CSE408

Brute Force(String Matching,

Closest pair, Convex
hull,Exhaustive,Voronori
diagrams

Lecture # 7&8
Brute Force

A straightforward approach, usually based directly

on the problem’s statement and definitions of
the concepts involved
Brute-Force String Matching
• pattern: a string of m characters to search for
• text: a (longer) string of n characters to search in
• problem: find a substring in the text that matches the pattern

Brute-force algorithm
Step 1 Align pattern at beginning of text
Step 2 Moving from left to right, compare each character of
pattern to the corresponding character in text until
• all characters are found to match (successful search); or
• a mismatch is detected
Step 3 While pattern is not found and the text is not yet
exhausted, realign pattern one position to the right and
repeat Step 2
Examples of Brute-Force String Matching

1. Pattern: 001011
Text: 10010101101001100101111010

2. Pattern: happy
Text: It is never too late to have a
happy childhood.
Closest-Pair Problem

Find the two closest points in a set of n points

(in the two-dimensional Cartesian plane).

Brute-force algorithm
Compute the distance between every pair of
distinct points
and return the indexes of the points for which
the distance is the smallest.
Closest-Pair Brute-Force Algorithm (cont.)

Efficiency: Θ(n^2) multiplications (or sqrt)

How to make it faster? Using divide-and-conquer!

Convex Hull Problem
• The convex-hull problem is the problem of
constructing the convex hull for a given set S of n
points
• To solve it, we need to find the points that will
serve as the vertices of the polygon in question.
• Mathematicians call the vertices of such a
polygon “extreme points.”
• By definition, an extreme point of a convex set is
a point of this set that is not a middle point of
any line segment with endpoints in the set.
• how can we solve the convex-hull problem in a
brute-force manner?
• Nevertheless, there is a simple but inefficient
algorithm that is based on the following
observation about line segments making up the
boundary of a convex hull
• a line segment connecting two points pi and pj of
a set of n points is a part of the convex hull’s
boundary if and only if all the other points of the
set lie on the same side of the straight line
through these two points
Brute-Force Strengths and Weaknesses
• Strengths
– wide applicability
– simplicity
– yields reasonable algorithms for some important problems
(e.g., matrix multiplication, sorting, searching, string
matching)

• Weaknesses
– rarely yields efficient algorithms
– some brute-force algorithms are unacceptably slow
– not as constructive as some other design techniques
Exhaustive Search
A brute force solution to a problem involving
search for an element with a special property,
usually among combinatorial objects such as
permutations, combinations, or subsets of a set.

Method:
– generate a list of all potential solutions to the problem in a
systematic manner (see algorithms in Sec. 5.4)

– evaluate potential solutions one by one, disqualifying

infeasible ones and, for an optimization problem, keeping
track of the best one found so far

– when search ends, announce the solution(s) found

Example 1: Traveling Salesman Problem

• Given n cities with known distances between

each pair, find the shortest tour that passes
through all the cities exactly once before
returning to the starting city
• Alternatively: Find2shortest Hamiltonian circuit
a b
in a weighted connected
5 3 graph
8 4
• Example:
c 7 d

How do we represent a solution (Hamiltonian circuit)?

TSP by Exhaustive Search
Tour Cost
a→b→c→d→a 2+3+7+5 = 17
a→b→d→c→a 2+4+7+8 = 21
a→c→b→d→a 8+3+4+5 = 20
a→c→d→b→a 8+7+4+2 = 21
a→d→b→c→a 5+4+3+8 = 20
Θ((n-1)!)
a→d→c→b→a 5+7+3+2 = 17
Chapter 5 discusses how to generate permutations fast.
Efficiency:
Final Comments on Exhaustive Search

• Exhaustive-search algorithms run in a realistic amount

of time only on very small instances

• In some cases, there are much better alternatives!

– Euler circuits
– shortest paths
– minimum spanning tree
– assignment problem The Hungarian method
runs in O(n^3) time.
• In many cases, exhaustive search or its variation is the
only known way to get exact solution
Vornoi diagram

The partitioning of a plane with points into

convex polygons such that each polygon contains
exactly one generating point and every point in a
given polygon is closer to its generating point
than to any other.

A Voronoi diagram is sometimes also known as a

Dirichlet tessellation. The cells are called Dirichlet
regions, Thiessen polytopes, or Voronoi polygons.
• Voronoi diagrams were considered as early at 1644 by
René Descartes and were used by Dirichlet (1850) in
the investigation of positive quadratic forms.

• They were also studied by Voronoi (1907), who

extended the investigation of Voronoi diagrams to
higher dimensions.

