the ova (singular-ovum), the
female gamete. When the ovary releases an ovum, it is captured by an oviduct (also called
fallopian tube). The oviduct conveys the ovum to the muscular uterus. Each oviduct has a funnel-
shaped end, which opens close to the ovary in the abdominal of ova.
The uterus is connected to the outside of the organism through the vagina (or birth canal).
Externally, the vagina opens at the vulva.
The ovary plays the following important roles, namely the production of female sex hormones
oestrogen and progesterone. Oestrogen stimulates and maintains the development of the female
secondary sex characteristics, whereas progesterone stimulates and promotes the growth of the
uterine lining in readiness for implantation of an embryo.

Female Reproductive System Male Reproductive System

STRUCTURE OF MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES

ASSIGNMENTS –
1. Draw diagram showing conjugation in Spirogyra and label.
2. Using diagrams, show the stages of Mitosis and Meiosis.