Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec..

2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Covenant Journal of Engineering

Technology (CJET)

Vol. 2 No. 2, December, 2018

Publication of the College of Engineering,

Covenant University, Canaanland.

Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Olugbenga Omotosho

editorcjet@covenantuniversity.edu.ng

Managing Editor: Edwin O. Agbaike

me@covenantuniversity.edu.ng

Website: http//Journal.covenantuniversity.edu.ng/cjet/
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

© 2018, Covenant University Journals

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any meams, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the
prior written permission of the publisher.
It is a condition of publication in this journal that manuscripts
have not been published or submitted for publication and will not
be submitted or published elsewhere.
Upon the acceptance of articles to be published in this journal,the
author(s) are required to transfer copyright of the article to the
publisher.

ISSN: Print xxxx-xxxx

Online xxxx-xxxx

Published by Covenant University Journals,

Covenant University, Canaanland, Km 10, Idiroko Road,
P.M.B. 1023, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria

Printed by Covenant University Press

ii
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Articles

Performance Indicators for Sustainable Cement

Production in Nigeria
Musediq A. Sulaiman, Collins N. Nwaokocha,
Olamide O. Olalekan, Abayomi T. Layeni,
Solomon O. Giwa & Olukayode O. Adama 1

Improving Domestic Ergonomics: A Fuzzy-Based

Model Approach
Adeyemi H.Oluwole, Akinyemi O.Olasunkanmi,
Jagun Zaid O. Oluwadurotimi, Sulaiman M A.
& Adeyemi C. Ayomide 12

Analysis of Ship Operation Safety within the Harbor

Under the Effect of Wave
Samson Nitonye & Thaddeus C. Nwaoha 24

Energy Poverty and the Security Challenges in Northern

Nigeria-Incidence and the Potential for Renewables
Ehinmowo Adegboyega B., Ufondu Michael N.,
Aliyu M. Aliyu & Oyewole Adedipe 40

Wind Energy Technology in Nigeria: Prospects, Challenges

and Solution
Oyedeji A.A., Okesola A. A., Lamidi M. O., Madaki M. K.,
Abdulhamid A. F. & Asaolu G. O. 52

Finite Element Analysis of Concrete Gravity Based Platform

Subjected to Sudden Crash (Impact) Load Using Ansys
Alerechi L. W., Oluwole O. O. & Odunfa K. M. 59

Modeling and Analysis of Fouling Behaviour in Plate and Frame

Heat Exchanger
Stephen K. Ogbonnaya, Oluseyi O. Ajayi,
Ohiozua D. Ohijeagbon & Mercy Ogbonnaya 72

iii
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol. 2, No. 2, Dec.. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Performance Indicators for Sustainable Cement

Production in Nigeria

Musediq A. Sulaiman1, Collins N. Nwaokocha1*,

Olamide O. Olalekan2, Abayomi T. Layeni1,
Solomon O. Giwa1 & Olukayode O. Adama1

1
Department of Agricultural & Mechanical Engineering,
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye, Nigeria
2
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Lagos Nigeria
*collinsnwaokocha@gmail.com,
sulaiman.adedoyin@gmail.com

Abstract: The cement industry is an intensive energy consuming

process with attendant economic benefits and environmental caution.
Cement processing comes with economic advantages and
environmental implications, like dust and pollutants. Host communities
and staff of cement factories are bound to experience and endure this
barrage of emissions, which leads to serious health and environmental
challenges. Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), three cement
manufacturing companies in Ogun State, South-West, Nigeria were
investigated to determine how best they conform to industry best
practices. Fifteen criteria were identified and used for this analysis.
Results show that COMPANY B is operating at acceptable standards
while COMPANY A should consider improving on safety, spares,
emission levels and staff welfare.
Keywords: Sustainable, Cement, AHP, Best Practices, Pollution

I. Introduction manufacturing comes with economic

Cement manufacturing is an advantages and environmental
intensive energy consuming process implications, which poses grave
considered to be one of the world‟s serious health and environmental
most highly energy intensive implications on people and the
economic sectors. Cement environment. These include

1
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
emissions of airborne pollution in the identify the preferred alternative and
form of dust, gases, noise and also determine a ranking of the
vibration when operating machinery alternatives when all the decision
and during blasting in quarries, and criteria are considered at the same
damage as a result of quarrying time [6-8].
operation. The typical gaseous Fifteen criteria were identified for a
emissions to air from cement proper performance evaluation of the
manufacturing plants include selected cement plants - production
Nitrogen Oxide (NOx), Sulphur capacity, safety, ease of production
dioxide (SO2), Carbon monoxides setup, topography, availability,
(CO), Carbon dioxides (CO2) and spares, down times, capital cost,
dust. Added to this, the industry has energy cost, maintenance cost, staff
also been regarded as an intensive welfare, emission levels, noise level,
consumer of natural raw materials, cost of raw materials and dust level.
fossil fuels, energy, labour [1-4]. This study is limited to Ogun State in
According to the Cement South-West, Nigeria and can be
Sustainability Initiative [5], fatalities expanded in the near future. The
are the most serious tragedy that can three cement plants investigated are
happen in the Cement Industry. It is COMPANY A, COMPANY B and
of essence to derive the best possible COMPANY C and are located in
fatality prevention strategy. Analysis Ogun State, South-West Nigeria.
by region indicated much higher risk These cement plants are also referred
in developing regions such as Asia, to as alternatives in this paper.
Africa and South America.
II. Materials and Methods
The study aims to carry out Identifying relevant criteria
performance evaluation for selected The study adopted the identification
cement plants in Ogun state Nigeria, of relevant criteria that will bridge
to investigate how they keep to the the gaps between product quality,
industry‟s best practices and compare quantity, sustainable manufacturing,
results to one another. The analysis energy consumption, pollutant
of this study will be done using the emissions and safety in the cement
Analytic Hierarchy Process AHP). industry. Upon review of literatures
One of the most useful methods for and assessing performance
selecting, ranking and investigation indicators, fifteen relevant criteria
that is becoming more and more were chosen.
important is the Analytic Hierarchy
Conducting Industry Survey
Process (AHP). This method was
Data was sourced using
developed by Saaty as a tool to help
questionnaire method. The
with solving technical and
questionnaires were completed by
managerial problems. The Analytic
engineers who are staff of the case
Hierarchy Process (AHP) can also be
study companies. They work in the
defined a multi-criteria decision
production, logistics, safety and
making method that helps the
quality control departments. Twenty
decision-maker facing a complex
properly completed questionnaires
problem with multiple and subjective
were selected for each company and
criteria in making decisions. The
used for this study. In order to define
main objective of the AHP is to
2
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
a unique value for the judgments of degree of adherence of cement
these engineers based on our factories to best practices to
questionnaire, the arithmetic mean of ensure proper safety, health and
each question scale was calculated. energy standards.
Analytic Hierarchy Process • Step 2: Establish a hierarchical
An AHP-based evaluation model can structure. Acquire important
be developed for investigating the indicators into a hierarchy of
degree of adherence of cement plants interrelated decision elements,
to best practices to ensure proper including goal, criteria and sub-
safety, health and energy standards criteria where necessary. The
by following the steps below [9]: established hierarchy tree is
• Step 1: Define the evaluative shown in Figure 1
criteria for investigating the

Figure 1: Problem hierarchy tree

• Step 3: Establish the pair-wise index of an element of A,

comparison matrix. Each decision then:
maker makes a pair-wise • Let the pairwise comparison
comparison of the alternatives matrix be A, then the
with respect to a criterion and elements of A can be
assigns them relative scores. identified by indices, i and j.
For this analysis, Therefore: A=Aij. The
• Let n be the size of the numeric values assigned to
square matrix, i represents a each element is based on
row index of an element of A Saaty‟s Rating Scale as
and j represents a column shown in Table 1.

3
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Table 1: Saaty‟s Rating Scale

Value Description of comparison
1 Two elements contribute equally to the objective
Experience and judgment slightly favour one element over
3 another
Experience and judgment strongly favour one element over
5 another
An element is favoured very strongly over another; its
7 dominance demonstrated in practice
The evidence favouring one activity over another is of the
9 highest possible order of affirmation
2,4,6,8 Intermediate values

• Step 4: Determine the

eigenvalue and eigenvector  Step 6: Select the appropriate
of each pair-wise Random Index. The Random
comparison matrix. Given index (RI) is useful in order
that AHP analysis is defined to determine how good the
by the expression: Consistency Index (CI) is.
A x ω = λmax•ω AHP compares CI to[10] RI and
Where ω is an eigenvector this comparison result in
and λmax is the mean what is termed as
eigenvalue. Consistency Ratio. Random
Index is the Consistency
Index of a randomly
generated reciprocal matrix
from the scale 1 to 9 [11]. A
sample of RI values for
matrix of the order 1 to 15
can be found in the
{j=1, 2, Appendix section.
 Step 7: Calculate the
consistency ratio.
3…n-1, n}
Consistency ratio can simply
is an element of ω
be defined using the
which is a column vector and: expression below:
CR =

For a set of judgment, the

• Step 5: Test the consistency consistency index estimated
of each comparison matrix, is divided by the random
using the following index corresponding to the
expression: order of the matrix. The
CI = resulting value is termed as

4
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
the consistency ratio. The repeated to determine
value determined is very consistency. The elements of
useful in indicating derived eigenvector in this
consistency of judgments step are the „criteria
made during pairwise weights‟. Criteria weight
comparison. The difference, show priorities or
if any, between λmax and n is importance of the criteria
an indication of the considered by experts or
inconsistency of the decision makers.
judgments. If λmax = n then The criteria weights arrived
the judgments have turned at in this paper were based
out to be perfectly on the judgment of experts
consistent. Perfect and are presented in the
consistency rarely occurs in appendix section.
practice. In the AHP the  Step 10: Calculate the
pairwise comparisons in a overall composite weight to
judgment matrix are rank the alternatives. The
considered to be adequately alternatives are ranked from
consistent if the the most suitable to the least
corresponding consistency based on the magnitude of
ratio (CR) is less than 10% their corresponding overall
[12]. composite weight.
 Step 8: Steps 3 to 7 are Eigenvector matrix x
repeated for all criteria. The Criteria weights = Overall
column vector ω is derived Composite Weight [13]
for each criteria considered. III. Results
The derived column vectors The criteria weights of all the criteria
are assembled into an are presented graphically in Figure 2.
„eigenvector matrix‟. It can be deduced that safety and the
 Step 9: Pairwise comparison cost of raw materials are of the
is also done for all criteria by highest priority while topography is
comparing them with each of the least priority.
other. Steps 3-7 are also

5
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Figure 2: Graphical presentation of criteria weights

Using Ease of Production Setup Using Topography Criteria for

Criteria for Comparison Comparison
Based on the criterion, Figure 3 Figure 6 graphically presents
depicts that COMPANY B cement COMPANY B cement plant having
plant has the highest value while the highest relative weight, while
COMPANY A has the least. COMPANY A has the smallest.
Using Production Capacity Criteria Using Availability Criteria for
for Comparison Comparison
By relative weights, COMPANY B COMPANY B cement plant has the
cement plant has the highest relative highest relative weight and
weight and COMPANY A has the COMPANY A has the smallest. This
smallest, as shown in Figure 4. is presented in Figure 7.
Using Safety Criteria for Using Spares Criteria for
Comparison Comparison
Figure 5 illustrates that COMPANY Figure 8 illustrates that COMPANY
C cement plant has the highest B cement plant has the highest
relative weight and COMPANY A relative weight and COMPANY A
has the smallest. has the smallest.

6
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Figure 2: Relative weights for Ease of Figure 3: Relative weights for production
production setup capacity

COMPANY A

COMPANY B

COMPANY C

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Figure 4: Relative weights for safety Figure 5: Relative weights for topography

Figure 6: Relative weights for availability Figure 7: Relative weights for spares

Figure 8: Relative weights for down times Figure 9: Relative weights for capital cost

7
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
Using Down Times Criteria for Using Capital Cost Criteria for
Comparison Comparison
Using down times criterion, Based on the capital cost criterion,
COMPANY A cement plant has the COMPANY B cement plant has the
highest relative weight and highest relative weight and
COMPANY B has the smallest. COMPANY C has the smallest. This
Figure 9 shows the graphical result is presented graphically in
illustration of the result. Figure 10.

Figure 10: Relative weights for energy Figure 11: Relative weights for
cost maintenance cost

Figure 12: Relative weights for staff Figure 13: Relative weights for emission
welfare levels

Using Energy Cost Criteria for Using Maintenance Cost Criteria

Comparison for Comparison
Based on the energy cost criterion, Based on the maintenance cost
COMPANY B cement plant has the criterion, COMPANY B cement
highest relative weight and plant has the highest relative weight
COMPANY C has the smallest. This and COMPANY A has the smallest.
illustrated graphically in Figure 11. This result is presented graphically in
Figure 12.
8
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
Using Staff Welfare Criteria for B cement plant is ranked top while
Comparison COMPANY A is the one with the
Based on the staff welfare criterion, least weight. This is presented
COMPANY C cement plant has the graphically in Figure 18.
highest relative weight and IV. Conclusion
COMPANY A has the smallest. This The economic weight of cement
is presented in Figure 13. industry calls for constant monitoring
Using Emission Levels Criteria for and strict adherence to regulation. A
Comparison performance evaluation was carried
Figure 14 graphically illustrates that out in this study for three cement
COMPANY B cement plant has the plants located in Ogun state Nigeria.
highest relative weight and The methodology used for this work
COMPANY A has the least. is the Analytic Hierarchy Process
Using Noise Level Criteria for (AHP) which is based on multi-
Comparison criteria pairwise comparison. Data
Figure 15 presents COMPANY B was collected using questionnaires
cement plant has having the highest that were structured for cement
relative weight and COMPANY A plants based on the Saaty‟s rating
has the smallest. scale. The results the analysis show
that COMPANY B cement plant is
Using Raw Materials Criteria for
ranked top followed by COMPANY
Comparison C and then COMPANY A cement
Figure 16 presents COMPANY C
plants is least in descending order of
cement plant has having the highest
overall composite weights. We also
relative weight and COMPANY A
inferred that the difference between
has the smallest.
the overall composite weights
Using Dust Levels Criteria for between COMPANY B cement plant
Comparison and COMPANY C is small coming
Figure 17 presents COMPANY C at 0.405 and 0.381 respectively.
cement plant has having the highest COMPANY A is a little below at
relative weight and COMPANY A 0.214 which signifies that more
has the smallest. should be done to improve on some
Using Overall Composite Weights significant plant operation standards.
Criteria for Comparison From the relative weights areas such
For the overall composite weights, as noise level, emission levels, staff
our analysis shows that COMPANY welfare, energy cost, safety, ease of

9
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Figure 14: Relative weights for noise level Figure 15: Relative weights for cost of
raw materials

Figure 17: Illustration of overall

Figure 16: Relative weights for dust levels composite weights

production setup and availability of done were based on expert judgment.

spares parts should be improved. Further studies will improve on this
Production capacity should also be work and use actual values from
looked into and should be well scaled plants. Our limitations were caused
to accommodate all other production by difficulties in getting actual and
criteria and parameters. This study is accurate data from cement plant staff
however limited to Ogun State, and related agencies. This can also
Nigeria and can be extended to other be corrected if adequate time was
regions in the country having cement given for proper sensitization of the
industries. It should also be noted cement plant management and
that most of the pairwise comparison agencies.

References Pollution, Environmental

[1] Kampa M, Castanas E. (2008). Pollution, 151: 362-367.
Human Health Effect of Air [2] Pregger T, Friedrich R. (2009).
Effective Pollution Emission

10
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
Heights for Atmospheric Revised Editions, Pittsburgh:
Transport Modeling Based on RWS Publications.
Real-World Information. [9] Saaty, T. L. (1994) „How to
Environmental Pollution, 157: Make A Decision: The Analytic
552-560. Hierarchy Process. Interfaces,
[3] Esmeralda Shpuza and Prateek Vol. 24(6): 19–43.
Bansal (2014). Policy Analysis: [10] Saaty, T. L. (1990).
Considerations of A Sectoral Eigenvector and Logarithmic
Approach to The Cement Least Squares. European Journal
Industry. The Journal of Science of Operational Research, 48:
Policy & Governance. Volume 3 156–60.
Issue 1. [11] Dini Endah and Hendry
[4] Elita Amrina and Annike Lutfia Raharjo (2003). Evaluating
Vilsi (2015). Key Performance Relationship of Consistency
Indicators for Sustainable Ratio.
Manufacturing Evaluation in [12] Saaty, T.L. (1982). Decision
Cement Industry. 12th Global Making for Leaders; The
Conference on Sustainable Analytical Hierarchy Process for
Manufacturing. Procedia CIRP Decisions in a Complex World,
26: 19 – 23 Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
[5] Cement Sustainability Initiative Translated to French, Indonesian,
(2004). Health and Safety In The Spanish, Korean, Arabic,
Cement Industry: Examples of Persian, and Thai, latest edition,
Good Practice. Version 1.0. revised, (2000), Pittsburgh: RWS
[6] Alessio Ishizaka and Ashraf Publications.
Labib (2009). Analytic [13] Ajayi, K. T. and Olamide, O.
Hierarchy Process and Expert O. (2015). Investigation of
Choice: Benefits and Power Plant Selection and
Limitations, ORInsight, 22(4): Location Using Eigenvector
201–220. Method of Analytic Hierarchy
[7] San Cristobal and Jose Ramon Process. Proceedings of 8th
(2012). Multi Criteria Analysis International Conference on
in the Renewable Energy Engineering and Technology
Industry. Green Energy and Research. Novotel World Trade
Technology. ISBN 978-1-4471- Centre, Dubai, UAE, ISBN: 978-
2346-0 1-922069-49-8
[8] Saaty, T. L. (1980). The Analytic
Hierarchy Process, New York:
McGraw Hill International,

11
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol. 2, No. 2, Dec.. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Improving Domestic Ergonomics: A Fuzzy-Based

Model Approach

Adeyemi H.Oluwole1*, Akinyemi O.Olasunkanmi2.

Jagun Zaid O. Oluwadurotimi3, Sulaiman M Adedoyin 4
& Adeyemi C. Ayomide5

1,2,4
Department of Agricultural and Mechanical Engineering,
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-iwoye, Ogun State.
3
Dept.of Electrical and Computer Engineering.,
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-iwoye, Ogun State
5
Federal College of Education,
Osiele Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

Abstract: In this study a fuzzy logic model was adopted to assess the
degree of Domestic Ergonomic Hazards (DEH) among women in the
Southwest Nigeria. Three risk factors of weight (Kg), height of load
(cm) and the handlers‟ arm reach (cm) were used. The leading
objective was to provide an improved assessment ergonomics tool to
Risk Assessment Filter (RAF). The algorithm of the fuzzy inference
engine applied sets of 64 linguistic rules to generate the output variable
in lifting/lowering risk. The Spearman‟s rank correlation value of 0.85
at the confidence level of 0.01, indicated no significant difference
between the human predictions of DEH with the use of RAF tool and
the model‟s predictions. The risk values and interpretations generated
by the model were confirmed not just similar to, but with better
information than, using RAF. The study proposed a fuzzy-based model
for an enhanced domestic ergonomics among women than using RAF
device. It is simple and can find its usefulness in household chores.
Keywords: domestic, ergonomics, hazards, women, fuzzy, model.