• They find widespread applications in areas such as

computer graphics, epidemiology, geophysics, and
meteorology
 CSE408
Divide and Conquer

Lecture #9&10
Divide-and-Conquer

The most-well known algorithm design strategy:

1. Divide instance of problem into two or more smaller
instances

2. Solve smaller instances recursively

3. Obtain solution to original (larger) instance by combining

these solutions
Divide-and-Conquer Technique (cont.)

a problem of size n
(instance)

subproblem 1 subproblem 2
of size n/2 of size n/2

a solution to a solution to
subproblem 1 subproblem 2

a solution to It general leads to a

the original problem
recursive algorithm!
Divide-and-Conquer Examples

• Sorting: mergesort and quicksort

• Binary tree traversals

• Binary search (?)

• Multiplication of large integers

• Matrix multiplication: Strassen’s algorithm

• Closest-pair and convex-hull algorithms

General Divide-and-Conquer Recurrence
T(n) = aT(n/b) + f (n) where f(n)  (nd), d  0

Master Theorem: If a < bd, T(n)  (nd)

If a = bd, T(n)  (nd log n)
If a > bd, T(n)  (nlog b a )

Note: The same results hold with O instead of .

Examples: T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n  T(n)  ? (n^2)

T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2  T(n)  ? (n^2log n)
T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n3  T(n)  ? (n^3)
Mergesort

• Split array A[0..n-1] into about equal halves and make copies
of each half in arrays B and C
• Sort arrays B and C recursively
• Merge sorted arrays B and C into array A as follows:
• Repeat the following until no elements remain in one of the
arrays:
• compare the first elements in the remaining unprocessed
portions of the arrays
• copy the smaller of the two into A, while incrementing
the index indicating the unprocessed portion of that array
• Once all elements in one of the arrays are processed, copy
the remaining unprocessed elements from the other array
into A.
Pseudocode of Mergesort
Pseudocode of Merge

Time complexity: Θ(p+q) = Θ(n) comparisons

Mergesort Example
8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4

8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4

8 3 2 9 71 5 4

8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4
The non-recursive
version of Mergesort
3 8 2 9 1 7 4 5 starts from merging
single elements into
2 3 8 9 1 4 5 7 sorted pairs.

1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
Analysis of Mergesort

• All cases have same efficiency: Θ(n log n)

T(n) = 2T(n/2) + Θ(n), T(1) = 0
• Number of comparisons in the worst case is close to theoretical
minimum for comparison-based sorting:
log2 n! ≈ n log2 n - 1.44n

• Space requirement: Θ(n) (not in-place)

• Can be implemented without recursion (bottom-up)

Quicksort

• Select a pivot (partitioning element) – here, the first element

• Rearrange the list so that all the elements in the first s positions
are smaller than or equal to the pivot and all the elements in the
remaining n-s positions are larger than or equal to the pivot
(see next slide for an algorithm)

A[i]p A[i]p
• Exchange the pivot with the last element in the first (i.e., )
subarray — the pivot is now in its final position
• Sort the two subarrays recursively
Partitioning Algorithm

or i > r
< or j = l

Time complexity: Θ(r-l) comparisons

Quicksort Example

5 3 1 9 8 2 4 7

2 3 1 4 5 8 9 7
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
Analysis of Quicksort
• Best case: split in the middle — Θ(n log n)
• Worst case: sorted array! — Θ(n2) T(n) = T(n-1) + Θ(n)
• Average case: random arrays — Θ(n log n)

• Improvements:
• better pivot selection: median of three partitioning
• switch to insertion sort on small subfiles
• elimination of recursion
These combine to 20-25% improvement

• Considered the method of choice for internal sorting of large files

(n ≥ 10000)
WORST CASE
Best Case
Binary Search
Very efficient algorithm for searching in sorted array:
K
vs
A[0] . . . A[m] . . . A[n-1]
If K = A[m], stop (successful search); otherwise, continue
searching by the same method in A[0..m-1] if K < A[m]
and in A[m+1..n-1] if K > A[m]

l  0; r  n-1
while l  r do
m  (l+r)/2
if K = A[m] return m
else if K < A[m] r  m-1
else l  m+1
return -1
Analysis of Binary Search
• Time efficiency
• worst-case recurrence: Cw (n) = 1 + Cw( n/2 ), Cw (1) = 1
solution: Cw(n) = log2(n+1)

This is VERY fast: e.g., Cw(106) = 20

• Optimal for searching a sorted array

• Limitations: must be a sorted array (not linked list)

• Bad (degenerate) example of divide-and-conquer

because only one of the sub-instances is solved

• Has a continuous counterpart called bisection method for solving equations in

one unknown f(x) = 0 (see Sec. 12.4)
Binary Tree Algorithms

Binary tree is a divide-and-conquer ready structure!

Ex. 1: Classic traversals (preorder, inorder, postorder)

Algorithm Inorder(T)
if T   a a
Inorder(Tleft) b c b c
print(root of T) d e • • d e
Inorder(Tright) ••••

Efficiency: Θ(n). Why? Each node is visited/printed once.

Binary Tree Algorithms (cont.)

Ex. 2: Computing the height of a binary tree

TL TR

h(T) = max{h(TL), h(TR)} + 1 if T   and h() = -1

Efficiency: Θ(n). Why?

Multiplication of Large Integers

Consider the problem of multiplying two (large) n-digit integers

represented by arrays of their digits such as:

A = 12345678901357986429 B = 87654321284820912836

The grade-school algorithm:

a1 a2 … an
b1 b2 … bn
(d10) d11d12 … d1n
(d20) d21d22 … d2n
…………………
(dn0) dn1dn2 … dnn

Efficiency: Θ(n2) single-digit multiplications

First Divide-and-Conquer Algorithm

A small example: A  B where A = 2135 and B = 4014

A = (21·102 + 35), B = (40 ·102 + 14)
So, A  B = (21 ·102 + 35)  (40 ·102 + 14)
= 21  40 ·104 + (21  14 + 35  40) ·102 + 35  14

In general, if A = A1A2 and B = B1B2 (where A and B are n-digit,

A1, A2, B1, B2 are n/2-digit numbers),
A  B = A1  B1·10n + (A1  B2 + A2  B1) ·10n/2 + A2  B2

Recurrence for the number of one-digit multiplications M(n):

M(n) = 4M(n/2), M(1) = 1
Solution: M(n) = n2
23*14
Second Divide-and-Conquer Algorithm

A  B = A1  B1·10n + (A1  B2 + A2  B1) ·10n/2 + A2  B2

The idea is to decrease the number of multiplications from 4 to 3:

(A1 + A2 )  (B1 + B2 ) = A1  B1 + (A1  B2 + A2  B1) + A2  B2,

I.e., (A1  B2 + A2  B1) = (A1 + A2 )  (B1 + B2 ) - A1  B1 - A2  B2,

which requires only 3 multiplications at the expense of (4-1) extra
add/sub.

Recurrence for the number of multiplications M(n):

M(n) = 3M(n/2), M(1) = 1 What if we count
Solution: M(n) = 3log 2n = nlog 23 ≈ n1.585
both multiplications
and additions?
Example of Large-Integer Multiplication

2135  4014

= (21*10^2 + 35) * (40*10^2 + 14)

= (21*40)*10^4 + c1*10^2 + 35*14
where c1 = (21+35)*(40+14) - 21*40 - 35*14, and
21*40 = (2*10 + 1) * (4*10 + 0)
= (2*4)*10^2 + c2*10 + 1*0
where c2 = (2+1)*(4+0) - 2*4 - 1*0, etc.

This process requires 9 digit multiplications as opposed to 16.

Conventional Matrix Multiplication

• Brute-force algorithm
c00 c01 a00 a01 b00 b01
= *
c10 c11 a10 a11 b10 b11

a00 * b00 + a01 * b10 a00 * b01 + a01 * b11

=
a10 * b00 + a11 * b10 a10 * b01 + a11 * b11

8 multiplications Efficiency class in general:  (n3)

4 additions
Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication

• Strassen’s algorithm for two 2x2 matrices (1969):

c00 c01 a00 a01 b00 b01
= *
c10 c11 a10 a11 b10 b11

m1 + m4 - m5 + m7 m3 + m5
=
m2 + m4 m1 + m3 - m2 + m6
• m1 = (a00 + a11) * (b00 + b11)
• m2 = (a10 + a11) * b00
• m3 = a00 * (b01 - b11)
• m4 = a11 * (b10 - b00) 7 multiplications
• m5 = (a00 + a01) * b11
18 additions
• m6 = (a10 - a00) * (b00 + b01)
• m7 = (a01 - a11) * (b10 + b11)
Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication

Strassen observed [1969] that the product of two matrices can be

computed in general as follows:

C00 C01 A00 A01 B00 B01

= *
C10 C11 A10 A11 B10 B11

M1 + M4 - M5 + M7 M3 + M5
=
M2 + M4 M1 + M3 - M2 + M6
Formulas for Strassen’s Algorithm
M1 = (A00 + A11)  (B00 + B11)

M2 = (A10 + A11)  B00

M3 = A00  (B01 - B11)

M4 = A11  (B10 - B00)

M5 = (A00 + A01)  B11

M6 = (A10 - A00)  (B00 + B01)

M7 = (A01 - A11)  (B10 + B11)

Analysis of Strassen’s Algorithm

If n is not a power of 2, matrices can be padded with zeros.

What if we count both

multiplications and additions?
Number of multiplications:
M(n) = 7M(n/2), M(1) = 1
Solution: M(n) = 7log 2n = nlog 27 ≈ n2.807 vs. n3 of brute-force alg.