1. Introduction stresses muscles, tendons and

Lifting, as defined by NIOSH [1], is ligaments and increases forces on the
a forceful movement requiring spine. Lifting operations typically
energy and muscle effort which entail some risk factors that cannot

12
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
be totally eliminated. In fact, no Most women are involved in daily
manual handling activity is paid work and some of them are into
completely safe. The physically lifting related, most especially in
demanding nature helps explain why construction industry. Even at home
strains and sprains are the most where women tend to work more
common type of injury among the hours to make up the primary
group of workers involving in lifting responsibility for family well-being,
related jobs. Lifting task may be several casual lifting are engaged.
considered hazardous if the imposed Women‟s average lifting strength is
loads (forces) exceed the individual‟s only 50% of men‟s. Meanwhile
strength and tolerance. Whereas the physical load may exert greater strain
risk of injury is largely determined on the average. Women are therefore
by the weight lifted. Hence, the more often exposed to some physical
amount of weight being lifted from risks factors such as; repetitive
floor level or above shoulder should movements, material lifting and
be reduced and at neutral posture awkward postures among others.
(body not twisted). Keeping arms As part of its many efforts at helping
fully extended, for instance, when employers, managers, safety officers,
lifting heavy loads may strain the safety representatives, employees
forearm muscles. In a similar and others reduce the risk of injury
manner, holding objects at arm‟s from manual lifting, Risk
length can also increase the load on Assessment Filter (RAF) relevant to:
the lower spine by 15 times the lifting and lowering; carrying for
original weight. It is therefore safer short distances; pushing and pulling;
to hold the object as close to and handling while seated was
handlers‟ body as possible to reduce developed by HSE [10].Using the
the strain on arms and back [2-6]. filter, the guideline in Figure 1 helps
Among the womenfolk, low back to assess the task. It was however
disorders are the most vital reported stretched that a more detailed
problem for those who work at assessment is necessary if: using the
construction sites and in industries filter shows the activity exceeds the
where series of lifting related tasks guideline figures; the activities do
are carried out. This has the tendency not come within the guidelines; there
to influence the quality of work and are other considerations to take into
health of female workers [7]. account; the assumptions made in the
According to WHO [8] women, on filter are not applicable; for each task
the average, make up about 42% of the assessment cannot be done
the estimated global paid labour quickly. However for time or effort
force population, making them saving, it was stated that it may be
indispensable contributors to national better to opt immediately for the
economies. In the developing more detailed risk assessment. A full
countries, it is taken for granted that assessment of every manual handling
women will do most heavy lifting operation however could be a major
and carrying. In Nigeria, there are undertaking and might involve
only few women in formal labour wasted effort [10]. Hence the need
force [9]. for more automatic, less human
involvement and more detailed risk

13
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
assessments tools that will allow improved and less human
expertise input into design process of involvement assessment tool to RAF;
which this study set out to achieve. provide more information on the
This study developed and validated a severity of injury risk involved in
model capable of assessing the lifting/lowering operatios than may
severity of injury risks involved in be achieved using RAF and;
lowering and lifting operations minimize injuries among women in
carried out by Nigeria women. The household chores and other lifting
objectives are to: provide an related jobs.

Fig. 1 Areas around the body within which loads may be lifted without risk
for 95% of the Female population [11].

2. Materials and Methods focal problem. These include: data

2.1 Selection of lifting tasks and base, fuzzy rule base, fuzzy inference
collection of variables for the machine and defuzzification. Fuzzy
model development. In this study, Logic is applicable to artificial
three input variables were used. intelligence, control engineering, and
These variables are the major factors expert systems [12]. The technique is
mentioned in lifting and lowering functional in a wide range of
RAF guidelines. These include applications designed to model the
“weight”, “handler height” and problem solving ability of a human
“handler arm reach”. The applicable experts. It imitates the logic of
tasks considered were those based human thought and how a person
on; the load that is easy to grasp with would make decisions, only much
both hands; the lifting operation that faster [13]. Fuzzy logic was widely
takes place in reasonable working used when human evaluations and
conditions; and the handler in a the modelling of human knowledge
stable body position [10]. The output in risk assessment are needed
variable, lifting/lowering injury risk [14,15]. Among many recent
was determined by fuzzy logic. attempts with the use of fuzzy tool in
2.2 Fuzzy Logic. Fuzzy Logic risk assessments; [16] presented an
algorithm was adoped in this study. adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference
The tool consists of heuristics rules system to estimate maximum forces
that define the parameters of the and moments being generated at the

14
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
hip joint during lifting tasks using 2.3.1 Fuzzification of input
the duration of the lift, the height and variables and output risk values.
mass of the subject, and the load as There are three general types of
input variables; A fuzzy logic was fuzzifiers to associate a grade to
adopted by Jelena and Dagan [17] for linguistic term, singleton fuzzifier,
practical risk assessment of bridges Gaussian fuzzifier and trapezoidal or
under different hazards using the triangular fuzzifier [22]. The data
identified risks as input variables and used in this model are vague, hence
bridge damage level as the output they were converted into fuzzy
variable; Adeyemi et al., [18] numbers. The crisp variables were
developed a fuzzy-based expert transformed into grades of
system called the Pain Intensity membership for linguistic terms of
Prediction Expert System (PIPES) to fuzzy sets. Intervals of „handlers
predict pain severity risk in height‟ and „arm reach‟ linguistic
shoveling-related tasks using variables were carefully set, by the
scooping rate, scooping time, shovel author, using lifting and lowering
load, and throw distance as input RAF guidelines. The female
variables. An expert system called anthropometrical parameters of the
Musculoskeletal Disorders – Risk variables were drawn from other
Evaluation Expert System (MSDs- authors and were modified to form
REES) capable of assessing risk the intervals. Sources of which
associated with manual lifting in include the reported; average female
construction tasks and proffer some arm length of 67.725 (11.38) [23],
first aid advices was earlier forearm-hand length and upper arm
developed by same author using of 45,00 (3.08) cm and 31cm (3.45)
load, posture and frequency of lift as respectively [24], popliteal height of
inputs and risk of low back pain as 47.7 (3.5) cm [25], Knee height of
the output [19]. 56.9(3.1) [26], average standing
The fuzzyrules used were that of shoulder height of 129.1(4.92) [27].
linguistic and in the form of “IF- The weight classification linguistic
THEN”. According to Yager et al. variable was a modified version of
[20], fuzzy IF-THEN rules allow to the study results relating guidline
evaluate good approximations of weigth for lifting and lowering [10].
desired attribute values in a very The output variable, risk level, was
efficient way. It allows available developed from the expert
experts‟ knowledge to be included. A knowledge reported by Adeyemi et
single if-then rule assumes the form al., [19]. The numbers of MFs were
„if x is Athen y is B‟. The if-part of determined by the author as well as
the rule „x is A‟ is the premise, while the baselines. The researcher
the then-part of the rule „y is B‟ is developed the system linguistic terms
the conclusion [21]. and intervals by detailing four
2.3 Domestic Ergonomic Hazards linguistic terms to all the three input
(DEH) evaluation with fuzzy logic and the output variables as shown in
model. There are three steps Tables 1 to 4. Figure 2 to 5 are all
involved in the development of the the MFs for the input and output
DEH evaluation model: variables.

15
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Table 1 Fuzzy set of input variable „Handlers‟ height‟

Linguistic Terms Interval
Shoulder height (SH) 99.6,128.2,130.2,133
Elbow height (EH) 61.5, 98.1, 99.6, 128.2
Knuckle height (KH) 30.75,54.4,61.5, 98.1
Mid lower leg height (MLH) 0,27.2, 30.75, 54.4
Modified version of the study results relating Anthropometry of South Eastern
and South Western Females in Nigeria [26,27]

MLH KH
1.0
EH SH

0.5

0 27.2 30.75 54.4 61.5 98.1 99.6 128.2 130.2 133.0

Handlers‟ height (cm)
Fig. 2 All membership functions for the input variable „Handler‟s height‟

Table 2 Fuzzy set of input variable „Weight‟

Linguistic Terms Interval
No load (NL) 0,0,0,0
Light load (LL) 0,3,5,7
Midium load (ML) 5,7,10,13
Heavy load (HL) 10,13,16,25
Modified version of the study results relating guideline weight for lifting
and lowering [10]

NL LL ML HL
1.0

0.5

0 3.0 5.0 7.0 10.0 13 16.0 25.0

„Weight‟
Fig. 3 All membership functions for the input variable „Weight‟
(kg)

16
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
Table 3 Fuzzy set of input variable „Handlers‟ reach‟
Linguistic Terms Interval
No movement (NM) 0,0,0,0
Low arm movement (LAM) 0,20,30,36
Normal arm movement (NAM) 30, 36, 45, 60
Extended arm movement (EAM) 45, 60,76, 85
Modified version of the study results relating anthropometric parameters of South South
and South West, Nigeria [24,28]

NM LAM NAM EAM

1.0

0.5

0 20 30 36 45 60 76 85
„Handlers‟ reach‟
Fig. 4 All membership functions for the input (cm)
variable „Handler‟s reach‟.

Table 4 Fuzzy set of output variable „Lifting/Lowering Risk‟

Linguistic Terms Interval
No risk (NR) 0,0,0,0
Low risk (LR) 0,0,1,1.1
Medium risk (MR) 1,1.1,2,2.1
High risk (HR) 2,2.1,3,3.1
Adeyemi et al., [19]

NR LR MR HR
1.0

0.5

0 1 1.1 2 2.1 3.1

„Lifting/Lowering
Fig.5 All membership functions forRisk‟
the output variable „Lifting/Lowering Risk‟
h‟ (cm)

2.3.2. Determination of application variables, a rule base matrix, size of

rules and inference method A fuzzy 43 resulting in total sets of 64
rule is a simple IF-THEN rule with a matrices were achievable. The rules
condition and a conclusion. The were “fired” by Mamdani‟s fuzzy
relationship between heuristic, input inference method-the most
and output parameters enabled the commonly seen fuzzy methodology.
formation of „If Then Rules‟[29]. The technique is intuitive, has
With the three inputs used in this widespread acceptance and is well-
study and each having four (4) suited to human inputs [30].

17
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
The following rules show only a application. Active MF were
portion of the 64 possible linguistic calculated according to rule table.
rules designed and fired into the The output, lifting/lowering risk, was
inference engine of the model: defuzzified by calculating the center
 1. If (HandlerHeigth is MLH) (centriod) of the resulting
and (Weigth is NL) and geometrical shape. This sequence
(HandlerReach is NM) then was repeated for each scenario of
(LiftingRelatedRisk is NR) lifting and/or lowering operations.
 3. If (HandlerHeigth is MLH) 2.5 Model Validation. Three
and (Weigth is ML) and professionals qualified in the field of
(HandlerReach is NM) then ergonomicsfrom academics
(LiftingRelatedRisk is LR) environment drew out 16 scenarios
 19. If (HandlerHeigth is MLH) and possible cases values using the
and (Weigth is ML) and lifting and lowering RAF and
(HandlerReach is LAM) then linguistic risk conclusions were
(LiftingRelatedRisk is MR) drawn. The same variable values
 48. If (HandlerHeigth is SH) and were run by the model to generate
(Weigth is HL) and risk values and risk level predictions.
(HandlerReach is NAM) then The linguistic risks predicted by
(LiftingRelatedRisk is HR) assessors using RAF were compared
 64. If (HandlerHeigth is SH) and with that of the model.
(Weigth is HL) and
For statistical confirmation,
(HandlerReach is EAM) then
Spearman‟s Rank Correlation (SRC)
(LiftingRelatedRisk is HR)
coefficient was used. The RAF
2.3.3. Defuzzification of risk value. prediction which whichwas
Defuzzificcation converts the fuzzy presented either “injury not likely” or
value obtained from composition into “injury likely” were ranked “0” and
a “crisp” value. This process is often “1” respectively. The model
complex since the fuzzy set might predictions were also categorized
not translate directly into a crisp into two; those with “no risk” and
value. Two of the more common those with “one level of risk or the
defuzzificationtechniques are the other”. These two categories were
centroid and maximum methods equally ranked “0” and “1”
[31]. In the centroid method used in respectively. SRC was used to
this model, the crisp value of the ascertain the strength of relationship
output variable is computed by between the two sets of data at the
finding the variable value of the confidence level of 0.01. The SRC
center of gravity of the membership significance table was used to verify
function for the fuzzy value. the significance of their relationship.
2.4 Model implimentation. The Spearman's rank correlation
model,DEH,was implemented in coefficient (rs) is a reliable and fairly
MATLAB®. MATLAB provides simple method of testing both the
symbolic solution and a visual plot of strength and direction (positive or
result [32] and creation of user negative) of any correlation between
interfaces [33]. For each case, all the two variables [34].
three variables were fuzzified by the

18
 Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

3. Results and Discussion

Measurement HSE Model

Cases MLH KH EH SH Weigth Reach Advise Risk Prediction
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (Kg) (cm) Value
1 25 - - - 6 40 INL 0.2 NR
2 25 - - - 9 40 IML 0.6 LR
3 24 - - - 5 80 IML 0.6 LR
4 5 - - - 3 110 INL 0.9 MR
5 - 57 - - 14 76 IML 2.8 HR
6 - 54 - - 12 38 INL 0.54 LR
7 - 62 - - 15 71 IML 2.5 HR
8 43 6 115 INL 0.4 LR
9 - - 98 - 14 35 IML 1.4 MR
10 - - 92 - 13 72 IML 2.5 HR
11 - - 97 - 20 37 IML 1.6 MR
12 - - 102 - 7 68 INL 0.4 LR
13 - - 125 15 42 IML 2.4 HR
14 - - 129 6 38 INL 1.5 MR
15 - - 132 4 82 IML 2.2 HR
16 - - 137 10 75 IML 1.5 MR
INL= Injury Not likely,IML = Injury most likely, MLH = Mid lower leg height, KH = Knuckle height, EH = Elbow height , SH
= Shoulder height

3.3 Model performance. Sixteen “injury not likely” the model

scenarios and possible cases however predicted “low risk” in
formulated by ergonomics three of such cases (50%), “No risk”
professional are shown in Table 5 on in one (25%) and “medium risk” in
each of the cases the height, arm two (33.3%).
reach and mass of load lifted by 3.4 Statistics Analysis Tests.
handlers were considered by the Spearman‟s rank correlation
assessors using RAF in Figure 1. The coefficient of 0.99 was obtained
linguistic predictions is as indicated. when the RAF predictions were
The same data were run with the compared with the predictions of the
model to generate risk values which model. This shows a strong strength
were interpreted using Table 4 and of relationship between the output of
the results are shown. The the two assessment tools. With the
interpretations of the assessors and SRC value of 0.85 obtained using
that of the model when compared SRC table at the confidence level of
shows that in 10 out of the 16 0.01, there is greater than 99%
samples (63%) where assessor chance that the relationship is
predicted “injury most likely” using significant. Hence there is no
RAF, the model also predicted one significant difference between the
level of injury or the other in all the RAF injury suggestion and the model
10 cases. This represented 100% predictions.
agreement using the two assessment 3.5 Discussion. The study adopted
tools. In the remaining 6 cases fuzzy tools to evaluate risk
(37.5%) where assessor predictted connected with lifting and lowering

19
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
objects based on three input used RAF to predict either “No
variables; handler height (cm), injury” or “Likely injury”, the model
weight of object (kg) and the interpretations also predicted one
handler arm reach (cm). One of the level of injury or the other only with
advantages derived with the use of additional information.
this approach is that, fuzzy logic, The fuzzy approach in this study
unlike Boolean logic which does not considered inherent uncertainties of
provide the means to identify an the membership classification
intermediate value. Fuzzy logic process, such as in the classification
handles the expression of vague of a handler reach with 45.5cm and
concepts. For the fuzzy systems, another one with 46.1cm, which
truth values (fuzzy logic) or could be relegated both as NAM
membership values (fuzzy sets) are (Normal arm movement) and EAM
in the range [0.0, 1.0], with 0.0 (extended arm movement) at the
representing absolute falseness and same time. These arm movement
1.0 representing absolute truth [31]. (45.5 cm and 46.1 cm)
The fuzzy rules of this format simultaneously fit into the two
contains linguistic variables which is membership functions but with
easier for users understanding result different degree of memberships and
for users‟ easier comprehension of interpretation of results.
risks severity connected with the
A risk assessment model can be
lifting attempt. For example stating
considered successful when it has the
ordinarily by the assessors that
capacity at following human expert
„injury is most likely‟ in scenario 5
predictions and fulfilled the
where a handler lift a 14kg weight
objectives for which it was
from her 57cm knuckle height and
developed. Hence success can be
her hand extended to 76 cm, may
assigned to this model because it
not be enough information needed
mimics the predictions of the human
for him to take necessary decision to
assessors with improved information
avoid likely resulted injuries.
that can prevent injuries and enhance
However with the use of this model,
safety and health of women handlers.
additional information useful for
The model can find its application
taking right decision are provided.
among women in household chores
The model clearly mentioned that
and in workplaces where women are
the lifting or lowering of such load
engaged in lifting or lowering tasks.
will not only lead to injury, but that
the risk involve is very high. The There are however a number of
magnitude of the risk involved in limitations that should be aware of
this information provided by the for future efforts. One of which is the
model is quite easy to understand fact that posture of the individuals
and help the handlers avoid vital was not included within the analysis
injury that may be resulted. but forms a significant lifting risk
The model provided good results assessment variable that could be
comparable with the human covered. Future efforts may consider
assessors‟ opinions when selected inclusion of such variable and the
scenarios were run in the model. In development of similar model for the
all the cases (100%) where assessor menfolk.