Algorithms with better asymptotic efficiency are known but they

are even more complex and not used in practice.
 CSE408
Recurrence equations

Lecture #12
Substitution method

The most general method:

1. Guess the form of the solution.
2. Verify by induction.
3. Solve for constants.
Substitution method

The most general method:

1. Guess the form of the solution.
2. Verify by induction.
3. Solve for constants.
EXAMPLE: T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n
•[Assume that T(1) = Q(1).]
•Guess O(n3) . (Prove O and W separately.)
•Assume that T(k)  ck3 for k < n .
•Prove T(n)  cn3 by induction.
3
Example of substitution

T (n) = 4T (n / 2) + n
 4c ( n / 2) 3 + n
= ( c / 2) n 3 + n
= cn3 − ((c / 2)n3 − n) desired – residual
 cn3 desired
whenever (c/2)n3 – n  0, for
example, if c  2 and n  1.
residual

4
Example (continued)

•We must also handle the initial conditions,

that is, ground the induction with base
cases.
•Base: T(n) = Q(1) for all n < n0, where n0 is
a suitable constant.
•For 1  n < n0, we have “Q(1)”  cn3, if we
pick c big enough.

5
Example (continued)

•We must also handle the initial conditions,

that is, ground the induction with base
cases.
•Base: T(n) = Q(1) for all n < n0, where n0 is
a suitable constant.
•For 1  n < n0, we have “Q(1)”  cn3, if we
pick c big enough.

This bound is not tight!

6
Recursion-tree method

•A recursion tree models the costs (time) of a

recursive execution of an algorithm.
•The recursion-tree method can be unreliable,
just like any method that uses ellipses (…).
•The recursion-tree method promotes
intuition, however.
•The recursion tree method is good for
generating guesses for the substitution
method.
7
Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

8
Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

T(n)

9
Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

n2
T(n/4) T(n/2)

10
Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

T(n/16) T(n/8) T(n/8) T(n/4)

11
Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

Q(1)

12
Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

n2 n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

Q(1)

13
Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

n2 n2
(n/2)2 5 n2
(n/4)2 16
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

Q(1)

14
Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

n2 n2
(n/2)2 5 n2
(n/4)2
16
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2 25 n 2
256

…
Q(1)

15
Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

n2 n2
(n/2)2 5 n2
(n/4)2
16
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2 25 n 2
256

…
Q(1) Total = n 2
( ( ) +( )
1 + 16 + 16
5 5 2 5 3
16
+ )
= Q(n2) geometric series
16
Recursion Tree

17
Recursion Tree

18
Recursion Tree

19
Recursion Tree

20
Recursion Tree

21
Recursion Tree

22
Recursion Tree

23
Recursion Tree

24
Recursion Tree

25
The master method

The master method applies to recurrences

of the form
T(n) = a T(n/b) + f (n) ,
where a  1, b > 1, and f is asymptotically
positive.

26
Three common cases

Compare f (n) with nlogba:

1. f (n) = O(nlogba – e) for some constant e > 0.
•f (n) grows polynomially slower than nlogba
(by an ne factor).
Solution: T(n) = Q(nlogba) .

27
Three common cases

Compare f (n) with nlogba:

1. f (n) = O(nlogba – e) for some constant e > 0.
•f (n) grows polynomially slower than nlogba
(by an ne factor).
Solution: T(n) = Q(nlogba) .
2. f (n) = Q(nlogba lgkn) for some constant k  0.
•f (n) and nlogba grow at similar rates.
Solution: T(n) = Q(nlogba lgk+1n) .
28
Three common cases

Compare f (n) with nlogba:

3. f (n) = W(nlogba + e) for some constant e > 0.
•f (n) grows polynomially faster than nlogba (by
an ne factor),
and f (n) satisfies the regularity condition
that a f (n/b)  c f (n) for some constant c < 1.
Solution: T(n) = Q( f (n) ) .

29
Examples

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n

a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n.
CASE 1: f (n) = O(n2 – e) for e = 1.
 T(n) = Q(n2).

30
Examples

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n

a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n.
CASE 1: f (n) = O(n2 – e) for e = 1.
 T(n) = Q(n2).

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2

a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n2.
CASE 2: f (n) = Q(n2lg0n), that is, k = 0.
 T(n) = Q(n2lg n).
31
Examples

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n3

a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n3.
CASE 3: f (n) = W(n2 + e) for e = 1
and 4(n/2)3  cn3 (reg. cond.) for c = 1/2.
 T(n) = Q(n3).

32
Examples

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n3

a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n3.
CASE 3: f (n) = W(n2 + e) for e = 1
and 4(n/2)3  cn3 (reg. cond.) for c = 1/2.
 T(n) = Q(n3).

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2/lg n

a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n2/lg n.
Master method does not apply. In particular,
for every constant e > 0, we have ne = w(lg n).
33
 CSE408
Closest pair & Convex Hull
Problem, Insertion Sort

Lecture #13
 Divide-and-Conquer

The most-well known algorithm design strategy:

1. Divide instance of problem into two or more smaller instances

2. Solve smaller instances recursively

3. Obtain solution to original (larger) instance by combining these

solutions
 Divide-and-Conquer Technique (cont.)

a problem of size n
(instance)

subproblem 1 subproblem 2
of size n/2 of size n/2

a solution to a solution to
subproblem 1 subproblem 2

a solution to It general leads to a

the original problem recursive algorithm!
Closest-Pair Problem by Divide-and-Conquer

Step 0 Sort the points by x (list one) and then by y (list two).

Step 1 Divide the points given into two subsets S1 and S2 by a vertical
line x = c so that half the points lie to the left or on the line and half
the points lie to the right or on the line.
Closest Pair by Divide-and-Conquer (cont.)

Step 2 Find recursively the closest pairs for the left and right
subsets.

Step 3 Set d = min{d1, d2}

We can limit our attention to the points in the symmetric
vertical strip of width 2d as possible closest pair. Let C1
and C2 be the subsets of points in the left subset S1 and of
the right subset S2, respectively, that lie in this vertical
strip. The points in C1 and C2 are stored in increasing
order of their y coordinates, taken from the second list.

Step 4 For every point P(x,y) in C1, we inspect points in

C2 that may be closer to P than d. There can be no more
than 6 such points (because d ≤ d2)!
Closest Pair by Divide-and-Conquer: Worst Case

The worst case scenario is depicted below:

Efficiency of the Closest-Pair Algorithm

Running time of the algorithm (without sorting) is:

T(n) = 2T(n/2) + M(n), where M(n)  Θ(n)

By the Master Theorem (with a = 2, b = 2, d = 1)

T(n)  Θ(n log n)

So the total time is Θ(n log n).

 Convex hull Algorithm

Convex hull: smallest convex set that includes given points. An O(n^3)
bruteforce time is given in Levitin, Ch 3.
Assume points are sorted by x-coordinate values
Identify extreme points P1 and P2 (leftmost and rightmost)
Compute upper hull recursively:
find point Pmax that is farthest away from line P1P2
compute the upper hull of the points to the left of line P1Pmax
compute the upper hull of the points to the left of line PmaxP2
Compute lower hull in a similar manner

Pmax

P2

P1
 Efficiency of Convex hull Algorithm

Finding point farthest away from line P1P2 can be done in linear time
Time efficiency: T(n) = T(x) + T(y) + T(z) + T(v) + O(n),
where x + y + z +v <= n.
worst case: Θ(n2) T(n) = T(n-1) + O(n)
average case: Θ(n) (under reasonable assumptions about
distribution of points given)

If points are not initially sorted by x-coordinate value, this can be

accomplished in O(n log n) time

Several O(n log n) algorithms for convex hull are known

 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 2.78 7.42 0.56 1.12 1.17 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 0: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 2.78 7.42 0.56 1.12 1.17 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 1: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 2.78 0.56
7.42 7.42
0.56 1.12 1.17 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 2: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 2.78 2.78
0.56 0.56 7.42 1.12 1.17 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 2: step 1.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 2.78 7.42 1.12 1.17 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 2: step 2.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 2.78 1.12
7.42 7.42
1.12 1.17 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 3: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 1.12
2.78 2.78
1.12 7.42 1.17 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 3: step 1.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 1.12 2.78 7.42 1.17 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 3: step 2.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 1.12 2.78 1.17
7.42 7.42
1.17 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 4: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 1.12 1.17
2.78 2.78
1.17 7.42 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 4: step 1.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 7.42 0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 4: step 2.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 0.32
7.42 7.42
0.32 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 5: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 1.12 1.17 0.32
2.78 2.78
0.32 7.42 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 5: step 1.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 1.12 0.32
1.17 1.17
0.32 2.78 7.42 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 5: step 2.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 0.32
1.12 1.12
0.32 1.17 2.78 7.42 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 5: step 3.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.56 0.56
0.32 0.32 1.12 1.17 2.78 7.42 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 5: step 4.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 7.42 6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 5: step 5.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 6.21
7.42 7.42
6.21 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 6: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 6.21 7.42 4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 6: step 1.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 6.21 4.42
7.42 7.42
4.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 7: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 4.42
6.21 6.21
4.42 7.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 7: step 1.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 4.42 6.21 7.42 3.14 7.71

Iteration 7: step 2.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 4.42 6.21 3.14
7.42 7.42
3.14 7.71

Iteration 8: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 4.42 3.14
6.21 6.21
3.14 7.42 7.71

Iteration 8: step 1.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 3.14
4.42 4.42
3.14 6.21 7.42 7.71

Iteration 8: step 2.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 3.14 4.42 6.21 7.42 7.71

Iteration 8: step 3.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 3.14 4.42 6.21 7.42 7.71

Iteration 9: step 0.
 Insertion Sort

Iteration i. Repeatedly swap element i with the one to its left if smaller.

Property. After ith iteration, a[0] through a[i] contain first i+1
elements in ascending order.

Array index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Value 0.32 0.56 1.12 1.17 2.78 3.14 4.42 6.21 7.42 7.71

Iteration 10: DONE.