20
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
4. Conclusion injury risk values and the linguistic
In this study a fuzzy logic based interpretations provided by the model
model was adopted to evaluate the were confirmed the same with the
domestic Ergonomic hazards in ones provided by the human
lowering and lifting objects based on assessors (with the use of risk
three risk factors of weight, height of assessment filter) and with added
load and the handler arm reach. The improved information. Adopting this
model provided a structure that gives technique will reduce injury related
vital information on the risk level medical bills and enhance safety and
attached to material handling at health of the womenfolk while
household chores where women are handling materials in domestic
engaged in lifting-related tasks. The duties.
validation result indicated that the

References Uhs.berkeley.edu/facstaff/ergon
[1] National Institute for omics/lifting/safelifting.shtml,
Occupational Safety and Health (2013).
(NIOSH). 1981. “Wo rk [6] John, C. “Safest posture while
Practices Guide for Manual lifting heavy objects”. Retrieved
Lifting”, NIOSH Technical May, 2015, from
Report. U.S. Department of www.healthyliving.azcentral.co
Health and Human Services, m/safeest-posture-lifting-heavy-
National Institute for objects-6304.html, (2013).
Occupation, p. 81 122 [7] Manish, K. S., Manvendra, S.
[2] Schneider, S. P., k., Sharad, A., “Evalution Of
“Musculoskeletal injuries in Load Lifting Capacity Of
construction: A review of the Female Worker In Construction
literature”, App Occ Environ Work By Using A Fuzzy Logic
Hyg 16 (11), pp. 1056-64, Approach” International
(2001) Journal Of Scientific &
[3] Goran, E. and Eva H. “Dose- Engineering Research, 4(6),
Response Associations between (2013)
Musculoskeletal Disorders and [8] World Health Organization
Physical and Psychosocial (WHO) "Health and Work"
Factors among Construction Retrieved December, 2016,
Workers”. Scandinavian from
Journal of Work, Environment, http://www.who.int/gender/doc
and Health, 31 (2), pp. 57-67, uments/en, (2004)
(2005) [9] Caroline O. M. and Chiedu
[4] Occupational Safety and Health "Urban Poor Women And
Administration (OSHA), Governance In Nigeria".
“Ergonomics: The Study of European Scientific Journal
Work”. Retrieved January 2016 Marchedition 8(5), pp. 176-184,
from www.osha.gov, (2000) (2014)
[5] University of California (UNC), [10] Health and Safety Executive
“Safe Lifting Tips” Retrieved (HSE) "Manual Handling
July, 2016, from www. Operations Regulations"

21
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
Retrieved May, 2016, from Proceedings of the 9th
www.hsebooks.co.uk, (2004) International Conference on
[11] Manual Handling Operations Structural Dynamics,
Regulations (MHOR), "Safe EURODYN 2014 Porto,
Manual Handling of Portugal, pp 23-27 (2014)
Bariatric/Heavyweights Patients [18] Adeyemi H. O., Adefemi A. A.,
Policy", Retrieved May, 2016, Akinyemi O. O., Adefemi O. A.
from “A Shoveling-Related Pain
www.tamesidehospital.nhs.uk/.. Intensity Prediction Expert
./SafeManualHandlingofBariatri System For Workers‟ Manual
cPatientsPolicy.pdf (1992) Movement Of Material” .
[12] Padhy, N. P., "Artificial International Journal of
intelligence and Intelligent Technology. 7(4), pp.540-552
System2 Retrieved February, (2016).
2016, from [19] Adeyemi H.O., Adejuyigbe
http://global.oup.com/academic/ S.B., Ismaila S.O., Adekoya
product/artificial-intelligence- A.F. "Low back pain
and-intelligent-systems- assessment application for
9780195671544 (2005). construction workers". Journal
[13] Kozlowska, E. "Basic of Engineering, Design and
principles of fuzzy logic", Technology, 13 (3), pp. 419 –
Retrieved October, 2014, from. 434, (2015).
Available at [20] Yager, R.R., Ovchinnikov, S.,
http://access.feld.cvut.cz , Tong, R.M., Nguyen, H.T.,
(2012) eds.: Fuzzy sets and
[14] Kahraman, C. “Fuzzy applications - Selected Papers
applications in industrial by L. A. Zadeh. John Wiley &
engineering series”, Studies in Sons, New York, NY, USA
Fuzziness and Soft Computing, (1987).
201(13), pp. 17, (2006), [21] Ajith, A. Rule-based Expert
[15] Adeyemi, H.O., Adejuyigbe, Systems. In Handbook of
S.B., Ismaila S.O., Adekoya Measuring System Design,
A.F., Akanbi, O.G. “Modeling edited by Peter H. Sydenham
Manual Material Lifting Risk and Richard Thorn. 2005 John
Evaluation: A Fuzzy Logic Wiley & Sons. pp 910-919
Approach” Int. Journal of (2005).
Applied Sciences and [22] Ion Iancu University of Craiova
Engineering Research, 2(1), pp (IIUC) Fuzzy Logic - Controls,
44-59, (2013) Concepts, Theories and
[16] B. Usanmaz, Ö.Gündoğdu Applications. InTech, 2012, pp.
“Neuro-Fuzzy Modeling 428
Ofmanual Materials Handling” [23] Adetifa, B.O. and Samuel,
Ordu Univ. J. Sci. Tech.,4(1), T.M., “Characterisation Of Gari
pp. 36-45,(2014) Frying Stations In Ifo Local
[17] Jelena, A. and Dagang, L. "Risk Government, Ogun State,
assessment of bridges using Nigeria” JORIND 10 (3), pp.
Fuzzy Logic Controller" 34-46, (2012)

22
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
[24] Ismaila, S. O.. Musa, A. I [29] Bilkent University (BU), “A
Adejuyigbe, S. B. Akinyemi, Short Fuzzy Logic Tutorial”.
O. D. “Anthropometric Design Retrieved March, 2016,
Of Furniture For Use In Accessed from
Tertiary Institutions In http://cs.bilkent.edu.tr/~zeynep/
Abeokuta, Southwestern files/short_fuzzy_logic_tutorial.
Nigeria” Engineering Review, pdf (2014).
33(3), pp. 179-192, (2013). [30] Mamdani, E.H. and Assilian, S.
[25] Ajayeoba A. O and Adekoya,. An experiment in linguistic, in
L. O. “Evaluation of the Stanton, N., Hedge, A.,
Ergonomic Suitability of Brookhuis, K., Salas, E. and
Passenger Seats in Molue Buses Hendrick, H. (Eds), Handbook
In Nigeria” Journal Of of Human Factors and
Mechanical Engineering , 1(2), Ergonomics Methods, CRC
pp. 4-11, (2012) Press. (1975),
[26] Ismaila,S.O; Akanbi,D.G; [31] Gao X. "Fuzzy Theory"
Adunkle,N.O; Adetunji, O.R Retrieved March, 2017, from
and Kuye,S.I.. “An Ergonomics http:see.xidian.edu.cn/faculty/x
Assessment of Passengers seats bgao/NeuralFuzzy/FUZZ.ppt
in South Western Nigeria” (2015)
.SIGURNOST 52(4), pp. 329- [32] Waleed, K.A. “Advantages and
334, ( 2010) Disadvantages of Using
[27] Onuoha, S. NIdike, F. I., MATLAB for Solving
Oduma .O., "Anthropometry of Differential Equations in
South Eastern Nigeria Engineering Application”,
Agricultural Workers", International Journal of
International Journal of Engineering (IJE), 7(1), pp. 25-
Engineering and Technology, 31, 2013
2(6), pp. 1089-1085, (2012). [33] Kristian, S. “Introduction to
[28] Oladipo, G.S., Coker, T., MATLAB”. Retrieved May,
Anugweje, K.C., Abidoye, 2015, from
A.O., "Study Of Some http://amath.colorado.edu/comp
Anthropometric Parameters Of uting/MATLAB/Tutorial/Intro.
Itsekiri And Okpe Ethnic html, (2009).
Groups Of Delta State, South- [34] University of Regina
South Nigeria" International Department of Sociology &
Journal Of Community Social Studies "Correlation".
Research , 2(4), pp. 77-80, Retrieved May, 2016, from
(2013) http://Uregina.Ca/~Gingrich
(2015)

23
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET)Vol. 2, No. 2, Dec.. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Analysis of Ship Operation Safety within the

Harbor under the Effect of Wave

Samson Nitonye1 & Thaddeus C. Nwaoha2

1
Department of Marine Engineering,
Rivers State University,
Nkpolu, Port Harcourt. Nigeria
2
Department of Marine Engineering,
Federal University of Petroleum Resources,
Delta State Nigeria

Abstract: This research present the wave impart analysis on the operational
safety of cargo ship in harbor and it effect on a mooring line system. From
the analysis using MATLAB program the wave formed velocity in horizontal
direction show a 1% decrease from (0.1 to 8m) of the water depth and the
velocity in vertical direction show 2% increase from (0.1 to 8m) of the water
depth. The acceleration in horizontal direction show 2% increase from (0.1 to
8m) of the water depth and the acceleration in vertical direction show 2%
decrease with from (0.1 to 8m) of the water depth. The wave load on the
mooring line between two anchors (A and B) of 1059m suspended length
(Ls) is 200KN with horizontal restoring force at the Fairland (TH) of
1200KN which increase the tension by 250KN and causes the Fairland shift
by 0.54m. This resulted to a reduction in mooring anchor XB to 498.96m
and XA to 500.04m. The analysis also shows that the rate of water particle
velocity and acceleration due to wave effects decrease with increase water
depth, and the combined effect will cause damage to the catenary mooring
line in extreme significant waves height and period. Sudden and critical
tension on the chain and anchor A and B may set under this environmental
load. The stability and dynamic positioning of any floating vessel is essential
during offshore activities in the harbor. Therefore, it is necessary to carryout
mooring system analysis and monitoring for safe ship operation under
environmental wave load in the Harbor.
Keywords –SWATH, Resistance, Propulsion, Catamarans, Hull, Velocity
and Vessel

24
1. Introduction 2.1. Basic definitions of forces
The function of a harbour is to acting on a vessel at Harbor
provide safe anchorage for vessels Some forces act on a vessel at
and to facilitate smooth transfer of harbor. The forces are berthing
cargo between ship and adjoined forces, current force, seismic force,
land. Assured harbour tranquility is active earth pressure, mooring forces.
not on essential for safe anchorage, The forces are described as follows:
but it is also important for efficient 2.1.1. Berthing Force
port operation. Essentially, harbor Horizontal forces act on the berth,
tranquility reduces to the excitation whenever a vessel impacts on the
of ships moored at anchorage or berth anytime of the year. The
along a wharf and optimizes the strength of this force wholly depends
mooring forces. Larger ships may not on the energy in motion that can be
experience wave agitation to the absorbed by the fender system. The
wind-waves, whereas a small boat design vessel will be contacting the
may be violently swung by the same fenders at an approach angle of 100.
wave [1]. Therefore, the impact as a result of
In the viewpoint of port operation, berthing of the ship is at quarter
the relationship between ship motion point. When the berthing takes place,
and cargo handling works as well the fender system absorbs energy in
falls in the judgment of harbor motion and converts it into strain
tranquility. Hence the use of constant energy, thereby passing on a reaction
tension winches and the stiffness and force to the structure and the reaction
friction of the fenders, can have a force for which the berth is to be
very large influence on the resulting designed can be revealed from this
ships motions, the surge motion process and deflection-reaction
external forces from wind, waves and diagrams of the fender system
or currents [2]. selected [3].
2. Description of ship behavior at 2.1.2. Current Force
berth. Currents can be described as the
The movement of a moored ship at relatively constant motion of water
berth can be described by the three caused by tidal action, wind drag, or
translator movements, namely surge, river discharge. The most common
sway and heave, and the three currents considered in offshore
movement of rotation, known as structural analysis are tidal currents
pitch, roll and yaw. This project is to and wind drift currents. The later is
determine the effective waves forces generated from the drag of local
acting on the ship mooring line wind on the surface of the water. The
during anchorage at harbor; to tidal and wind drift currents are
determine the various load on ship at regarded as horizontal and varying
Harbor; to determine mooring effect with depth. When vessel is fully
on ship at harbor and to determine loaded, pressure usually applies to
safety precautions for ship under the part of the vessel below the
wave. waterline dues to currents. The part
of the vessel covered is

25
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
approximately equal to wv2/2g per exercise. Thus, mooring force will be
square meter of the part, where v is two types; Wind force and Current
the velocity in m/s and w is unit force [6]. Ships are moored at berth,
weight of water in t/m2. The vessels when the followings below are
usually berths parallel to the current. available.
On harbor parallel to the direction of • Mooring lines connecting ships
the water current, there are two types to berths
of ocean current, the surface • Bollards and storm bitts on shore
circulation current and the deep • Mooring hooks on mooring and
circulation current [4]. breasting dolphins.
2.1.3. Seismic Force • Fenders between ship and berth
In areas susceptible to seismic • Mooring winches and bollards
disturbance horizontal force equal to that is onboard the vessels to be
a friction of the acceleration of moored.
gravity times the weight applied as 2.1.6. Wave force
its centre of gravity should be taken. The periodic undulation of the sea
The fraction will depend upon the surface is known as waves. The
likely seismic intensity of the area complexity of motion of the waves is
and shall be taken in accordance with a major challenge to workers in the
IS: 1893-2002. The weight to be ocean environment. Waves cause
used is the total dead load plus one fatigue type of loading on offshore
half of the live load [5]. and exposed coastal structures. They
2.1.4. Active Earth Pressure adversely affect coastlines and
This type of force is applicable only harbor facilities and induce violent
if the berth has a retaining wall at the motions in moored ships and floating
landside, thus retains the earth. structure [7].
Active earth pressure is experienced 2.2. Criteria and Framework of
in situations where the wall moves Vessels at Harbor
sufficiently away from the backfill In analysis of ship operations at
by translatory motion, rotation about harbor, port and harbor risk
the base or their combination, which assessment criteria, frequency
reduces lateral pressure of the criteria, defining the framework for
backfill. Active earth pressure does marine risk assessment
not occur in jetty or pier. 2.2.1. Port and Harbor Risk
2.1.5. Mooring Force Assessment Criteria
The mooring loads are the lateral The risk assessment criteria for port
loads caused by the mooring lines and harbor need to be known, so as
when they pull the ship into or along to provide guidance for the
the dock or hold it against the forces assessment exercise. They are
of wind or current. The load on ropes recommended because they provide a
caused by winds or currents, acting consistency of standard for all ports
on the ship during berthing cannot be and harbors. However, consideration
estimated with accuracy. Factors should be given to modification of
such as tensioning of the rope and its one scale should circumstances at a
angle to the berthing line are particular harbor or port demonstrate
considered during such estimation the need [8].

26
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
2.2.2. Frequency Criteria associated with an area. Selection of
The frequency component of risk is areas is important if the Port and
usually considered based on per- Harbor Safety Management System
movement basis or a simple per- is considered. Under the Port and
annum basis. Where ports or harbors Harbor Safety Management System,
have a larger number of movements, risk can be expressed by area if
a per-movement scale can be wanted and risk management can
considered as this provides a simple also be targeted by area. Areas are
set of criteria for reporting safety depicted on the chart as Area A;
performance once the safety Area B, etc, and for a key
management system is established. categorization for the hazard
Risk and safety management identification process.
software can be used to detect a per- Vessel types then need to be defined
movement and a per-annum associated with the trades of the port
frequency scale at any stage. or harbor. It is appropriate to
2.2.3. Defining the Framework for consider primary and secondary
Marine Risk Assessment types during such definition exercise.
The framework for any marine risk For example, a primary category of
assessment logically needs to follow “Tankers” can have sub-categories of
the established Formal Safety LNG; Chemical (MARPOL Annex
Assessment (FSA) marine incident II); Product.. Passenger vessels can
categories that are relevant to also be categorized in the same way,
assessment in a port or harbour. as can leisure craft in a harbor with
These are Collision, Contact (which different leisure activities ongoing
can include a sub-category of [9].
Berthing Contact), Grounding, Loss 2.3. Hazard Identification Process
of Hull Integrity, Fire/Explosion, Hazard identification is the most
Equipment Failure (Often a cause of important step of risk assessment
other accident categories) and process. An overlooked hazard is
Personal Injury. more likely to introduce error into
Collision and contact differentiation the overall risk assessment of a port
as incident categories is vital. The or harbor, than an inaccurate
definition of collision is obvious. assessment of frequency or
Contact is associated with incidents consequence identified hazards.
involving the vessel striking Errors made in assessing
something fixed, such as a navigation consequence and frequency of
aid or heavy landing on a berth, or a hazards can cancel each other out
bar harbor, or a bridge structure or over the full spectrum of incidents
deck. The omission of a hazard can result
The port or harbor then needs to be in an underestimation of the overall
categorized into appropriate areas for risk profile. Moreover, important risk
the risk assessment. Areas are control may not be introduced to
selected partly around natural properly manage the risk, resulting in
topographical features, such as an accident waiting to happen [10].
channel extents, but also very much
around the marine activities

27
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
2.4. The Port and Harbor Safety assessment and mitigation of
Management System risk.
The successful introduction of a iii. Maintain access to port services,
working Port and Harbor Safety by ensuring the provision of
Management System is not a small appropriate pilotage, traffic
task and the time-scales needed to management, towage, and
achieve this should not be berthing services.
underestimated. From experience of iv. Develop a consensus for safe
harbors and ports generally, the navigation through stakeholder
process often involves organizational input.
change which will only occur if v. Ensure that suitable anchorages,
undertaken in a measured and mooring locations and the best
planned way [11]. channels for navigation, are
Policy is set at the top of the determined, marked, monitored
organization, with identified roles and maintained.
and responsibilities to discharge the vi. Sustain its harbour management
policy being designed next. The new functions in respect of
or changed risk control options and hydrographic surveying,
procedures originating out of the risk navigation, dredging, and the
assessment process then follow. A provision and maintenance of
key component is intelligence, which navigation aids.
is kept refreshed by ongoing vii. Remove sunken vessels and
consultation with users and from the other obstructions that are, or
results of audit or review. Feedback may become, an impediment to
from users of the safety management safe navigation
system significantly enhances viii. Promulgate relevant
intelligence, but only if the climate navigational, tidal and weather
within or between organizations information to all port users as
facilitates the information flow. If the determined by the risk
feedback information flow is good, assessment.
then the safety management system ix. Facilitate the leisure use of the
can provide an open and proactive port, maintaining and protecting
feed-forward flow of information to the rights of the public to access
all [12]. its waters for leisure use, whilst
2.5. Navigation safety policy A D V complying with the various
I navigational safety measures that
This section takes the form of a may be in force.
declaration of the overall x. Create awareness and motivation
navigational safety policy objectives. of all port users with respect to
Typical stated objectives are [11]: safety and the protection of the
i. Comply with all legal duties and environment.
responsibilities for the regulation xi. Publish and maintain
of vessel traffic and the safety of contingency plans to cover
navigation. emergency situations relating to
ii. Develop and maintain an the safety of life, property or the
effective Safety Management environment.
System based on the continuing