 CSE408
BFS, DFS, Connected
components

Lecture #14
Graph Traversal

Topics
• Depth First Search (DFS)
• Breadth First Search (BFS)
Graph Search (traversal)
• How do we search a graph?
– At a particular vertices, where shall we go next?
• Two common framework:
▪ the depth-first search (DFS)
▪ the breadth-first search (BFS) and
– In DFS, go as far as possible along a single path until
reach a dead end (a vertex with no edge out or no
neighbor unexplored) then backtrack
– In BFS, one explore a graph level by level away
(explore all neighbors first and then move on)
Depth-First Search (DFS)
• The basic idea behind this algorithm is that it traverses the
graph using recursion
– Go as far as possible until you reach a deadend
– Backtrack to the previous path and try the next branch
– The graph below, started at node a, would be visited in the
following order: a, b, c, g, h, i, e, d, f, j

a c d
b
e f

g h i j
DFS: Color Scheme

• Vertices initially colored white

• Then colored gray when discovered
• Then black when finished
DFS: Time Stamps

• Discover time d[u]: when u is first

discovered
• Finish time f[u]: when backtrack from u
• d[u] < f[u]
DFS Example

source
vertex
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

| |

| | |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

| | |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

3 | | |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

3 | 4 | |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

3 | 4 5 | |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

3 | 4 5 | 6 |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | 7 |

3 | 4 5 | 6 |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | 8 | |

2 | 7 |

3 | 4 5 | 6 |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | 8 | |

2 | 7 9 |

3 | 4 5 | 6 |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | 8 | |

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 | 8 |11 |

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 |

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 |
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|15
DFS Example

source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|16

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|15
DFS: Algorithm

DFS(G)
▪ for each vertex u in V,
▪ color[u]=white; p[u]=NIL
▪ time=0;
▪ for each vertex u in V
▪ if (color[u]=white)
▪ DFS-VISIT(u)
DFS: Algorithm (Cont.)

DFS-VISIT(u)
source
▪ color[u]=gray; vertex
▪ time = time + 1;
▪ d[u] = time;
▪ for each v in Adj(u) do
▪ if (color[v] = white)
▪ p[v] = u;
▪ DFS-VISIT(v);
▪ color[u] = black;
▪ time = time + 1; f[u]= time;
DFS: Complexity Analysis

Initialization complexity is O(V)

DFS_VISIT is called exactly once for each vertex

And DFS_VISIT scans all the edges which causes cost of O(E)

Overall complexity is O(V + E)

DFS: Application

• Topological Sort
• Strongly Connected Component
Breadth-first Search (BFS)

• Search for all vertices that are directly reachable

from the root (called level 1 vertices)
• After mark all these vertices, visit all vertices
that are directly reachable from any level 1
vertices (called level 2 vertices), and so on.
• In general, level k vertices are directly reachable
from a level k – 1 vertices
BFS: the Color Scheme

• White vertices have not been discovered

– All vertices start out white
• Grey vertices are discovered but not fully
explored
– They may be adjacent to white vertices
• Black vertices are discovered and fully
explored
– They are adjacent only to black and gray vertices
• Explore vertices by scanning adjacency list of
grey vertices
An Example
A B C D

E F G H

I J K L

M N O P
0 A B C D

E F G H

I J K L

M N O P
0 A B C D
1

1 E F 1 G H

I J K L

M N O P
0 A B C D
1 2

1 E F 1 G H

2 I J K L

M N O P
0 A B C D 3
1 2

1 E F 1 G 3 H

3
2 I J K L

3 M N 3 O P
0 A B C D 3
1 2

1 E F 1 G 3 H 4

3
2 I J K 4 L 4

3 M N 3 O P
0 A B C D 3
1 2

1 E F 1 G 3 H 4

3
2 I J K 4 L 4

5
3 M N 3 O P 5
0 A B C D 3
1 2

1 E F 1 G 3 H 4

3
2 I J K 4 L 4

5
3 M N 3 O P 5
0 A B C D 3
1 2

1 E F 1 G 3 H 4

3
2 I J K 4 L 4

5
3 M N 3 O P 5
BFS: Algorithm
BFS(G, s)
▪ For each vertex u in V – {s},
▪ color[u] = white;
▪ d[u] = infinity;
▪ p[u] = NIL
▪ color[s] = GRAY; d[s] = 0; p[s] = NIL; Q = empty queue
▪ ENQUEUE(Q,s)
▪ while (Q not empty)
▪ u = DEQUEUE(Q)
▪ for each v  Adj[u]
▪ if color[v] = WHITE
▪ then color[v] = GREY
▪ d[v] = d[u] + 1; p[v] = u
▪ ENQUEUE(Q, v);
▪ color[u] = BLACK;
▪
Example

r s t u

   

   
v w x y
Example

r s t u

 0  

   
v w x y

Q: s
Example

r s t u

1 0  

 1  
v w x y

Q: w r
Example

r s t u

1 0 2 

 1 2 
v w x y

Q: r t x
Example

r s t u

1 0 2 

2 1 2 
v w x y

Q: t x v
Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 
v w x y

Q: x v u
Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 3
v w x y

Q: v u y
Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 3
v w x y

Q: u y
Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 3
v w x y

Q: y
Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 3
v w x y

Q: Ø
BFS: Complexity Analysis

• Queuing time is O(V) and scanning all

edges requires O(E)
• Overhead for initialization is O (V)
• So, total running time is O(V+E)
BFS: Application