28
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
xii. Maintain appropriate emergency the following trough [14].. For a
and oil spill response linear wave, the crest amplitude
capabilities. is equal to the trough amplitude,
xiii. Ensure that all port or harbor while they are unequal for a non-
operational staffs are trained to linear wave [14].
recognized standards and have iii. Water depth (d), which
appropriate experience for their represents the vertical distance
roles and duties. from the mean water level to the
xiv. Ensure that working craft, mean ocean floor [14]. For wave
including tugs, pilot boats and theories, the floor is assumed
work boats are fit for their horizontal and flat [14].
purpose and operated to iv. Wavelength (L), which is the
appropriate safety standards. horizontal distance between
xv. Review regularly duties and successive crests [14].
powers required to support and v. Wave celerity or phase speed (c),
maintain an up-to-date set of which represents the propagation
bylaws in respect of navigational speed of the wave crest [14].
safety and enforce them so as to vi. Frequency (f), w which is the
effectively regulate and facilitate reciprocal of the period [14].
harbor use. vii. Wave elevation (β) which
xvi. Keep under review the cost represents the instantaneous
effectiveness of modern elevation of the wave from the
3. Material and Methods still water level (SWL) or the
This research will focus on methods mean water level (MWL) [15].
use in the analysis of waves acting viii. Horizontal water particle
on ship within the harbor. Mooring velocity (u), which is the
equation will also be utilized in instantaneous velocity along x of
calculation of the forces and tension a water particle [14].
acting on mooring line. Such ix. Vertical water particle
exercise will be facilitated using a acceleration (G), which is the
MATLAB software. instantaneous acceleration along
3.1. Wave Theory x of a water particle [14].
There are many wave theories that x. Vertical water particle
are useful in the design of offshore acceleration (G), which is the
structures such as linear/airy wave instantaneous acceleration along
theory, second-order stroke wave y of a water particle [14].
theory, fifth-order stroke wave xi. For the linear wave theory, the
theory and the stream function wave has the form of a sine
theory. This research is focus on curve and the free surface profile
linear/airy wave theory [13]. The is written in the following simple
parameters that are needed in form: μ = asin (kx – wt) [14].
describing any wave theory are: xii. Crest the top of the wave [14].
i. Period (T), which is the time 3.2. Linear/Airy Wave Theory
taken for two successive crests to The simplest, but very useful wave
pass a stationary point [14]. theory is the linear or small
ii. Height (H), which is the vertical amplitude wave theory, which
distance between the crest and assumes that the wave amplitude is

29
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
small compared to the wavelength (5)
[16].
The linear wave theory is also called Velocity in x -
the first-order theory because one (6)
can neglect terms that are above first Direction Velocity in z –
order when expanding the solution in
a perturbation series. The wave
profile are then assumed to be (7)
expanded in power series of a non- Direction Acceleration in x–axis
dimensional perturbation parameter, (8)
£, in terms of the wave slope at the
zero-down crossing of the wave [17]. Acceleration in z- axis
3.3. Finite Water Depth
Velocity potential (9)
(1) Where; Angular wave ω = 2π/T,
Wave number k = 2π/λ, Λ is the
Dispersion relation wave length, T = wave period, Ca =
(2) wave amplitude, g = acceleration of
wave due to gravity, t = time, x =
Wave length (3) direction of wave propagation, z =
vertical coordinate, d = water depth,
Wave elevation ζ = Total pressure in the fluid
(4) and =
Dynamic pressure atmospheric pressure

Figure 1: Transverse wave [17]

3.4. Catenary Mooring Line and wave induced deformations by

Equation lowering and lifting excess line to
Catenary moorings are common in and from the sea floor. It can play an
oceanographic, metrologic and important role in the dynamic
offshore applications. These systems response of the system [20].
accommodate current, wind, tides,

30
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Figure 2: Single point mooring system [21].

A single point mooring system is (Breaking strength/tension in

used to connect all the lines to a mooring line).
single point. It links sub-sea
manifolds connections and weather (16)
running tankers, which are free to
rotate 360 degrees. A buoy, mooring
and anchoring elements are the (17)
single point system. Tension acting
on the mooring rope can be
calculated using formulas as follow
[22]. (18)
Suspended line length

(19)
(10) Definition of parameters
Vertical dimension (depth) Ls = Suspended line length
h = Vertical dimension (depth)
TH = Horizontal restoring force
applied by the mooring lines
(11)
Tz = Vertical component of tension
Where parameter Tmax = Maximum tension
Using line tension at the platform T = Tension at the top
Tension at the top is W = Weight per unit length of cable
in water
Lmin = Minimum line length
(12) a = Horizontal dimension
Sin h and Cos h are parabolic
(13) function
Maximum tension Wave parameters
(14) Wave heights (H) - - -
We have the minimum limit length 2m
Water depth (d) - -
8m
Requirement Wave period - - -
(15) 6.5m

31
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
For shallow water For deep water
6.5x8.86

m
Intermediate water depth

= 58m

Table 1 Wave parameters

Parame Formula Calculation Result
ter
Wave
frequen
cy (w)
Wave 58m
length
(λ, L)
Wave 8.92m/s
speed
(c)
Wave 0.11
number
(K)
Amplit 1
ude (a)
Time 4.88(sec)
(t)
Freque 0.15 H2
ncy (f)
Wave 59.47 =
length 60m
(L)

32
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Table 2: Parameters of wave calculated

Parameters Values Units
Wind velocity 0 (m/s)
Wave length (λ, L) 58 (m)
Wave number (K) 0.11
Wave length (L) 60 (m)
Amplitude (a) 1 (m)
Time (t) 4.88 (s)
Wave speed (C) 8.92 ( )
Wave frequency 0.97 (rad/sec)
(w)
Wave height (H), 2 (m)
(x)
Water depth(d) 8 (m)
Wave period (T) 6.5 (s)
Density of water 1.025 Kg/m3
(
Frequency (f) 0.15 Hz
Design current
speed

Velocity Direction Height of water depth (h)

= 100m
Length of work barge LP = 60m
Velocity in Z Direction Breadth of work barge Bp
= 25m
Height of work barge HP
Acceleration in x Direction. = 4m
From the figure, the distance is (2x
+Lp) in
Acceleration in Z Direction Using expression
X= L – Ls + x
Where
Mooring Data
This mooring system lines are
designed to stabilize the portion for
the storage or fuel offshore with Ls = 200m
design specification of net Norske Calculate for the value of x the
veriths. suspended length
Length of anchor chain (L) =
500M
Number of anchors used X = 199.5m
= 2 anchors X = L – Ls + X = 499.5m
Horizontal pretension TH Distance between two anchor A & B
= 150KN (2x + Lp) m = 1059m
Weight of anchor in water (W) = Hence
1000 N/M

33
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
The distance from anchor A and B is
= 1059m
Lmin = 0.00697m Xa = 500.04 m
Vertical force at the fairlead Tz = Hence the Fairland moved a distance
WLs (500.04 – 499.5) m = 0.54m
Tz = 1 x 200 = 200KN The initial pretension
Tension at the top TH = 1200 KN
= 250 KN X = 300.54m
:. Max tension at the top This movement causes reduction in
Tmax = TH + Wh XB by 499.5 – 0.54, XB = 498.96m
Tmax 250 KN New XB for anchor B the effective
a = = 1200m environmental force on the anchor A
that will cause this now XB = 499m
new a = 1200m on anchor B.
New Th = horizontal pretension
Th = aw = 1200 KN 4. Results and Discussions
New Xa due to mo vena is from The water particle velocity and
acceleration are calculated using a
MATLAB program.
Table 3: Combined wave and current velocity
Water Velocity x current Total Velocity
depth direction ux velocity uc Ut = Ux + Uc
0 1.74 17.40 19.14
-1 1.72 17.40 19.12
-2 1.69 17.40 19.09
-3 1.63 17.40 19.03
-4 1.55 17.40 18.95
-5 1.46 17.40 18.86
-6 1.35 17.40 18.75
-7 1.22 17.40 18.62
-8 1.08 17.40 18.48

Table 4: Velocity and acceleration values

Water Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
depth Velocity Ux velocity Uz acceleration acceleration
Ax Az
0 1.74 0.02 -0.04 0.94
-1 1.72 0.13 -0.22 0.93
-2 1.69 0.23 -0.40 0.91
-3 1.63 0.33 -0.58 0.88
-4 1.55 0.43 -0.75 0.84
-5 1.46 0.52 -0.91 0.79
-6 1.35 0.61 -1.06 0.73
-7 1.22 0.69 -1.20 0.66
-8 1.08 0.76 -1.32 0.58

34
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Table 5: Horizontal restoring force and draft

Draft d/L Horizontal restoring force applied by the
(m) mooring line tension TH (KN)

100 240

200 480

300 720

400 960

500 1200

Figure 3: Graph showing increase in total velocity and increase in water depth

Figure 4: Graph showing increase in horizontal and vertical acceleration

with increase in depth

35
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Figure 5: Graph showing horizontal and vertical velocity

The graph above shows the vertical gradually it will result to increase in
and horizontal change in velocity the horizontal velocity of the wave
against the water depth, however if particles
the water depth started increase

Figure 6: Graph showing tension forces against draft of a mooring line

From the result on table (4) and (3) velocity an acceleration of water
shows that the water particles particles compared to that in low
velocity and acceleration values water surface therefore vessel in low
decrease with increased in water water depth will experienced higher
depth. Therefore, any vessel in wave the water particles, velocity
deeper water will suffer higher and acceleration in low water

36
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
surface, therefore vessel in low water are mostly ignored due to lack of
depth will experienced higher wave. equipment or may be lack of
The water particles, velocity and expertise to carryout designing test
acceleration in low water depth will or collection of data. This research
result to increase in wave frequency, provides an understanding of the
period and wave celerity with respect effect of waves acting loads on the
to the vessel. ship, the mooring line and how it
Table (5) shows horizontal restoring should be integrated in the analysis
force applied by the mooring lines of the mooring system. The analysis
system and the suspended line length presented here shows that catenary
(draft). system is not best suitable for deep
There will be linear increase of the waters application, especially in
tension force with respect to increase swell waves scenario. Turret
in draft the wave forces acting on a mooring system provide an
vessel with connected chain to sea alternative to deep and ultra-deep-
bed by mooring line will increase the water mooring system. The effect of
tension on the chain. wave acting on a vessel in anchorage
The figure (3), (4), (5), (6) will help and operation at harbor are mostly
to detect the effect of wave forces ignore by the harbor masters. This
and tension acting on each mooring research provide insight into wave
line. This project will help to deduce effect on ship at harbor and careful
tension, stiffness and provide monitoring of the wave formation,
stability to the vessel in harbour. the heading angle and the effect on
Acknowledgement the mooring line is necessary for the
The authors acknowledged the stability of the vessel. In extreme
contribution of Stanley Atausen Dan waves, cargo offloading, and transfer
and Sidum Adumene in this research. may be hindered, therefore an
4. Conclusion operational risk analysis is presented
The analysis of wave effect on ship here to understand the effect of wave
and its safety operation in the harbor on ship operation in the harbor.

References 2018.81006
[1] Jitendra K. Panigrahi, C.P. http://www.scirp.org/journal/ojm
Padhy, A.S.N. Murty. "Inner s
harbour wave agitation using [3] Bruun, P., Marine terminal
boussinesq wave model", technology. Winch berthing and
International Journal of Naval mooring. Recent developments.
Architecture and Ocean Advances in berthing and
Engineering, 2015 Mooring of Ships and offshore
[2] Nitonye, S., and Ofanson Uyi structures, NATO ASI Series E:
(2018) Analysis of Marine Applied Sciences vol.146, 1988.
Pollution of Ports and Jetties in [4] Chakarabati, S. Mooring Design:
Rivers State, Nigeria, Open Fit-for-purpose mooring systems.
Journal of Marine Science, 8, 1, Newcastly University, Pp. 2, 9,
114- 14, 12, 25, 26, 46, 47, 54, 54.
135.https://doi.org/10.4236/ojms.

37
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
[5] Sakpaya, T., Isaacson, M. [12] Maritime Resolve (2015)
(1981). Mechanics of wave force Operations Plan and Safety
on offshore structure. New York: Management System, available
Van Nostrad Reinhold. online http://www.weymouth-
[6] Inegiyemiema, M., Nitonye, S., harbour.co.uk 01/06/2018
Dick, I. F. & Erekosima, A. [13] Hussein, K, A Hussein, E
(2014). Design of a mooring Hegazy, and An Amin. (2013)
system for an offshore structure "Structural design of a floating
(A case Study of 5000-tonnes foundation for offshore wind
Offshore Work Barge [WB]). turbines in red sea", Analysis and
International Journal of Design of Marine Structures.
Engineering and Technology, 4 [14] CHAKRABARTI S. (2005)
(12), 683 – 692. "Ocean Environment",
(http://www.ijet.journal.org) Handbook of Offshore
[7] Himesh B. Chopra and Patal Engineering.
P.G. (2015) Application of [15] Thomas, T.J. and Dwarakish,
Forces Acting on Jetty Structure, G. (2015). Numerical wave
International Journal of Science modeling-a review. Aquatic
Technology & Engineering 01, procedia, 4:443-448.
11, www.ijste.org [16] Yinglong Zhang (1994).
[8] Venice (2012), SAFE ADRIA "New solutions for the
Project (Action-Plan) propagation of long water waves
http://www.cfli.it/venezia over variable depth", Journal of
[9] Umo Iduk and Nitonye Samson, Fluid Mechanics.
(2015). Effects and Solutions of [17] Jonas Anderson (2011)
Marine Pollution from Ships in Simulation of Wave Induced
Nigerian Waterways, Forces on Semi Submerged
International Journal of Horizontal Cylinders Using
Scientific and Engineering OpenFOAM, Department of
Research, (IJSER) India Vol.6 Shipping and Marine
No: 9, pp 782 - 792 Technology Division of
http://www.ijser.org Sustainable Ship Propulsion
[10] Soares, C.G and Carvalho, CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF
A. (2003). Probability TECHNOLOGY Göteborg,
distributions of wave height and Sweden 2011
periods in measured combined http://publications.lib.chalmers.s
sea-states from the Portuguese e/records/fulltext/151295.pdf
coast. Journal of Offshore [18] Subhabrata Gangopadhyay,
mechanics and Arctic Uma Basu (2013), Scattering of
Engineering, 125(3):198-204. Water Waves in an Ocean of
[11] Kia Maanu Kia Ora (2004) Finite Depth having a Surface
Port & Harbor Risk Assessment Discontinuity with an Icecover
and Safety Management Systems on One Half and Free Surface
in New Zealand (Maritime Subject to Surface Tension on
Safety Authority of New the Other. International Journal
Zealand) available online of Scientific & Engineering
www.maritimenz.govt.nz

38
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
Research Volume 4, Issue3 [21] Rigzone (2017) How do
https://www.ijser.org Mooring System work, available
[19] Kreuzer. E."Nonlinear online
dynamics of ship oscillations", www.rigzone.com/training/insig
2000 2nd International ht 01/06/2018
Conference [22] LI, R., ZHANG, S., and
[20] Rickson Viahul Rayan ZHANG, Y. (2005). Comparison
(2016) Calculation for Mooring between characteristics of mild
Systems, Available online slope equations and boussinesq
https://www.scribd.com/doc/846 equations.
43736/DDS-582-1-Calculations-
for-Mooring-Systems-1

39
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET)Vol. 2, No. 2, Dec.. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Energy Poverty and the Security Challenges

in Northern Nigeria-Incidence and the
Potential for Renewables

Ehinmowo Adegboyega B.1,2, Ufondu Michael N.1, Aliyu M. Aliyu 3,

Oyewole Adedipe4

1
Petroleum and Environmental Management,
Coventry University, United Kingdom
2
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department,
University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos
3
Chemical Engineering Department,
Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.
4
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.
aehinmowo@unilag.edu.ng
Abstract- A Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index (MEPI) has been
used to study the incidence of energy poverty in Nigeria. Secondary data
from the United States Agency for International Development was
collated from over 44,000 households, from which calculated MEPI for
the various regions of Nigeria show that the southwest had the least
incidence of energy poverty, while the northeast region had the highest
energy poverty. Cogent connections have been made between recent
security challenges in the northeast with energy poverty. Reports taken
from studies and the mass media show that vast majority of attacks
occur in the geopolitical region. Thus, renewables such as solar and
wind energies abundant in northeast Nigeria have been identified as
potential solutions to ending energy poverty and hence a strategic
pathway to arresting the current security challenges.
Keywords: multidimensional energy poverty index, renewable energy,
security challenges, North East Nigeria.

I. Introduction
Energy is an important and key World Economic Forum (WEF)
element in human life, influencing describes energy poverty as the
virtually all areas such as even “worst poverty of all” and as a major
environmental sustainability [1]. The impediment to development [2].

40
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
Energy poverty is the lack of access cost budget. About 40% of the
to modern basic energy services such Nigerian populace have no access
as clean cooking facilities and access to electricity grid with over 70%
to electricity [3]. The need for energy still depending on traditional
cuts across virtually all areas of
biomass for cooking [9]. Obi and
human existence for example, access
Menson [10] believe that low
to clean energy would help women in
cooking, saving time and energy and access, poor quality and
avoiding health issues, access to inadequate quantity are the key
electricity will afford the opportunity evidences of energy poverty in
to get entertainment from both radio Nigeria. Ogwumike and Ozughalu
and television, knowledge and [11] reported that over two-thirds
information dissemination [4]. of households in Nigeria rely on
Globally, 1.3 billion people do not fuel wood for cooking hence
have access to electricity and over validating the presence of energy
2.7 billion depend on traditional poverty in Nigeria. Some key
biomass for cooking consequently studies of energy poverty in
making the provision of modern and Nigeria include [9,11, and 12] to
reliable access on a global scale a mention a few. However,
huge challenge [3]. Nussbaumer et
previous approaches on analysing
al. [5] opined that the role of energy
energy poverty in Nigeria have
cannot be overemphasised in tackling
global development challenges such failed to deeply examine and
as climate change, education, food capture the socio-economic
security, health, inequality and deprivations households
poverty. Energy poverty is evident experience due to energy poverty.
mainly in developing countries as This study did not only assess
majority of the people lack access to energy poverty at the national
various forms of energy [6]. level, but also attempt to measure
According to Chevalier and this deprivation at the sub-zone,
Ouedraogo [7], the poor are the main state, and wealth index level using
victims of energy poverty and the a Multidimensional Energy
World Energy outlook [8] reported
Poverty Index (MEPI). Its
that sub-Saharan Africa has the
highest level of energy poverty with contribution to the insecurity of
over 31 per cent electrification rate life and property currently faced
and 80 per cent of the people relying in Nigeria‟s northeast in the form
heavily on traditional biomass. of terrorism was also be
In Nigeria, energy poverty is examined. The potential of
evident in the frequent alleviating energy poverty by
interruption of electricity supply harnessing the abundant
to households and industries, renewable energy sources
households‟ inability to afford available in the region in the form
clean energy due to poor income of wind, solar, and biofuels was
and then households who can discussed.
afford this pay for it beyond their

41
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
II. Methodology population must achieve.
Multidimensional Energy Nussbaumer et al.‟s study sets the
Povervy Index (MEPI) cut-off at 0.3. Therefore, any person
This methodology was drawn from whose MEPI is above the 0.3 cut-off
Nussbaumer et al. [5]. The MEPI is a is considered as energy poor.
novel metric for measuring energy Summarily, if
poverty stemming from literatures MEPI > 0.7, Acute energy poverty is
from the Oxford Poverty and Human incident
Development Initiative (OPHI) on 0.3≤MEPI≤0.7, Moderate energy
Multidimensional Poverty Index poverty
(MPI) presented in [13, 14]. This is MEPI < 0.3, Low energy poverty
based on Amartya Sen‟s theory of MEPI = H x A
deprivations and capabilities [15]. Where MEPI = the combination of
The design of the MEPI enables it to the information on both the incidence
capture and evaluate a set of energy and intensity of energy poverty.
deprivations a person or household H = q/n is the headcount ratio or
experiences. incidence which represents the
In consideration of the proportion of total number
multidimensional nature of energy considered energy poor; q represents
poverty, the MEPI is basically the number of people in energy
composed of five dimensions which poverty and n is the total number of
represent basic household energy people. A is calculated as follows:
service measured by six indicators
(see table 1). For a detailed (2)
description of the methodology and
computation of the MEPI see ref. [5]. which is the average of the censored
Most importantly, the MEPI weighted deprivation counts ci(k). It
measures energy poverty in d represents information on the
variables across a population of n intensity of the MEPI. This
members. Furthermore, the methodology stems from the fact that
methodology permits the uneven people do not want energy in itself
weighting of the indicators. Energy but the services provided by energy,
services perceived by the researcher which is made available by different
as more essential where allotted a fuels and technologies and has the
bigger weighting share (see table 1) potential to improve livelihood,
the weighting vector w is the weight health and education as well as
applied to the variable j. It is defined reduce poverty in developing
as: countries.
Data Source
The data used in this research was
(1) the survey done by the MEASURE
DHS (Demographic Health Surveys)
Finally, the MEPI introduces a projects. The DHS is funded by the
deprivation cut-off which is the set of United States Agency for
conditions a member in the International Development (USAID).