• Shortest path problem

CSE408
Presorting& Balanced
Search Tree
Lecture #15
Transform and Conquer

• Algorithms based on the idea of transformation

– Transformation stage
• Problem instance is modified to be more amenable to solution
– Conquering stage
• Transformed problem is solved
• Major variations are for the transform to perform:
– Instance simplification
– Different representation
– Problem reduction
Presorting

• Presorting is an old idea, you sort the data and

that allows you to more easily compute some
answer
– Saw this with quickhull, closest point
• Some other simple presorting examples
– Element Uniqueness
– Computing the mode of n numbers
Element Uniqueness

• Given a list A of n orderable elements,

determine if there are any duplicates of any
element
Brute Force: Presorting:

for each x  A Sort A

for each y  {A – x} for i  1 to n-1
if x = y return not unique if A[i] = A[i+1] return not unique
return unique return unique

Runtime?
Computing a mode
• A mode is a value that occurs most often in a list of
numbers
– e.g. the mode of [5, 1, 5, 7, 6, 5, 7] is 5
– If several different values occur most often any of them can be
considered the mode
• “Count Sort” approach: (assumes all values > 0; what if
they aren’t?)
max  max(A)
freq[1..max]  0
for each x  A
freq[x] +=1 Runtime?
mode  freq[1]
for i  2 to max
if freq[i] > freq[mode] mode  i
return mode
Presort Computing Mode

Sort A
i0
modefrequency  0
while i ≤ n-1
runlength  1; runvalue  A[i]
while i+runlength ≤ n-1 and A[i+runlength] = runvalue
runlength += 1
if runlength > modefrequency
modefrequency  runlength
modevalue  runvalue
i+= runlength

return modevalue
AVL Animation Link

https://www.cs.usfca.edu/~galles/visualization/AVLtree.
html
Binary Search Tree - Best Time

• All BST operations are O(d), where d is tree

depth
• minimum d is d = log2N  a binary tree with
for
N nodes
– What is the best case tree?
– What is the worst case tree?
• So, best case running time of BST operations
is O(log N)
Binary Search Tree - Worst Time

• Worst case running time is O(N)

– What happens when you Insert elements in
ascending order?
• Insert: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 into an empty BST
– Problem: Lack of “balance”:
• compare depths of left and right subtree
– Unbalanced degenerate tree
Balanced and unbalanced BST

1 4
2
2 5
3
1 3
4
4 Is this “balanced”?
5
2 6 6
1 3 5 7 7
Approaches to balancing trees

• Don't balance
– May end up with some nodes very deep
• Strict balance
– The tree must always be balanced perfectly
• Pretty good balance
– Only allow a little out of balance
• Adjust on access
– Self-adjusting
Balancing Binary Search Trees

• Many algorithms exist for keeping binary

search trees balanced
– Adelson-Velskii and Landis (AVL) trees (height-
balanced trees)
– Splay trees and other self-adjusting trees
– B-trees and other multiway search trees
Perfect Balance

• Want a complete tree after every operation

– tree is full except possibly in the lower right
• This is expensive
– For example, insert 2 in the tree on the left and
then rebuild as a complete tree
6 5
Insert 2 &
4 9 complete tree 2 8

1 5 8 1 4 6 9
AVL - Good but not Perfect Balance

• AVL trees are height-balanced binary search

trees
• Balance factor of a node
– height(left subtree) - height(right subtree)
• An AVL tree has balance factor calculated at
every node
– For every node, heights of left and right subtree
can differ by no more than 1
– Store current heights in each node
Height of an AVL Tree

• N(h) = minimum number of nodes in an AVL

tree of height h.
• Basis
– N(0) = 1, N(1) = 2
• Induction h
– N(h) = N(h-1) + N(h-2) + 1
• Solution (recall Fibonacci analysis)
– N(h) > h (  1.62)
h-2
h-1
Height of an AVL Tree

• N(h) > h (  1.62)

• Suppose we have n nodes in an AVL tree of
height h.
– n > N(h) (because N(h) was the minimum)
– n > h hence log n > h (relatively well balanced
tree!!)
– h < 1.44 log2n (i.e., Find takes O(logn))
Node Heights

Tree A (AVL) Tree B (AVL)

height=2 BF=1-0=1 2
6 6
1 0 1 1
4 9 4 9
0 0 0 0 0
1 5 1 5 8

height of node = h
balance factor = hleft-hright
empty height = -1
Node Heights after Insert 7

Tree A (AVL) Tree B (not AVL)

2 balance factor
3
1-(-1) = 2
6 6
1 1 1 2
4 9 4 9
0 0 0 0 0 1 -1
1 5 7 1 5 8
0
7
height of node = h
balance factor = hleft-hright
empty height = -1
Insert and Rotation in AVL Trees

• Insert operation may cause balance factor to

become 2 or –2 for some node
– only nodes on the path from insertion point to
root node have possibly changed in height
– So after the Insert, go back up to the root node by
node, updating heights
– If a new balance factor (the difference hleft-hright) is
2 or –2, adjust tree by rotation around the node
Single Rotation in an AVL Tree

2 2
6 6
1 2 1 1
4 9 4 8
0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 5 8 1 5 7 9
0
7
Insertions in AVL Trees

Let the node that needs rebalancing be .