42
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
Table 1: The Dimensions and Respective Indicators for the MEPI with Cut-offs, and
Weightings in bracket
Dimension Indicator Variables Deprivation
(weight) cut-off (energy
poor if….)
Any fuel use
Modern Cooking fuel Type of cooking besides
(0.2) fuel electricity,
LPG, kerosene,
Cooking natural gas or
biogas
Food cooked on
Indoor pollution stove or open True
(0.2) fire (no
hood/chimney),
indoor, if using
any fuel beside
electricity, LPG,
natural gas or
biogas
Lighting Electricity access Has access to False
(0.2) electricity
Services provided by Appliance ownership Has a fridge False
means of household (0.13)
appliances
Entertainment/education Has a radio and/ False
Entertainment/education appliance ownership or television
(0.13)
Telecommunication Has a Mobile False
Communication means phone and/ or
(0.13) Phone land line

The DHS collects and publishes treated by case deletion to avoid

national representative data on issues influencing the result of the analysis.
such as maternal and child health, For example, in 2008, there were
fertility, family planning, gender, 1333 households with single or
HIV/AIDS, malaria and nutrition. multiple missing information this
The DHS data was used because the was consequently subtracted from
information from the data contains a the total number of households
range of updated indicators related to interviewed. Also, the 2003 DHS
energy poverty at the household data were collected and used for
level. The DHS survey on Nigeria comparison with the 2008 so as to
for 2003 and 2008 provide estimates ascertain the change of energy
for rural and urban areas of the poverty within 5 years. The 2003
country, the six zones, and several of data was chosen because it was the
the 36 states and the Federal Capital only data with updated information
Territory (FCT). However, one of the as those from 2008. Although, there
major problems of micro data is were some missing variables in 2003
likelihood of missing data. This was such as data on generating set, indoor

43
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
pollution and mobile phones, for the urban and sub-national. It is also
sake of a fair comparison, these data more importantly centred on energy
were removed from 2008. Both services. Finally, it is complementary
datasets were representative of the to other metrics such as Energy
population at that point in time. Development Index (EDI). On the
Strengths and Limitation of MEPI other hand, literature has shown that
The MEPI primarily measures energy poverty is primarily a
deprivation instead of access and challenge in Africa, most especially
takes into account the sub-Saharan Africa where paucity of
multidimensionality of energy data is a major obstacle to effective
poverty. It further estimates the research. This paucity of data poses a
headcount (incidence) and intensity major challenge in the computation
of energy poverty, i.e., how many of the MEPI. However database like
people and how energy poor they the 2008 DHS survey shows an
are. MEPI is based on Micro-data improvement in data evidenced in
(survey) and allows for the addition of more data on energy
decomposability between rural and related services.

Table 2: Interview Data

Interviewees (Age 15-49) 2008 2003
Households 34,070 7,225
Women 33,385 7,620
Men 15,486 2,346
Interview response rate (%)
Households 98 99
Women 97 95
Men 93 91

III. Results and Discussion dimensions were considered in order

Traditional Biomass use and its to capture the deprivations
effect on Households households experience from the
This objective was achieved through incapability to use energy services.
the review of relevant literatures on Figure 1 shows the percentage of
the impacts of traditional biomass, people deprived in each indicator of
and these impacts were categorised the MEPI. Also, it compares the
into; environmental, health and performance of the urban and rural
social impacts. Table 3 presents the areas with that of the national
findings. aggregate.
To measure energy poverty, six
indicators belonging to five

44
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Table 3: Energy Poverty at the National,Urban and Rural Areas

Category Impact
Environmental  Reduces Agricultural productivity
 Worsens deforestation and desertification
 Increases the accumulation of Greenhouse Gas

Health  Indoor pollution from traditional biomass contributes to 1.5

million deaths annually
 Toxic fumes from indoor pollution causes more deaths than
Malaria
 High concentration of CO, NO2, SO2 and TSP leading to
chronic illnesses such as lung cancer, pneumonia and
allergies
 Burns and Scads as well as the possibility of injury and
violence during collection
Social  Expands socio-economic inequalities among men and
women as women tend to spend more time collecting fuels
and cooking
 Deprives women and children especially female children
the time for formal education

Figure 1: Percentage of Households Deprived in each Indicator for National, Urban and
Rural .

45
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Figure 2: Comparison of Energy Poverty in Rural and Urban Areas with National
Aggregate
At the National level, it can be seen The effect of this deprivation of
that a large proportion of households electricity can also be seen in the
are deprived in all the indicators percentage of households deprived of
except in radio and television. cooling from the use of fridges, as
However, it is important to note that can be seen all categories were most
these appliances depend on deprived in that indicator.
electricity. The study reports that It can be seen from Figure 2 that the
78% of households in Nigeria are incidence of energy poverty is high
deprived of modern cooking. The in Nigeria at 85% which implies that
implication of this is that more 85% of households in Nigeria are
households depend on traditional energy poor. In the urban areas, 66%
biomass other than the clean fuel of of the households are living in
electricity, and LPG for cooking and energy poverty. This is relatively
are therefore, exposed to indoor higher in the rural areas where 94%
pollution with its associated hazards. of rural inhabitants are energy poor.
Major reasons for this may be The intensity of the energy poverty at
ignorance, affordability and the national level is 68% which
availability of this modern fuel. This means that an average energy poor
tends to be higher in the rural areas household is deprived of 68% of all
where 90% of households are indicators. Comparing rural and
deprived of modern cooking fuel urban households, it can be seen that
compared to 51% in the urban areas. households in rural areas are
Drawing from literature, culture and deprived of an average of 73% of all
education could be a major indicators. This is lower in urban
determinant for this inequality. areas where on the average a
Furthermore, it can be seen that 50% household is deprived of 53%. The
of households do not have access to implication of this is that many
lighting from either grid electricity households lack these basic
and/or generators; this implies that necessities more in rural areas than in
they depend on lighting from other urban. It furthermore validates
sources such as candles and lanterns. studies that rural households are the

46
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
most affected by energy poverty. It Nigeria. The degree of energy
will be recalled that the MEPI cut off poverty in the South West, South
was set at 0.3, with a MEPI of 0.58; South, and South East is moderate.
Nigeria has a moderate level of However, with an exception of the
energy poverty. However, North Central zone, the degree of
decomposing this to the urban and Energy poverty in Northern Nigeria
rural areas, the results show that with is critical. This to an extent may
a MEPI of 0.35, energy poverty is reveal the wide gap in development
moderate in urban areas. Energy between the South and North.
poverty in rural Nigeria is very acute Furthermore, it highlights the
owing to a MEPI of 0.69 thus; capability of the MEPI to be
alleviation policies and strategies decomposed in order to show the
should first begin in rural areas. figures for the components of a
Energy Poverty at the Geopolitical Nation thereby avoiding erroneous
Zone Level generalisation. To demonstrate this,
It can be seen from the Figure 3, it can be seen that the MEPI values
MEPI shows the degree of the energy for the North East far surpasses that
poverty in each geopolitical-zone in of the Nation (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Map showing the MEPI of various Geopolitical zones of Nigeria.

Relationship between Energy coincides with the fact that the region
Poverty and Security has the highest poverty as evidenced
There is a strong correlation between by its MEPI of 0.75.
energy poverty and the security Poverty has been fingered as one of
challenges currently being faced in the underlying causes of the conflict,
the country. Figure 4 shows data whereby poor, unemployed and
collated by Raleigh [16] and reported vulnerable youths are recruited to the
on the BBC [17] about the incidence ranks of the militants. As energy
of insecurity caused by Boko Haram poverty is a major aspect of poverty
attacks for the years 2012–January as a whole, tacking energy poverty is
2015. As the figure shows, the a sure route to addressing the conflict
epicentre of these attacks is the and security challenges. Energy
northeast of the country and this poverty not only affects people‟s

47
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
access to education and average daily solar radiation ranges
enlightenment through the mass from 3.5 kWh/m2-day in the coastal
media, it also hinders efforts to belt of the south to 7.0 kWh/m2-day
combat the security problems. For in the North for 4–9 hours daily all
example lack of steady electricity can year round [19]. This is probably one
mean round the clock CCTV of the highest in the World. In terms
monitoring is not possible. The role of wind energy, there is also an
renewable energy can play is appreciable amount, and analysis of
therefore invaluable. the patterns suggests an average of 1
Potential of Renewables – 5 m/s wind speed at 10 m height.
As Nigeria‟s power demand is Despite the peak months occurring
expected to rise at an average annual between April and August, there is
increase of 8.2%, it has become huge potential to generate between 8
evident that frequent disruption of gas and 51 MWh/yr alone from wind.
supplies to the gas fired generation As a result, solar and wind energy
plants cannot keep up with this can potentially lift Nigeria and indeed
demand [18]. This may not augur the country‟s northeast out of energy
well if energy poverty is to be poverty if the abundant resources are
overcome. Renewable energy has exploited. Indeed the Draft National
therefore been identified as an Renewable Energy and Energy
alternative source that can alleviate Efficiency Policy document projected
energy poverty in Nigeria. This is due that 30,000 MW can be generated
to its likelihood to solve the nation‟s from renewables alone as compared
huge economic and industrial to the total 4,000 MW currently
challenges and its possibility of generated from all sources.
attracting foreign investors. Therefore, concerted effort and
In the amended draft Energy Policy organisation by the government and
Document, data from the Energy private sector is required to achieve
commission of Nigeria shows that the this goal.

48
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

2012: 1,663 civilians killed 2013: 2,978 civilians killed

2014: 9,033 civilians killed January 2015 alone: 2,146 civilians killed
Numbers killed in More intense colour represents
individual attacks multiple attacks

Figure 4: Terrorist attacks in Nigeria 2012-2015 (Source: Source: Raleigh [19]; BBC [20]).

IV. Conclusions incidence of energy poverty in the

Developing countries have long been various states and geopolitical
identified to be at the receiving end of regions of Nigeria. The secondary
energy poverty. Several performance data used was that of the
metrics have been used by the WHO, Demographic Health Service of the
UNDP and other organisations to United States Agency for
quantify what the WEF calls “the International Development (USAID)
worse type of poverty”. In this study, which was obtained by way of
Multidimensional Energy Poverty interviews collated from over 7,000
Index, MEPI developed by Oxford and 37,000 respectively for the years
Poverty and Human Development 2003 and 2008. Calculated MEPI
Initiative (OPHI) on indices for the various regions of
Multidimensional Poverty Index Nigeria show that the southwest had
(MPI) was used to study the the least incidence of energy poverty

49
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
while the northeast had the highest. energy poverty, with the vast
Energy poverty in the northeast majority of attacks occurring in this
region is characterised by deprivation geopolitical region. As a result,
of access to basic modern energy renewables such as solar and wind
sources such as electricity, petrol, and energies abundant in northeast
cooking gas. Energy inefficiency and Nigeria have been identified as
indoor pollution are predominant. having huge potential to ending
Recent social and security challenges energy poverty and hence may be
in the northeast of the country have alternatives for arresting the current
been shown to have a strong security challenges.
correlation with poverty and indeed

Reference African Institute for Applied

[1] United Nations Development Economics, (2010)
Programme and World Health [7] Chevalier, J. and Ouedraogo, N.
Organization “The Energy S. “Energy Poverty and
access situation in Developing Economic Development in The
Countries:A Review Focusing New Energy Crisis: Climate,
on the Least Developed Economics and Geopolitics”. ed.
Countries and Sub-Saharan by Chevalier, J. United
Africa”. New York, US: Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillian,
UNDP/WHO, (2009) (2009)
[2] World Economic Forum [8] World Energy Outlook “Energy
“Ending Energy Poverty “ Poverty; how to make Modern
(2012) [online] available from Energy Access Universal”.
<http://www.weforum.org/sessi Paris, France: IEA/OECD,
ons/summary/ending-energy- (2010)
poverty> [April/04 2013] [9] International Centre for Energy,
[3] International Energy Agency Environment and Development
Energy Poverty [online] “Expanding Access to Pro-Poor
available at Energy Services in Nigeria”
<http://www.iea.org/topics/ener Nigeria: ICEED Nigeria , (2012)
gypoverty/> [March/10 2013] [10] Obi, B. and Menson, A. E.
[4] Tennakoon, D. “Energy Poverty: “Energy, Technology and
Estimating the Level of Energy Infrastructure for Sustainable
Poverty in Sri Lanka”. Sri Development”. 'Energy, Poverty
Lanka: Practical Action South and Sustainable Development in
Asia , (2008) Nigeria: Theory, Evidence and
[5] Nussbaumer, P., Bazilian, M., and Implications for Policy'. April
Modi, V. “Measuring Energy 23 - 24, Abuja. Nigeria:
Poverty: Focusing on what NAEE/IAEE, (2012)
Matters”. Renewable and [11] Ogwumike, F. O. and Ozughalu,
Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 U. M “Energy, Poverty and
(2012) 231– 243 16 (2012) Sustainable Development I.
[6] Onyeji, I. “On the Determinants 'Analysis of Energy Poverty and
of Energy Poverty in Sub- its Implications for Sustainable
Saharan Africa. Enugu, Nigeria” Development in Nigeria”. April

50
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
23 - 24, Sheraton Hotel, Abuja. http://www.acleddata.com/wp-
Nigeria: NAEE/IAEE, (2012) content/uploads/2012/02/BokoH
[12] Agba, M. S “Energy Poverty and aram.jpg. [15 July, 2015]
the Leadership Question in [17] British Broadcasting Corporation
Nigeria: An Overview and BBC “Nigeria elections:
Implication for the Future”. Mapping a nation divided”,
Journal of Public Administration [Online] Last updated 9
and Policy Research 3 (2), 48- February, 2015, Available from:
51, (2011) http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worl
[13] Alkire, S. and Santos, M. E. d-africa-31101351 [15 July,
“Acute Multidimensional 2015]
Poverty: A New Index for [18]Okanlawon,L“Nigeria,Energy
Developing Countries” Oxford Poverty and Renewable
Poverty and Human Energy”,Available from
Development Initiative (2010) http://www.renewableenergywor
[14] Alkire, S. and Foster, J. ld.com/ugc/articles/2012/02/nige
“Counting and ria-energy-poverty-and-
Multidimensional Poverty renewable-energy.html. [14
Measurement'. Journal of Public July, 2015]
Economics 95 (7), 476-487 , [19] Energy Commission of Nigeria,
(2011) “Draft National Renewable
[15] Sen, A “Development as Energy and Energy Efficiency
Freedom” Oxford University Policy (NREEEP)”,(2014)
Press, (1999) [Online] Available from:
[16] Raleigh, Clionadh “Armed http://www.energy.gov.ng/index.
Conflict Location and Event php?searchword=renewable+ene
Data Project” The University of rgy&ordering=&searchphrase=al
Sussex, [Online] Available l&Itemid=1&option=com.search
from:

51
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET)Vol. 2, No. 2, Dec.. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Wind Energy Technology in Nigeria: Prospects,

Challenges and Solution

Oyedeji A.A1., Okesola A. A1., Lamidi M. O1.,

Madaki M. K1., Abdulhamid A. F1. & Asaolu G. O2.

1
National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI)
Abuja, Nigeria.
2
Power Equipment and Electrical Machinery Development Institute Okene,
Kogi State, Nigeria.
adesojioye@gmail.com

Abstract. This paper discusses some of the challenges of wind energy

technology, solution and prospects in Nigeria. The major sources of
electric power generation in Nigeria are fossil fuel and hydropower.
Nigeria is well-endowed with vast resources for conventional energy
(crude oil, natural and coal), as well as reasonable amount of renewable
energy resources (e.g. hydro, solar, wind and biomass). It is obvious that
Nigeria is lagging behind under the wind energy category. Wind power
and wind electricity adoption in Nigeria, represents the least developed
source of energy. Northern parts of Nigeria experiences wind speeds in
the range 6.0 – 8.0 m/s, while parts of Southern Nigeria and mountainous
area of the country are in the same range. It is recommended that Nigeria
can effectively exploit wind energy technology, if the identified
challenges are overcome and the suggested solutions are implemented.
Keywords: Wind Power, Nigeria, Wind Energy Technology (WET),
Sustainable energy.

1. Introduction per capita rates in the world: 15,000

Nigeria with an estimated population MW peak load demand to 6,050MW
of above 180 million people, with an available capacity, resulting in an
ever-increasing demand for energy. unreliable power supply and a
The country is located between correspondingly heavy dependence
longitude 80E and latitude 100N, and on fossil fuels in industries and
has two major seasons, wet and dry. residential areas [1]. Major sources
The country‟s economy is largely of electricity production are fossil
dependent on oil. Nigeria has one of fuel, and large- and small-scale
the lowest net electricity generation hydroelectric generation [3]. While

52
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
electricity from hydropower plant is above 300,000 MW within the same
widely acknowledged as period of years. To accomplish this,
environmentally friendly, those from requires an additional 11,686 MW
fossil fuels and nuclear power have every year to meet demand, costing
associated environmental limitations for the period about $US484.62
[2]. The country depends largely on billion (Ajayi, 2010). Nigeria is
thermal power plants for the endowed with huge resources of
generation of electricity. These are conventional energy resources (crude
easily fuelled from the country‟s oil, tar sands, natural and coal) as
abundant gas reserves. well as reasonable amount of
A national projection based on 13% renewable energy resources (e.g.
Gross Domestic Product growth rate hydro, solar, wind and biomass) [4-
revealed that energy demand will 5]. The estimate of renewable energy
increase from 5746 MW in 2005 to resources in Nigeria are presented in
297900 MW in 2030 while supply Table 1.
should increase from 6440 MW to
Table 1: Renewable energy resources and estimated reserves in Nigeria [4]
Hydropower 14,750 MW
(Large/Small scale)
Solar radiation 3.5 - 7.0 KWhm2/day
Wind 2 - 4 m/s at 10m height
Biomass 144million tons/year
Wave and tidal energy 150,000 TJ/year

Surprisingly, the hydropower reserve target (Table 2) for this resource [4].
data (as shown in Table 1 and The overall targets of renewable
supported by other sources (e.g. [5] energy and total electricity generation
and [6]) is far less than the long-term are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Targets for renewable electricity generation (MW) in Nigeria [6]
Resource Short Term Medium Long Term
(2008) Term (2015) (2030)

Hydro (large) 1930 5930 48000

Hydro (small) 100 743 19000

Solar PV 5 120 500

Solar Thermal - 1 5

Biomass - 100 800

Wind 1 20 40

All Renewable 2,036 6,905 68,345

All Energy Resources 15,000 30,000 190,000

53
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

From Table 2, it is obvious that However, the African continent

Nigeria is lagging behind under the though improving in generation
wind energy category. On the other capacities, represents the least
hand, the worldwide total cumulative developed in terms of installed wind
installed electricity power and wind electricity adoption.
generation capacity from wind In sub-Saharan Africa, particularly
power as at the end of 2016 amounted the West African region, no country
to 486,749 MW, an increase of 12.5% has yet generated grid electricity from
compared to the previous year[7]. It wind despite the identified
is imperative to know that the amount opportunities [1]. Table 3 shows the
of the economically extractable summary of the installed capacity of
power that is available from the wind wind power capacity (MW) in Africa
is said to be more than the current & Middle East as at the end of 2016.
human power use from all sources
[8].
Table 3: Installed Wind Power Capacity (MW) in Africa & Middle East[7]

Country Installed capacity in 2016 (MW)

South Africa 1,471

Egypt 810

Morocco 787
Ethiopia 324

Tunisia 245

Jordan 119
Others 150

Total 3,906

From Table 3, the „others‟ category speed data information, [9] and [10]
include countries with small or reported wind speed data in one city
minimal installed wind power while [11] and [10] reported wind
capacity and they are Algeria, Cape speed data across the country [3]. The
Verde, Iran, Israel, Kenya, Libya, data collected by these researchers
Nigeria were obtained at different heights
2. Wind Power in Nigeria ranging from about 5 m to 15 m, but
Individual researchers on their part a mean average height of 10 m was
have made various assessments of agreed upon as the focal height [17-
potentials and availability based on 18].
existing data to determine the The map (Fig. 1) shows the suitable
magnitude of wind resources in use of wind power in each state,
Nigeria. Due to accessibility to wind based on wind at 10 m elevation.

54
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
From the map, it was deduced that generated electricity in those states.
Northern Nigeria experiences wind Also, ten states experience wind
speeds in the range 6.0 – 8.0 m/s above 6 m/s giving them a very good
whereas parts of Southern Nigeria potential for wind generated
and mountainous centers are in the electricity. Further analysis of these
same range. It was also noted that wind resources revealed that the
twelve states experience wind speeds North, Central and South-East of the
between 2.5 m/s and 4.0 m/s thereby nation possess enormous potential for
making it possible for borehole water harvesting wind energy, with possible
pumping use. Fifteen states wind speeds reaching as high as 8.70
experience wind between 4 m/s and m/s in the north [12].
above, hence enabling wind

Figure 1: Nigeria Wind regime [13]

However, Fadare (2010) make use of annual wind speed of 4.7 m/s was
artificial neural networks to predict predicted for Nigeria. The measured
the wind speeds distribution across data presented in the study indicated
Nigeria and compared the predicted that maximum average annual wind
wind speeds with measurements data speed of 9.47 m/s was recorded in Jos
from 28 stations that span between (closely followed by 9.39 m/s in
1983 and 2003. He predicted monthly Kano) while minimum value of 1.77
average wind speed ranging from a m/s was recorded in Ondo [3].
minimum of 0.8 m/s for Ondo (in Recorded samples of the monthly
south region) to maximum value of isovents for selected months using the
about 13.1 m/s for Kano (in north predicted values are represented in
region) with both values occurred in the figure 2.
December. The overall average

55
Figure 2: Predicted monthly average wind speeds (m/s) distribution (isovents at 10 m
height) in Nigeria for the month of June [14].

3. Wind Energy Technology Investors need healthy government

Challenges and its Corresponding policy that will create a favorable
Tackling Measures environment for profitability.
3.1. Challenges Incentives can be put in place such as
There are various challenges sales tax, concessional import duties,
affecting the development of wind and excise duty relief to encourage
energy technology (WET) in Nigeria. and attract investors in WET. The
Some of these problems are identified reassurance from the government for
by [6] [15] as: a viable market in WET is necessary.
- reluctance of government and its And this can only be expressed via
agencies to encourage wind policy making. This will serve as an
energy technologies, index to rate the level of readiness the
- low government financial support government has in supporting and
and non-availability of fiscal promoting WET in Nigeria.
incentives, b) Research and Development
- lack of awareness, Advancement in WET can be
- inadequate institutional framework achieved when there are established
and resource assessment, and institutions, whose focus is to harness
- technical ineptitude and limitation. all aspects of WET, working round
3.2. Tackling Measures the clock in finding out how to
a) Development of a Robust Wind increase the contribution of WET to
Energy Technology Policy the energy mix of the country, while

56
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
laying emphasis on rural establishment of RE fund to provide
electrification as well. Having such a incentives, micro-credits schemes,
team on ground will ensure the training and also funding R & D [2].
growth of WET and will create a 4. Conclusion
sustainable system and accountability Nigeria has an enormous amount of
in WET in the country. wind energy resource that has not yet
c) Adequate funding of WET been tapped. Inland and onshore
Interventions from government, possibilities are vast for the growth of
investors, and other sources can be WET in the country. The government
pulled together to setup sustainable cannot afford to neglect this
funding for the advancement of WET important aspect of energy, therefore
projects in Nigeria. The government‟s deliberate steps must be taken to
serious involvement in WET will harness, preserve and sustain WET in
spur adequate funding as it will be Nigeria. This task is not a one-man
easier to earn the trust of local and affair; thus, the government must be
foreign collaborators. A special willing to partner with countries that
funding agency could also be setup have vast and advanced knowledge in
that will solely bear the responsibility the technology. This will save time
of sourcing for funds for WET. and set Nigeria on track with other
d) Working plan & Road map countries developing WET around
The Renewable Energy Master Plan the globe. The determined pursuit and
will be a vital resource if there can be establishment of WET in Nigeria is
serious devotion to the suggestions important to the growth of the energy
contained therein. Part of this sector. It will reduce the fossil fuel
suggestion includes the suspension of consumption thereby preserving the
the Renewable Energy (RE) import environment and saving the planet at
duties, integration of RE into non- large. It will also aid in the realization
energy sector policies, establishment of the country‟s vision of becoming
of national RE development agency, one of the 20 largest economy in the
standardization of RE products and world (vision 2020).

References Energy Network Institute

[1] Ajayi, O. O., Fagbenle, O. R., (GENI).
James Katende, Ndambuki, J. [3] Adaramola, M. S. & Oyewola,
M., Omole, D.O & Badejo, A. O. M. (2011). Wind Speed
A. (2014). Wind Energy Study Distribution and Characteristics
and Energy Cost of Wind in Nigeria, ARPN Journal of
Electricity Generation in Engineering and Applied
Nigeria: Past and Recent Sciences, 6(2) ISSN 1819-
Results and a Case Study for 6608.
South West Nigeria. Energies [4] Okokpujie, I. P., Okokpujie, K.
ISSN 1996-1073. O., Nwoke, O. N., & Azeta, J.
[2] Adebayo, C. (2014). How is (2018). Design and
100% renewable energy Implementation of 0.5 kw
possible for Nigeria? Global Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

57
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
for Domestic Use. In [12] Fadare, D. A. (2008). A
Proceedings of the World statistical analysis of wind
Congress on Engineering (Vol. energy potential in Ibadan,
2). Nigeria, based on Weibull
[5] Ibitoye, F. I. & Adenikinju, A. distribution function. Pacific
(2007). Future demand for Journal of Science and
electricity in Nigeria. Applied Technology. 9: 110-119.
Energy. 84: 492-504. [13] Fagbenle, R. L. & Karayiannis,
[6] Manohar, K. & Adeyanju, A. T. G. (1994). On the wind
A. (2009). Hydro power energy energy resource of Nigeria.
resources in Nigeria. Journal of International Journal of Energy
Engineering and Applied Research. 18: 493-508.
Sciences. 4: 68-73 [14] Ajayi, O. O. (2010). The
[7] Sambo, A. S. (2006). Potential for Wind Energy in
Renewable energy electricity in Nigeria. Wind Engineering.
Nigeria: The way forward. Volume 34(3).
Paper presented at the [15] Ojosu, J. O. & Salawu, R. I.
Renewable electricity policy (1990). A survey of wind
conference, Abuja. energy potential in Nigeria.
[8] GWEC (2016). Global Wind Solar and Wind Technology. 7:
Statistics Annual Report as 155-167.
published on 10th [16] Fadare, D. A. (2010). The
February,2017. application of artificial neural
[9] Okokpujie, I. P., Okokpujie, K. networks to mapping of wind
O., Nwoke, O. N., & Azeta, J. speed profile for energy
(2018). Development of a 0.5 application in Nigeria. Applied
KW Horizontal Axis Wind Energy. 87: 934-942.
Turbine. Journal of [17] Ajayi, O. O. (2009).
Engineering and Applied Assessment of utilization of
Sciences, 13(8), 2202-2208. wind energy resources in
[10] Ben, S. (2000). Renewable Nigeria. Energy Policy. 37:
Energy: Its Physics, 750-753.
Engineering, Environmental [18] Odia, O. O., Ososomi, S. A., &
Impacts, Economics and Okokpujie, P. I. (2016).
Planning. 2nd edition. Practical Analysis of A Small
Academic Press. Wind Turbine for Domestic
[11] Anyanwa, E. E. & Iwuagwu, C. Use on Latitude 7.0670 N,
J. (1995). Wind characteristics Longitude 6.2670 E. Journal of
and energy potentials for Research in Mechanical
Owerri, Nigeria. Renewable Engineering, 2(11), 8-10.
Energy 6: 125-128

58
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET)Vol. 2, No. 2, Dec.. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Finite Element Analysis of Concrete Gravity Based

Platform Subjected to Sudden Crash (Impact)
Load Using ANSYS

Alerechi L.W*, Oluwole O.O. & Odunfa K. M.

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
*alerechilucky@gmail.com

Abstract: The design, analysis and construction of offshore structures as

well as their modeling are one of the most demanding sets of tasks faced
by engineering profession due to the complexity of structural designs
and the large volume of elements used in the model. Finite element
analysis (FEA) technology has become a very important tool for
evaluating the structural integrity of massive and gigantic structures of
which offshore platforms is an example. Offshore structures when
installed are constantly faced with different forces/loads ranging from
environmental to accidental loads and the later was the impacting load
under consideration. This paper carefully illustrates the design and
analysis approaches and requirements for a reinforced concrete based
gravity platform, a fixed type of offshore structure which was subjected
to a crash load and simulated with a computer based finite element
analysis tool-ANSYS EXPLICIT DYNAMICS. The scenario was a
collision between an offshore transporting vessel and the said fixed
platform. Impacting velocities of 5m/s,10m/s, 16m/s, 50m/s and 100m/s
were used and results obtained for deformations and stress induced. The
study was done to see at what velocity the structure compromise its load
bearing capacity and it was observed that the deformation was
proportional to velocities increase.
Key Words: Finite Element Analysis (FEA), Gravity Based Structure
(GBS), Collision, ANYSY Simulation, Accidental load.

1. Introduction environment which has led to the

As the demand for oil and gas is installations of numerous oil and gas
continually on the increase globally, platforms for drilling and production
exploration and production has operations. Some of these platforms
moved ever more into the offshore are fixed or floating. The Fixed as the

59
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
name implies is permanently placed the mooring systems help the floating
in position throughout the offshore platform achieve stability. Examples
operations, while the Floating of such structures are Submersible,
structure floats on the surface of the Semi-submersible, drill ship, FPSO,
sea by some devices. These structures Tension leg platforms [2].
are constantly been faced with The Fixed types has their topside
external forces [1]. structures attached to the seafloor via
The Floating structure has topsides a jacket, piles or a reinforced concrete
located on a floating hull system legs and they are categorized into
which floats with the help of either a Jacket, Jack Up, Tower, Compliant
pontoon (a flotation device with tower, Gravity Structure. The latter
buoyancy that can float itself as well type of fixed structure was the focus
as a heavy load) or a mooring system of this research [2].
to hold on station. The pontoon and

Fig. 1 Types of Offshore Oil and Gas Structures

1 & 2 Conventional fixed platforms 7 & 8 Semi-submersibles (deepest:

(deepest: Shell‟s Bullwinkle in Shell‟s NaKika in 2003, 1920
1991 at 412 m/1,353 ft) m/6,300 ft)
3 Compliant tower (deepest: 9 Floating production, storage, and
ChevronTexaco‟s Petronius in offloading facility (deepest: 2005,
1998 at 534 m /1,754 ft) 1,345m/4,429 ft Brazil)
4 & 5 Vertically moored tension leg 10 Sub-sea completion and tie-back
and mini-tension leg platform to host facility (deepest: Shell‟s
(deepest: ConocoPhillips‟ Coulomb tie to NaKika 2004,
Magnolia in 2004 1,425 m/4,674 2,307 m/ 7,570 ft)
ft) 1.1 Loads on Offshore Structures
6 Spar (deepest: Dominion‟s Devils Offshore structures are constantly
Tower in 2004, 1,710 m/5,610 ft) faced with various forces/loads which
are categorized into [3]:

60
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
 Static loads installation of the platform
 Dead weight (weights of the and components)
platform and any permanent  Accidental loads (the impact
equipment and appurtenant of platform collision with
structures which do not vessel, helicopter crash,
change with the mode of objects drop, fire etc)
operation. i.e the structural 1.2 Concrete Gravity Base
weight in air, equipment Structure (CGBS)
permanently installed on the The term Gravity Based Structures
platform. Example weights (GBS) implies two main
of pile, ballast, etc). characteristics; firstly, the foundation
 Hydrostatic forces (forces is not piled but of gravity type and
acting on the structure secondly, the main structural
below the waterline elements are of concrete
including external pressure reinforcement. They are fixed
and buoyancy). structures that are held in place
 Dynamic Loads against environmental action solely
 Operational loads or Live by their weight (gravity) and that of
loads (loads imposed on the ballast contained [1].
platform during use and The Concrete offshore structures are
which may change either used in the oil and gas industry for
during a mode of operation drilling, extraction or storage units
or from one mode of for crude oil or natural gas in extreme
operation to another.eg the offshore environments were the wave
weight of drilling and frequency is of high magnitude like
production equipment the Norwegian North Sea. These
which can be added or structures are massive and house
removed from the platform, machineries and equipment needed to
the weight of living drill and/or extract oil and gas. Other
quarters, heliport etc). concrete structures which are not
 Environmental loads (loads applicable within the oil and gas
imposed on the platform by industry like the wind turbines have
natural phenomena being in operation [4].
including: wave, current,
wind, earthquake, snow, ice The early development of gravity
and earth movement. platforms was in the 1970s in the
Environmental loads also North Sea. This was driven by the
include the variation in generic requirement to store large
hydrostatic pressure and volumes of oil and support heavy
buoyancy on members topsides in deep waters. The
caused by changes in the discovery/ development of this
water level due to waves structure solved the problem of
and tides). pipeline infrastructural transportation
 Construction loads (loads of crude oil to land which was
arising from fabrication and immature then [5].

61
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Fig. 2 Gravity Based Concrete Structure

CGBS Design Considerations. The ability of the structure at rest to be

design, analysis and construction of afloat. And the hydrodynamics
offshore structures are one of the requirement is the resistance the
most demanding sets of tasks faced structure has towards the motion due
by engineering profession. to water flow. It also examines the
Three design steps are required in static stability of the structure, which
offshore structure design [3] - is its ability to restore itself to the
 Foundation Design original upright position after being
For the fixed structures for example hit/ inclined by wind, wave or other
the concrete and jacket platforms, loading conditions.
the design consideration is  Structural Design
dependent on the weight of the For validation of the design,
structure, the environmental loads structural analysis is conducted. The
and the soil characteristics. The base results gotten from the validation is
for a CGBS or the pile for a jacket used for the selection of construction
should be design to withstand these materials.
loads. The choice of location for Structural design validation includes:
installation is based on geotechnical a strength check- to ensure sufficient
report gotten and the soil laboratory resistance for material yield strength
test. for all components, a stability check-
 Naval Architecture Design for buckling (propagation of failure
This addresses two issues in the on the structure) resistance for all
design of offshore structures, the structural components subjected to
hydrostatics and hydrodynamics compression, and a joint check- this
requirements. The hydrostatics is the ensures sufficient connecting

62
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
capacities between various reinforcement inclusive. The
components. In addition, advanced colliding vessel is made of structural
design validation/ authentications steel, with a deadweight/total weight
may be required for accidental loads, of 4,070 ton (4,070,000kg).
fatigue and corrosion [6]. The ANYSY is a general-purpose
Some recommended codes and finite-element analysis/modeling tool
standards for offshore designs include for solving numerically problems in
BS 6235 (1982), API RP 2A-WSD the field of sciences and engineering.
(2000), and DNV-OS-C101 (2011) These problems include but not
for steel structures and DNV-OS- limited to static/dynamic, structural
C502 (2010) for concrete platforms analysis (both linear and nonlinear),
Impact Load. Impact load is an heat transfer, fluid, as well as
accidental load and it‟s dynamic in acoustic and electromagnetic
nature (i.e. it varies with time). A problems [11].
typical example is the scenario of this Finite Element Analysis FEA, is a
work. During this collision, the simulation method most often use to
striking vessel converts its kinetic predict the physical behavior of
energy wholly or partially into strain structures/systems. In other words, it
energy in both objects depending on gives a clue of how a product reacts
the magnitude of the velocity of to real-world forces, vibration, heat,
impact. Various analysis tools have fluid flow and other physical effects.
been developed to analyze the FEM working method is by breaking
aftermath of this collision down (discretizing) a real object into
(deformation, damage stress etc) like a large number (thousand) of finite
ANSYS finite element analysis tool elements with nodes, such as little
which was used for this simulation. cubes. Mathematical equations then
2. Methodology help in predicting the behavior of
The accidental impact from an these elements at those nodes [9, 10].
offshore transporting vessel to a The geometry model of the structures
gravity based platform having a were done using SolidWorks CAD
rectangular-based concrete reinforced tool. This tool enables designers to
caisson with a measurement of 126m mathematically create solid models of
x 94m x 16m was simulated using objects that can be stored in a
ANSYS EXPLICIT DYNAMICS. database. It has the advantage of
The structure has four hexagonal converting 2D drawings immediately
shaped shafts each of length 60m, to 3D once as desired.
diameter 18m and thickness of 8m, Rock mounts were placed on the
mounted at seabed of water depth seabed to prepare the foundation for
45m. The shafts extend 15m above CGS installation to accommodate
the water level to provide support for unevenness of the seabed, also
the topside deck. The total weight of mounted at the base edges of the
the CGS (assumed) is 42,500,000 kg caisson after installation of the CGS
(42,500 tons) with the concrete for scour protection.