There are 4 cases:

Outside Cases (require single rotation) :
1. Insertion into left subtree of left child of .
2. Insertion into right subtree of right child of .
Inside Cases (require double rotation) :
3. Insertion into right subtree of left child of .
4. Insertion into left subtree of right child of .
The rebalancing is performed through four
separate rotation algorithms.
AVL Insertion: Outside Case

Consider a valid
AVL subtree
j

k h

h
h
Z
X Y
AVL Insertion: Outside Case

j Inserting into X
destroys the AVL
property at node j
k h

h+1 h Z
Y
X
AVL Insertion: Outside Case

j Do a “right rotation”

k h

h+1 h Z
Y
X
Single right rotation

j Do a “right rotation”

k h

h+1 h Z
Y
X
Outside Case Completed

“Right rotation” done!

k (“Left rotation” is mirror
symmetric)

h+1
j
h h

X Y Z
AVL property has been restored!
AVL Insertion: Inside Case

Consider a valid
AVL subtree
j

k h

h h Z
X Y
AVL Insertion: Inside Case

Inserting into Y
destroys the j Does “right rotation”
restore balance?
AVL property
at node j
k h

h h+1 Z
X
Y
AVL Insertion: Inside Case

“Right rotation”
k does not restore
balance… now k is
h j out of balance

X h+1
h

Z
Y
AVL Insertion: Inside Case

Consider the structure

of subtree Y… j
k h

h h+1 Z
X
Y
AVL Insertion: Inside Case

Y = node i and
subtrees V and W
j
k h

h
i h+1 Z
X h or h-1

V W
AVL Insertion: Inside Case

j We will do a left-right
“double rotation” . . .

k
i Z
X
V W
Double rotation : first rotation

j left rotation complete

i
k Z
W
X V
Double rotation : second
rotation

j Now do a right rotation

i
k Z
W
X V
Double rotation : second
rotation

right rotation complete

Balance has been

i restored

k j
h h
h or h-1

X V W Z
Implementation

balance (1,0,-1)
key
left right

No need to keep the height; just the difference in height, i.e. the
balance factor; this has to be modified on the path of insertion even if
you don’t perform rotations
Once you have performed a rotation (single or double) you won’t need to
go back up the tree
Single Rotation

RotateFromRight(n : reference node pointer) {

p : node pointer;
p := n.right;
n
n.right := p.left;
p.left := n;
n := p
}

You also need to

modify the heights or X
balance factors of n Insert
and p Y Z
Double Rotation

• Implement Double Rotation in two lines.

DoubleRotateFromRight(n : reference node pointer) {
???? n
}

V W
Insertion in AVL Trees

• Insert at the leaf (as for all BST)

– only nodes on the path from insertion point to
root node have possibly changed in height
– So after the Insert, go back up to the root node by
node, updating heights
– If a new balance factor (the difference hleft-hright) is
2 or –2, adjust tree by rotation around the node
Example of Insertions in an AVL
Tree

2
20 Insert 5, 40
0 1
10 30
0 0

25 35
Example of Insertions in an AVL
Tree

2
3
20 20
1 1 1 2
10 30 10 30
0 0 0 1
0 0
5 25 35 5 25 35
0
40
Now Insert 45
Single rotation (outside case)

3
3
20 20
1 2 1 2
10 30 10 30
0 0 2
0 0 1
5 25 35 5 25 40
0 0

40 35 45
Imbalance 1

0
45 Now Insert 34
Double rotation (inside case)

3
3
20 20
1 3 1 2
10 30 10 35
0 0 2
0 1
Imbalance 1
5 25 40 5 30 40
0
1
35 45 0 0 25 34 45
Insertion of 34 0
34
AVL Tree Deletion

• Similar but more complex than insertion

– Rotations and double rotations needed to
rebalance
– Imbalance may propagate upward so that many
rotations may be needed.
Pros and Cons of AVL Trees

Arguments for AVL trees:

1. Search is O(log N) since AVL trees are always balanced.
2. Insertion and deletions are also O(logn)
3. The height balancing adds no more than a constant factor to the speed of
insertion.

Arguments against using AVL trees:

1. Difficult to program & debug; more space for balance factor.
2. Asymptotically faster but rebalancing costs time.
3. Most large searches are done in database systems on disk and use other
structures (e.g. B-trees).
4. May be OK to have O(N) for a single operation if total run time for many
consecutive operations is fast (e.g. Splay trees).