63
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Fig. 3 Imported geometry to ANSYS environment

Fig. 4 Meshed Model and model showing fixed support

64
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
2.1 Material Data

Table 1 Concrete Structure Constants

Density 2400 kg/m3

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 5 C-1

Ultimate Strength 4.8e8Pa

Concrete Material Grade CONC-35MPA

2.2 Assumptions Made 16m/s, 50m/s, and 100m/s

 The modeling of structures is vessel velocities.
simplified but has the same  End time of 0.005s.
quality and the dimension. 2.3 Governing Equation
 The bottom of the platform is The finite element governing
treated as rigid (fixed). equation for displacement and stress
 The structure is located at a of this vessel-platform impact
shallow water of about 45m, problem scenario is derived from the
hence the effect of wave and principle of virtual work, which
sea frequency are neglected. states that the external applied load
 The collision is considered at (F) subject on a structure must be in
90 degree. equilibrium with the internal stress
 The investigation were for a (displacement) [7].
collision of 5m/s, 10m/s Mathematically,

F= σ (1)

① ( , )

② ③ ( , )
( , )

U(x,y)= +
V(x,y)= +

= = (2)

65
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
(3)

= (4)

= = (5)

= , = , =

From equations (3) & (5) we have;

F= (6)
The element stiffness matrix for the impacting force is expressed as;
= (7)
Integrating (6) yields;
= A (8)
Equating (6) and (7),
= A (9)
Where:
= Impacting force, = Stiffness matrix, = Displacement/Deformation,
, σ=Stress, A=Area, t=Plat thickness, H= Shape function.
[8, 11]

66
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
3. Results and Discussion

Fig. 5 Simulation model of the collision

Fig. 6 Deformation contour plot

67
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Fig. 7 Stress contour plot

Table 2 Plot of Velocity against Total Deformation
Velocity (m/s) Total Deformation Damage Value Maximum Occurred
(m)
5 0.02503100 0.00000 Ship

10 0.05019100 0.05952 Ship

16 0.08067100 0.18284 Ship

50 0.21491000 0.83078 Platform

100 0.65100000 1.00000 Platform

Fig. 8 Graph of total deformation Versus Velocity

68
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Table 3 Plot of Velocity against Stress

Velocity (m/s) Stress(e7)Pa Maximum Occurred

5 0.0000000
10 7.2299 Ship
16 11.695 Ship
50 19.615 Ship
100 71.392 Ship

Fig. 9 Graph of Stress versus Velocity

In FEA/ANSYS EXPLICIT revealed that the deformation is

DYNAMICS, the contour plot is proportional to increase in velocity. It
interpreted using the contour scale also shown that at velocity 50m/s, the
which has different colour codes [12]. platform started compromising its
Simulations were done for the chosen load bearing strength and totally
velocities and results gotten for collapsed at velocity 100m/s. From
deformation/displacement and stress the table it can be seen that the
on both platform and vessel. Damage maximum occurred deformation for
simulations were carried out also. 50m/s and 100m/s is on the platform
Damage in ANSYS simulation shows depicting that at short impact time of
the load bearing capacity of a 0.005s the energy generated was
structure under consideration. If transferred to the platform.
damage value of 1 is gotten after Stress
simulation means the structure has Table 3 is the tabulated results for
failed [13]. stresses at the various velocities. This
Deformation and Damage result revealed that the 100m/s
Table 2 and Fig. 8 show results of the velocity exerted a maximum internal
total displacement and damage at force of 7.1392e8Pa, which exceeded
various velocities. The results the ultimate strength of material in

69
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
table 1 when compared. This implies 3. The 100m/s velocity which is
that, failure has occurred. The equivalent to a velocity of RPG
induced stress occurred more on the (Rocket Propelled Grenade), both
ship showing that energy was structures experienced high stresses
conserved on the impacting structure, which are greater than their
see table 3. material yield strengths.
4. Conclusion It is worthy of note that accident in
The study looked into the general does not ring a bell nor been
deformation/ damage rate and stress sent by the voodoos but caused as a
at the various velocities. And also result of human errors. In order to
compared stresses with the material reduce the rate of accident offshore
yield strength (the point at which the we therefore recommend that a
material starts experiencing system like INFRARED MOTION
deformation) of the structures. It was SENSOR OR INDECATOR that will
concluded that: alert and re-awaken the
1. The deformation, stress increases as consciousness of the personnel
the velocity increases. onboard the ship and those on the
2. At velocity of 50m/s and above the platform about the presence of an oil
structures started compromising facility or an oncoming transporting
there load bearing capacity. vessel respectively from a distance.

References [7] Zienkiewicz O.C ”The Finite

[1] Ross W.B. (1991).” Analysis of Element Method‟‟. 3rd Edition.
Offshore Foundations [8] Young W.K., Hyochoong B.
Subjected to Combined „‟The Finite Element Method
Loading” Thesis for the using MATLAB.
degree of Master of Science [9] Oluwole O.O. (2011). Finite
in University of Oxford Element Modeling for
[2] Rigzone(2016) " Offshore Materials Engineers using
Structures „‟. MATLAB®. London, UK:
www.rigzone.com. Springer.
[3] Jueren X. (2012)” Finite [10] Ezugwu, Chinedu AK,
Element Analysis for Structural Ugochukwu C. Okonkwo, Jude
Performance of Offshore E. Sinebe, and Imhade P.
Platform”. SIMULLA Okokpujie. "Stability Analysis
Customer Conference. of Model Regenerative Chatter
[4] Paul A. F “ Offshore Structure of Milling Process Using First
Design and Order Least Square Full
Construction”. PAFA Discretization Method."
Consulting Engineers, UK. International Journal of
[5] Jan Borge M. S. (2013) “ Mechanics and Applications 6,
Collision between no. 3 (2016): 49-62.
Platform Deck and Service [11] Nwoke, Obinna N., Imhade P.
Vessel Wheelhouse”. Okokpujie, and S. C. Ekenyem.
[6] Eolss. (2008, December 2). "Investigation of Creep
Offshore Structure Design and Responses of Selected
Construction. Engineering Materials." Journal

70
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
of Science, Engineering [12] ANSYS. (2016). ANSYS
Development, Environmen and Software User Manual.
Technology (JOSEDET) 7, no. [13] ANSYS, Inc. (2016). Explicit
1 (2017): 1-15. Dynamics. Retrieved from
www.ansys.com.

71
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET)Vol. 2, No. 2, Dec.. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Modeling and Analysis of Fouling Behaviour

in Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger

Stephen K. Ogbonnaya1, Oluseyi O. Ajayi1,

Ohiozua D. Ohijeagbon1 & Mercy Ogbonnaya2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria.

Abstract─ The fouling of heat exchangers in the oil and gas industry is not
only a recurring challenge in refineries but it is also becoming a challenge in
crude oil production and treatment facilities where heat exchangers are
deployed to cool the crude oil temperature downstream of stabilization
system prior to storage. A predictive mitigation approach to addressing
fouling in heat exchangers remains the most viable option to avoid
production train capacity limitations, unplanned shutdown and attendant loss
of revenue. Considerable researches have been carried out which lead to the
development of models used for predicting fouling resistances in shell and
tube heat exchangers. However, this study focused on evaluation of the
performance of a plate and frame heat exchanger utilized in cooling of crude
oil prior to storage in a cargo tank for export. It also developed a fouling
resistance suitable for forecasting the exchanger performance and predicting
the maintenance management scheme. The data employed were continuously
measured for three years and employed for the analysis. It found that the
lower the hot stream approach temperature, the more the fouling resistance.
In addition, the work validates that as the fouling resistance increases with
time, the efficiency of the plate and frame heat exchanger diminishes.
Keywords: Fouling Models, Fouling Resistance, Energy System, Heat
Exchanger, Scaling

I. Introduction quest for optimal use of energy. They

Heat exchangers are important are often deployed to recover heat
process equipment utilized in nearly energy, which otherwise would be
all industries and play key role in the wasted. The applications of heat

72
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
exchanger are significant in various and utility consumption, and
sectors such as power generation, concurrently exacerbates the
aviation, space heating, refrigeration environmental footprint [4]. The cost
and air-conditioning systems, of fouling is connected to energy
chemical process facilities, sewage wastage and associated downtime.
treatment systems, refineries, cooling Heat exchangers for use in preheat
and heating. trains of crude oil refineries currently
In the upstream sector of the oil and appear to be designed based on pre-
gas industry, heat exchangers are specified fouling factors [6]. Fouling
deployed in oil processing system, has a chronic operational effect that is
gas compression systems and in many considered the major unsolved
utility systems. However, the heat problem in heat transfer technology
exchangers are frequently restricted [7].
by the process-related depositions on Fouling Formation
the heat transfer surfaces, which often Like other phenomena, several
lead to higher operation costs, higher factors are responsible for fouling
maintenance costs, safety hazards, formation on a heat transfer surface.
environmental hazards, throughput [8] performed a study on the fouling
limitation and inefficient energy features of Crude Oil from Australia
recovery [1]. This deposit known as and found that surface temperature
fouling is one of the biggest has a significant effect on fouling
challenges facing the efficiency of a rates. An increase of approximately
heat exchanger. Fouling involves the 80oC results in triplicating of the
deposition of material on to a process initial fouling rate. [9] posited that in
surface [2]. [3] described fouling as a some crude oils, an increase in bulk
process where the surfaces separating temperature does not always result in
the fluids in the heat exchanger increase in initial fouling rates. The
accumulate deposits as the fluids flow study further proposed a threshold
through them. It is the undesirable fouling model using the film
accumulation of matter on a heat temperature in the Arrhenius
transfer surface resulting in reduced expression after conducting
thermal efficiency and increased experiments in a high pressure, high
pressure drop [4]. Fouling rate, also temperature recirculation flow pilot-
defined as the difference between the scale fouling test rig with different
material deposition and removal rates crude oils at certain operating
on the heat transfer surfaces [5], is an conditions. The model‟s accuracy
important phenomenon that has was shown to predict initial fouling
capacity to determine the rates very close to experimental data.
performance of a heat exchanger. In a combined experimental and
Loss of revenue attributed to heat modeling study to relate crude oil
exchanger fouling can be significant. properties to their intrinsic fouling
Inadequate heat exchanger propensities, [10] observed that the
performance costs some international effluent temperatures of crude oil
oil and gas companies approximately continuously declined due to buildup
seven hundred and fifty million US of thermal insulating foulant on the
dollars ($750 million) per year due to wall. The study developed a theory
lost throughput and increased fuel that fouling is driven by coking

73
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
reaction and mass transfer; and equilibrium constants used to
mostly influenced by oil‟s solvency quantify the asphaltene precipitation
power and the contents of asphaltene, rate. The outcome showed that the
basic nitrogen, and metals which delicate interplay between heat
were combined into a fouling transfer and fluid dynamics, which
propensity index used for developing accompanies the flow, leads to
improved fouling reduction methods. enhancement and suppression of
In a related study involving the chemical reaction and precipitation-
mixing of crude oil before loading driven fouling, and an overall rise in
into the test apparatus, [11] observed the fouling rate. [15] modelled and
that different mixing methods can simulated different crude oil deposit
produce different heat transfer aging scenarios in a crude oil refinery
coefficients and different fouling preheat train wherein the transients of
rates. [12] expounded a simple, fouling and aging as well as the
fundamental theory that certain interactions between individual units
velocity and shear stress thresholds in were captured. Based on this, the
horizontal flows can be responsible deleterious impact of fouling and
for sedimentation particulate fouling concomitant aging, quantified in
and the values compare favorably terms of thermal resistances, was
with industrial experience. [13] significantly reduced by fast aging as
simulated a crude oil fouling process opposed to medial, slow, or no aging
using asphaltene precipitation to of the gel deposit. Faster aging rate
study the aging process of the fouling reflected improved heat recovery and
layer and observed that wall shear a lesser demand for and lower cost of
stress has a high impact on mitigation heat exchanger cleaning. The
of fouling as it enables the removal of concomitant higher growth of coke
fouling precursors and thus reduce deposit due to aging, however,
the deposit formation. Various studies resulted in greater hydraulic
suggest that fouling formation is resistance, which is inimical to
caused or accelerated by several operations.
factors such as wall/bulk Moreover, [16] stated that crude oil
temperatures, flow velocities, aging, fouling researches should be directed
shear stress and fluid properties. to reflect the fouling behaviour of
Modeling of Fouling Behaviour operating exchangers. Based on this,
The threshold fouling approach has some studies have been carried out to
become an accepted tool for develop models for predicting fouling
analyzing fouling data but there has rate or fouling initiation time.
been little activity in the development However, despite the existence of the
of quantitative models for the past ten studies, there has not been any that
years [14]. [15] studied fluid has developed a model that can be
dynamics and phase behavior of used to generalize or universally
crude-oil fouling in a closed-end analyse fouling behaviour in different
heat-exchanger on the basis that the kinds of heat exchanger. The models
deposition process associated with are exchanger specific. In addition,
fouling was due to asphaltene several of the previous studies were
precipitation and a two-step chemical done with different fluids (other than
reaction. It predicted phase crude oil) which have different

74
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
characteristics. Further to this, most convection within each fluid
of the existing research endeavors molecules and conduction through
were focused on shell and tube heat the wall separating the two fluids
exchangers in small laboratory scale [17]. In the analysis of heat
test sections such as heated rods and exchangers, it is convenient to work
short tubular sections. This does not with an overall heat transfer
represent dynamic operating coefficient, U, that accounts for the
conditions as would be observed on a contribution of all these effects on
life process plant. More so, in the heat transfer. The heat transfer rate,
studies where crude oil was used, Q, is taken to be a positive quantity
most of them were based on and its direction is understood to be
stabilized crude used in the from the hot fluid to the cold in
downstream process plants accordance with the second law of
(refineries) and not on that used in the thermodynamics. The rate of heat
upstream. Thus this study focused on transfer in a heat exchanger is
evaluation of the performance of a expressed as [18].
plate and frame heat exchanger
deployed in the oil & gas where: Q=Heat duty, U=Overall heat
production/treatment facility of transfer coefficient, W/ (m2-oC),
upstream sector with operational data. A=Heat transfer area, m2, MTD =
It also focused on in situ Mean temperature difference, oC.
experimental measurement of crude The plate and frame heat exchanger
oil flow data in a crude cooler facility used for this study was manufactured
belonging to a leading oil and gas by TRANTER with a model number
firm in Nigeria. The data employed GXD-085-M-5-UP-267. The hot
were continuously measured for three liquid employed was stabilized crude
years and employed for the analysis. oil with water as the cold liquid. The
The work led to the development of exchanger is in continuous use with a
an empirical model that can predict primary purpose being to lower the
future fouling potential, hence crude oil temperature to an acceptable
providing monitoring that can also be range in order to minimize flashing of
used to define the economic incentive hydrocarbon light ends in the storage
for possible modifications or redesign tanks as well as eliminate impact of
of poor performing heat exchangers. high temperature on its internal
II. Materials and Methods coating. The key design parameters
Two modes of heat transfer play out are shown in Table1.
in a heat exchanger, namely

75
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Table 1: Design and Process Parameters

Parameter Value
Hot Crude Oil Flow Rate 887m3/hr

Cooling Water Flow Rate 457m3/hr

Hot Side Inlet Temperature 81.1oC

Hot Side Outlet Temperature 43.3oC

Cold Side Inlet Temperature 22.2oC

Cold Side Outlet Temperature 48.9oC

Hot Side Velocity 0.613m/s

Cold Side Velocity 0.325m/s
Number of Plates 267
Total Heat Transfer Surface Area 3

Calculated Pressure drop 0.67bar

Duty 14.75MW
Heat Transfer Rate 2325W/m2-oC
Mean Temperature Difference 26.28oC

The analysis of a heat exchanger can pressure drop across the heat
be performed by either the Number of exchanger. These operating
Transfer Units (NTU) method or the parameters were utilized with the
log mean temperature difference HTRI Xchanger Suite to generate the
(LMTD) method [17]. The LMTD cooling water outlet temperature,
method is applied to problems for duty of the plate and frame, overall
which the fluid flow rates and inlet heat transfer coefficient and fouling
temperatures, as well as a desired resistance at various operating points.
outlet temperature, are prescribed. The values of the various operating
Therefore, a heat exchanger modeling data were detected by various
application that utilizes the LMTD instrumentation devices like the
approach was used. turbine flow meters, temperature
Data Gathering transmitters and pressure gauges. The
The multi-year operation data of the values of some parameters like the
plate and frame heat exchanger flow rates and temperatures are
employed for the study were sourced automatically transmitted to a system
from an oil and gas firm in Nigeria. of record (SoR) called the
They include the mass flow rate of Exaquantum which both stores the
the hot crude oil, mass flow rate of data for several years as well as
the cooling water, inlet temperature provides real time values of the
of the hot crude oil, outlet operating parameters at any point in
temperature of the hot crude oil, inlet time. Some other operating data like
temperature of the cooling water and the pressure drop across the heat

76
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
exchanger was manually recorded by the Fouling Resistance (Rf) were
operating personnel by reading the monitored. Variations in Us/Ucl
pressure gauges on the inlet and exit defines the change in heat transfer
lines of the unit. capacity with time and hence the heat
A total of over seventeen thousand transfer efficiency. It was noted that
data points covering the periods tracking Us/Ucl alone can be
between 2013 and 2015 were collated misleading, because it is a hyperbolic
from the datasheet for each of the function and hence was more reliable
operating parameters making it a total to monitor the fouling resistance, Rf,
of 68000 data points. In addition, directly using the equation:
1200 manually recorded data points (m2 °C/W) (3)
were also used. Upon reviewing the
data, some data were found to be Heat Transfer Efficiency
incomplete for various reasons which The heat exchanger performance is
included instrumentation (device) typically measured in terms of heat
malfunction, human errors, transfer efficiency and hydraulic
measurement error and emergency capacity [18]. In this work, the heat
shutdown of the facility. Based on transfer efficiencies of the heat
this, the data were treated in two exchanger over a period was
ways namely: determined, according to [18], as the
i. Incomplete data: This results when ratio of service overall heat transfer
the system did not capture the coefficient, Us, to clean overall heat
values of all the key operating transfer coefficient, Ucl, both of
parameters at certain days. Due to which are defined in equations 4 and
the criticality of data 5
completeness, days with (4)
incomplete data were removed.
(5)
ii. Outliers: Some data were provided
but were found to be significantly
distant from other measurements where: Us = Service overall heat
recorded and so were excluded transfer coefficient, (W/m2 °C), Q =
from data set. The outliers were Rate of heat transferred, (W), A =
evaluated statistically using the Outside area of tubes, (m2), EMTD =
Three Sigma Method denoted by Effective mean temperature
equation (2) and this represented difference, (°C), Ucl = Clean overall
0.07% of the overall data. heat transfer coefficient, (W/m2 °C),
hi = Inside film heat transfer
  3 (2)
coefficient based on inside area,
Development of the Heat (W/m2 °C), Do = Outside diameter of
Exchanger Model tubes,( m2), Di = Inside diameter of
The model development was carried tubes, (m2), ho = Outside film heat
out using the Heat Transfer Research transfer coefficient based on outside
Inc (HTRI) Xchanger Suite and area, (W/m2 °C), Rw = Wall
Parametric Study Spreadsheet. The resistance, (m2 °C/W)
performance parameters such as the
Modeling the Phenomenon of
ratio of service overall heat transfer
Fouling Resistance
coefficient, Us, to clean overall heat
transfer coefficient, Ucl, (Us/Ucl) and
77
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
A multivariate regression method was subsequently determine the best
employed to model the fouling performing model, the Root Mean
resistance in the plate and frame heat Square Error (RMSE), Mean Bias
exchanger based on the input Error (MBE), Mean Percentage Error
parameters. The model shows the (MPE), Mean Absolute Percentage
relationship between the fouling Error (MAPE), Mean Absolute Bias
resistance, the crude oil mass flow Error (MABE) and the Nash-Sutcliffe
rate (kg/s), crude oil inlet temperature Coefficient of Efficiency (COE) were
(oC), crude oil outlet temperature employed. These equations are
(oC) and cooling water inlet presented as equations 4 – 9
temperature (oC). To predict the respectively:
accuracy of the models created and

 n 2
RMSE    ( H m  H cal )  / k
(6)
 i 1 
 n 
MBE    ( H m  H cal )  / k (7)
 i 1 
 k  H m  H cal  
    100 
MPE   i 1  Hm   (8)
k
k

H  Hm 
2
cal
(9)
COE  1  i 1
k

H  Hm 
2
cal
i 1

 k  H -H  
  
m cal
 100
 i 1   
H
MAPE 
m

k (10)
n
MABE  (  H m  H cal ) / k
i 1 (11)
Where: k = number of data points, H m = mean of all the fouling resistance
obtained from experiment.
III. Results and Analysis design parameters are displayed in
Performance of the Heat Exchanger Table 2. The Table shows that the
The accuracy of the modeling and results from HTRI are very close to
simulation carried out using the HTRI those of manufacturer‟s datasheet of
was first determined by checking the the in-service plate and frame heat
convergence of the results to the exchanger employed for the study.
original design parameters for the The degree of accuracy of the results
plate and frame heat exchanger. The therefore provides the basis for the
comparison of the results from the subsequently performance study
HTRI to that of the manufacturer‟s using the HTRI.

78
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
Table 2: Comparison of results from simulation with that from manufacturer‟s datasheet
S/No. Parameter Data Sheet Value Modelling results
1 Actual Heat Transfer 2325W/m2-k 2204.8W/m2-k
Coefficient
2 Required Heat Transfer 2627W/m2-K 2282.4W/m2-k
Coefficient
3 Duty 14.7MW 14.53MW
4 Area 241.14m2 241.27m2
5 Effective Mean Transfer 26.28oC 26.4oC
Difference
6 Quantity of Plates 267 267

The heat exchanger and the Frame in series representation are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1: Heat Exchanger Drawing Showing Flow Ports

81.1 C 43.0 C
0.00000 0.00000

22.2 C 48.3 C
0.00000 0.00000
ID 100
14.5258 MegaWatts
%OD -3.4
Figure 2: Frame in Series Representation of Heat Exchanger

79
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
The variations of the heat transfer efficiency over time are shown in figure 3 (a-c)

Figure 3a: Heat Transfer Efficiency of the heat exchanger (January - December 2013)

Figure 3b: Heat Transfer Efficiency of the heat exchanger (January - December 2014)

Figure 3c: Heat Transfer Efficiency of the heat exchanger (January - December 2015)

80
From Figure 3 (a – c), the heat end of the year. The dynamic nature
transfer efficiency for each year of the fluid properties and the process
studied tends to reduce over time. is essentially responsible for the
The downward trend of the heat behaviour of the efficiencies from
transfer efficiency can be year to year. The temperature
extrapolated to estimate when the difference was noted as responsible
efficiency drop would become a for the disparity in heat transfer
concern, hence facilitating early efficiency behaviour over the years of
planning for possible maintenance study. The approach temperature
action. The decline in heat transfer (~average of 55oC) of the crude was
efficiency was more pronouced in lowest in 2013 due to the then
2013 than in 2014 and 2015. Based reservoir conditions unlike those of
on the field data,the heat transfer 2014 (~average of 58oC) and 2015
efficiency was 85% as at the (~average of 62oC). Lower crude
beginning of 2013; but it dropped to approach temperature imply lower
72% by the end of the year. In 2014, temperature difference between the
the heat transfer efficiency dropped crude and cooling water and vice
from 92% at the beginning of the year versa.
to 84% at the end of the year while in Moreoever, the changes in the fouling
2015 it was 92% at the beginning of resistance Rf over time are presented
the year and declined to 83% at the in figure 4 (a-c):

Figure 4a: Progression Fouling Resistance of the heat exchanger for the period of January
to December 2013

Figure 4b: Progression Fouling Resistance of the heat exchanger for the period of January
to December 2014

81
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Figure 4c: Progression Fouling Resistance of the heat exchanger for the period of January
to December 2015
54oC. In 2014, the fouling resistance
The figure 4 (a – c) shows the fouling ranged from 0.000005 m2-K/W at
resistances were seen to increase over 63oC to 0.00020 m2-K/W at 59oC. In
time for each year. The dynamics of 2015, it ranged from 0.000005m2-
the operating conditions such as K/W at 62oC to 0.000165 m2-K/W at
changes in flow rate and variations in 56oC. Hence, it was observed that
feed temperature were responsible for fouling resistance tends to increase
the fluctuations in data points. with lower feed temperature in a plate
According to [19], fouling of heat and frame heat exchanger used for
transfer surfaces is a complex process crude oil services. However, an
which involves many parameters with understanding of the performance of
poorly understood interactions. the heat exchanger in relation to its
Hence, it could result in highly fouling resistance is essential in order
unstable processes with frequent to forecast its impact on the
significant fluctuation, if the variation performance and ascertain the best
of the heat transfer coefficient or maintenance on the unit. This will
fouling resistance was observed with require the development of a
time. The increase in fouling predictive model that explains the
resistance over time was more in phenomenon of fouling resistance
2013 than in 2014 and 2015 with input parameters. Figures 5a and
respectively. In 2013, the fouling 5b show the trends of the combined
resistance ranged from 0.000035 m2- heat transfer efficiency and fouling
K/W at 61oC to 0.000320 m2-K/W at resistance with time respectively.

82
 Figure 5a: Progression of Combined (Multi-Year) Heat Transfer Efficiency

Figure 5b: Progression of Combined (Multi-Year) Fouling Resistance

Regression Model Analysis of the Heat Exchanger Fouling Resistance (Rf)

The multivariate regression models were developed using the eight hundred and
eleven historical data set for the fouling resistance over time. The following
modelling equations (12-16) were gotten
(12)

83
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
where: = Cooling Water Inlet e, f, g are correlation coefficients.
Temperature (0C), = Crude Oil The values of the correlation
0
Inlet Temperature ( C), = Crude coefficients as determined from Eqs.
12 to 16 are shown in Table 3, while
Oil Outlet Temperature (0C), =
those of the error and performance
Crude Oil Mass Flow rate (kg/s), t =
analysis for the different models are
Precise Day of Operation within a
shown in Table 4.
specified period (day), = Fouling
2 o
Resistance (m -K/ C), and a, b, c, d,
Table 3: Regression Model Constants
Coefficients MODEL 1 MODEL 2 MODEL 3 MODEL 4 MODEL 5
a -2.9563E-05 -1.49156E-05 -2.7E-06 -2.955E-05 -3E-05
b 4.83066E-05 -4.42831E-06 -9.1E-08 4.82E-05 4.8E-05
c -1.96825E-05 -2.57434E-06 0.00058 -1.965E-05 -2E-05
d -3.26233E-06 -5.62769E-08 0 -3.243E-06 -9.8E-09
e -2.00747E-09 0.001100191 0 8.186E-12 -1E-09
f 0.000682127 0 0 -8.819E-09 0.000424
g 0 0 0 0.0006811 0

Table 4: Regression Model Error and Performance Analysis

Error MODE MODE MODE MODE MODE Minimu Maxim
Term L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 m um
0.88927 2.0813 3.7159 0.89295 0.8736 0.87361 3.7159
RMSE 44 766 727 42 2 99 727
- - - -
0.07808 0.4920 0.6525 0.07805 0.0749 0.07808 0.6525
MBE 32 447 238 5 76 32 238
0.15376 0.8325 0.9672 0.15292 0.1588 0.15292 0.9672
MABE 14 92 618 91 22 91 618
- - - -
7.80832 49.204 65.252 7.80550 7.4976 7.80832 65.252
MPE(%) 34 468 375 16 31 34 375
MAPE 0.79080 4.3321 13.808 0.79736 0.7632 0.76321 13.808
(%) 89 284 453 73 12 17 453
0.98558 0.6273 0.4975 0.98561 0.9838 0.49752 0.9856
COE 44 876 269 52 78 69 152
Multiple R
(%) 99.072 72.272 59.653 99.074 98.961 59.653 99.074
R-Squared
(%) 98.152 52.232 35.585 98.156 97.933 35.585 98.156

From the results of Tables 3 and 4, it best model with the coefficient of
is observed that “MODEL 4” is the performance of 98.6% for predicting

84
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018
the fouling resistance of the heat dependable models. Further to this,
exchanger. “MODEL 1” with a comparisons between the measured
coefficient of performance of 98.5%" and calculated fouling resistances
& "MODEL 5 with a coefficient of using each of the developed models
performance of 98.3 are also are shown in the figures 6 (a – e).

Figure 6a: Comparison between measured Fouling Resistance with calculated Fouling
Resistance using Equation (12)

Figure 6b: Comparison between measured Fouling Resistance with calculated Fouling
Resistance using Equation (13)

85
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET) Vol.2 No. 2, Dec.. 2018

Figure 6c: Comparison between measured Fouling Resistance with calculated Fouling
Resistance using Equation (14)

Figure 6d: Comparison between measured Fouling Resistance with calculated Fouling
Resistance using Equation (15)

86
Figure 6e: Comparison between measured Fouling Resistance with calculated Fouling
Resistance using Equation (16)

Model Evaluation
Based on the model analysis, accurate model while equation (18)
equation (17) presents the most closely followed

R f  4.82T   2.96Twi  1.97Toi  0.324 x 101 M o  8.19 x 107 t 2  8.82 X 104 t  0.0006811  105
(17)
R f  4.83T  – 2.96Twi  1.97Toi  0.326 x 101 M o – 2.01 x 104 t  68.21  105
(18)
Based on the aforementioned, type of intervention will be required.
equations (17) and (18) predict the Table 5 therefore, provides the
fouling resistance of a plate and predicted fouling resistances of a
frame heat exchanger, enabling the plate and frame heat exchanger for a
forecast of a time when a period (days) using the best model
maintenance program or any other above at operating conditions.

Table 5: Fouling Resistance Predicted by best Regression Model

Time (Days) Fouling Resistance (m2 °C/W)
360 5.15E-05
540 5.13E-05
720 5.16E-05
900 5.24E-05
1080 5.37E-05
1260 5.55E-05
1440 5.79E-05

87
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET). Vol.1 No.1, Feb. 2018 (Special Edition)
1620 6.09E-05
1800 6.43E-05
1980 6.83E-05
2160 7.28E-05

For instance, if a plate and frame stream temperature, the lower the hot
heat exchanger is installed in January stream approach temperature, the
2016, the fouling resistance would more the fouling resistance. Hence
have increased to 6.43 x 10-5 m2 there is a relationship between the
°C/W by January 2021. Having this inlet temperature of the hot process
knowledge will enable the operator stream and the fouling resistance.
know that heat transfer efficiency Moreover, due to the complexity of
will be impacted in five years‟ time fouling phenomenon, further work
and then adequate plan can be put in may be required to develop the
place to clean the heat exchanger or fouling rate models of plate and
replace with a spare unit. frame heat exchangers for various
IV Conclusion crudes and crude blends with
The study focused on investigation different thermophysical properties
of the performance of a plate and and chemical compositions.
frame heat exchanger employed in an Furthermore, computational fluid
oil and gas production/treatment dynamics can be applied to the study
facility of upstream sector with to be able to incorporate other fluid
operational data. It developed properties and also establish the
multivariate regression models that pathway to easy fouling prediction
can be used to predict required and maintenance set-up programme.
maintenance plan and forecast the Acknowledgement
economic implication of fouling on The authors thank the management
the heat exchanger. Apart from the of Covenant University for the
results already highlighted, the study support received towards the
also found that at a constant cold complete execution of this project.

References 2011. 05-10 June 2011, Crete

[1] Müller-Steinhagen, H., Malayeri, Island, Greece.
M. R and Watkinson, A. P. [3] Gudmundsson O., Palsson O.P.,
(2011). Heat Exchanger Fouling Palsson H. and. Jonsson G.R
and Cleaning. Heat Transfer (2011). Comparison of Fouling
Engineering, 28(3):173–176. Detection between a Physical
[2] Barrie P.J., Pittas C.A., Mitchell Model and a Black Box
M.J. and Wilson D.I. (2011). A Method. Proc. on Heat
Critical Analysis of the Exchanger Fouling and
Compensation Effect and its Cleaning IX - 2011 05-10 June,
Application to Heat Exchanger Crete Island, Greece.
Fouling. Proc. Heat Exchanger [4] Bennett C., Hohmann R., Sprouse
Fouling and Cleaning IX - R., Musial T. (2015).

88
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET). Vol.1 No.1, Feb. 2018 (Special Edition)
Performance Monitoring of R., (2016). Improved threshold
Heat Exchangers. Operating fouling models for crude oils.
Environment: FPSO Marine & Energy Volume 111, 15
Hull, LNG, Onshore, Pipelines, September 2016, Pages 453–
Topsides. EXH-EN-1100-2015. 467
[5] Morimoto N., Nakamura M., [10] Ho, T. C. (2016). A study of
Yamane Y. and Inokuchi H. crude oil fouling propensity.
(2011). Development of a Hydrocarbon Conversion
Conceptual Model of Technologies, Bridgewater, NJ
Crystallization in a Heat 08807, United States.
Exchanger. Proc. of International Journal of Heat
International Conference on and Mass Transfer 95 (2016)
Heat Exchanger Fouling and 62–68
Cleaning - June 05 - 10, 2011, [11] Lane, M. R. and Harris J. S.
Crete Island, Greece (2015). Impact of Mixing on
[6] Polley G.T., Morales A. F. and Crude Oil Fouling Tests.
Pugh S.J. (2009). Design of Proceedings of International
Shell-And-Tube Heat Conference on Heat Exchanger
Exchangers to Achieve a Fouling and Cleaning - 2015
Specified Operating Period in (Peer-reviewed) June 07 - 12,
Refinery Pre-Heat Trains. Proc. 2015, Enfield (Dublin), Ireland
of International Conference on 44 [12] Bennett, C. A. (2016). A
Heat Exchanger Fouling and Theory Describing
Cleaning VIII - 2009 June 14- Sedimentation Particulate
19, Schladming, Austria Fouling Thresholds Inside Heat
[7] Costa, A.L.H., Tavares, V.B.G., Exchanger Tubes. Heat Transfer
Borges J.L., Queiroz, E.M., Engineering Volume 37, 2016 -
Pessoa, F.L.P., Liporace, F.S. Issue 5
and Oliveira, S.G. (2011). [13] Emani, S., Ramasamy, M.,
Parameter Estimation of Zilati, K., Shaari, B. K. (2016).
Fouling Models in Crude Effect of Shear Stress on Crude
Preheat Trains. Proceedings of Oil Fouling in a Heat
International Conference on Exchanger Tube Through CFD
Heat Exchanger Fouling and Simulations. 4th International
Cleaning - 2011 (Peer- Conference on Process
reviewed) June 05 - 10, 2011, Engineering and Advanced
Crete Island, Greece Materials Procedia Engineering
[8] Saleh, Z., Sheikholeslami, R. and 148 (2016) 1058 – 1065Nelson,
Watkinson, A.P., (2003). G. L. (1995). Adhesion, in paint
Fouling characteristics of a light and coating testing manual,
Australian crude oil, Proc. Heat (14thed), In J. V. Koleske,
Exchanger Fouling and Philadelphia P.A: ASTM, 44.
Cleaning: Fundamentals and [14] Wilson, D.I., Ishiyama, E.M.,
Applications, 226 – 233, Santa Polley, G.T, (2015). Twenty
Fe, NM. Years of Ebert And Panchal –
[9] Shetty, N., Deshannavar, U. B., What Next? Proceedings of
Marappagounder, R., Pendyala, International Conference on

89
Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET). Vol.1 No.1, Feb. 2018 (Special Edition)
Heat Exchanger Fouling and 2009 (Peer-reviewed) June 14-
Cleaning - 2015 (Peer- 19, 2009, Schladming, Austria
reviewed) June 07 - 12, 2015, [17] Çengel Y.A. and Ghajar A. J.
Enfield (Dublin), Ireland (2015). Heat and Mass
[15] Yang, J., Serratos, M. G. J., Transfer: Fundamentals &
Fari-Arole, D. S., Müller, E. A., Applications, Fifth Edition
Matar, O. K. (2015). Crude Oil Published by McGraw-Hill
Fouling: Fluid Dynamics, Education.
Reactions and Phase Change. [18] Al-Janabi A., Esawy M.,
Procedia IUTAM 15 (2015) 186 Malayeri M.R. and Müller-
– 193. Steinhagen H. (2009).
[16] Joshi, H. M., Shilpi, N. B., and Consideration of Dynamic
Agarwal, A.(2009). Relate Uncertainty in Fouling
Crude Oil Fouling Research to Experimentation. Proc. of
Field Fouling Observations. International Conference on
Proceedings of International Heat Exchanger Fouling and
Conference on Heat Exchanger Cleaning VIII - June 14-19,
Fouling and Cleaning VIII - 2009, Schladming, Austria

90