WOLLEGA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTIONAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATHICS

ASSIGNMENT OF GENERAL BIOLOGY

SUBMITTED BY: KUME DESEA FEGESSA

FEBRUARY, 2024
1. Explain the difference between control and variable group
 Control Group:
The control group is a group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment or
intervention.
Its purpose is to provide a baseline or reference point for comparison with the experimental group.
The control group helps researchers isolate and identify the effects of the independent variable by
ensuring that any changes observed in the experimental group can be attributed to the manipulation
of the independent variable and not to other external factors.
In essence, the control group allows researchers to assess what would happen in the absence of the
experimental treatment.
 Variable Group (or Experimental Group):
The variable group, also known as the experimental group, is the group in an experiment that
receives the experimental treatment or intervention.
This group is exposed to the manipulated independent variable to observe the effects of the
treatment.
The variable group's outcomes are then compared to those of the control group to determine the
impact of the independent variable.
The goal of the variable group is to test the hypothesis and assess whether the independent variable
has a significant effect on the dependent variable.
2. List down the characteristics common to all living things
Here are the key characteristics common to all living things:
 Cellular Organization:
All living things are composed of one or more cells, which are the basic structural and functional
units of life. Cells carry out essential processes such as metabolism and reproduction.
 Reproduction:
Living organisms have the ability to reproduce, either sexually or asexually, to create new
individuals. Reproduction ensures the continuity of life and the passing on of genetic information
to the next generation.
 Metabolism:
Living organisms engage in metabolic processes, which involve the conversion of energy and the
utilization of nutrients to carry out life functions. Metabolism includes activities such as digestion,
respiration, and synthesis of biomolecules.
Homeostasis:
Living organisms maintain a stable internal environment, despite external fluctuations.
Homeostasis involves regulatory mechanisms that balance factors like temperature, pH, and
nutrient levels to ensure optimal conditions for life processes.
 Adaptation:
Living things have the ability to adapt to changes in their environment over time. This adaptation
can occur through genetic changes (evolution) or through behavioral and physiological responses.
 Response to Stimuli:
Living organisms can respond to various stimuli from their environment. This responsiveness
allows them to react to changes and challenges, enhancing their chances of survival.

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  Growth and Development:
Living organisms undergo growth, which involves an increase in size or complexity. Development
refers to the process of maturation and differentiation that an organism undergoes over its lifespan.
 Heredity:
Living things contain genetic material (DNA or RNA) that carries the instructions for their
structure and function. Heredity ensures the transmission of traits from one generation to the next.
 Movement:
While not all living things exhibit movement, many have the ability to move in some form.
Movement can include locomotion in animals, growth in plants, or even the ability of cells to move
within an organism.
3. Discuss the importance of amino acid order to a protein’s function
The importance of amino acid order to a protein's function can be understood through several key
points:
 Protein Folding and Structure:
The sequence of amino acids dictates how a protein folds into its three-dimensional structure. The
folding process is highly specific and is influenced by the interactions between different amino
acids along the chain.
The primary structure guides the formation of secondary structures (alpha helices and beta sheets),
which, in turn, contribute to the tertiary and quaternary structures of the protein.
 Active Sites and Binding Specificity:
The three-dimensional shape of a protein, which is determined by its amino acid sequence, defines
the arrangement of active sites or binding sites.
The specific sequence of amino acids is crucial for the recognition and binding of molecules, such
as substrates, cofactors, or other proteins. This specificity is essential for the protein to carry out
its function effectively.
 Enzymatic Activity:
Proteins, particularly enzymes, rely on their specific three-dimensional shapes to catalyze chemical
reactions. The arrangement of amino acids in the active site of an enzyme is critical for substrate
recognition and the catalytic process.
Changes in the amino acid sequence can alter the enzyme's active site, affecting its catalytic
efficiency and specificity.
 Stability and Functionality:
The order of amino acids contributes to the stability of a protein's structure. Changes in the primary
structure, such as mutations, can lead to misfolding or destabilization of the protein.
Proper folding is essential for the protein to maintain its functionality. Misfolded or improperly
assembled proteins may lose their biological activity or, in some cases, lead to diseases.
 Signal Sequences and Targeting:
Amino acid sequences often contain signal peptides that guide proteins to their specific cellular or
subcellular locations.
These targeting sequences are critical for the proper functioning of proteins, ensuring they are
delivered to the correct cellular compartments.
4. Compare and contrast the function of carbohydrates lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Here's a comparison and contrast of their functions:

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  Carbohydrates:
Function:
Primary source of energy for cells (e.g., glucose is used in cellular respiration).
Structural support in cell walls of plants (cellulose) and exoskeletons of arthropods (chitin).
Storage of energy in the form of glycogen (animals) or starch (plants).
 Lipids:
Function:
Long-term energy storage in the form of triglycerides.
Structural components of cell membranes (phospholipids and cholesterol).
Insulation and cushioning of organs.
Signaling molecules (e.g., steroids and hormones).
 Proteins:
Function:
Structural support (e.g., collagen in connective tissues).
Enzymatic catalysis of biochemical reactions.
Transport of substances (e.g., hemoglobin carries oxygen in blood).
Defense against pathogens (antibodies).
Communication and signaling (receptor proteins).
Movement (muscle proteins like actin and myosin).
 Nucleic Acids:
Function:
Storage and transmission of genetic information.
DNA carries instructions for protein synthesis.
RNA plays a key role in protein synthesis (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA).
Regulation of gene expression.
 Comparison:
Energy Storage:
Carbohydrates and lipids are primary energy storage molecules. Carbohydrates are used for short-
term energy storage, while lipids are used for long-term energy storage.
Structural Roles:
Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins have structural roles in organisms. Carbohydrates contribute
to the structure of cell walls and exoskeletons, lipids are components of cell membranes, and
proteins provide structural support in various tissues.
 Macromolecules:
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are all macromolecules, composed of smaller
subunits. Carbohydrates have monosaccharides, lipids have fatty acids and glycerol, proteins have
amino acids, and nucleic acids have nucleotides.
Contrast:
Energy Storage Forms:
Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen in animals and starch in plants, while lipids are stored as
triglycerides in adipose tissue.

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  Monomers:
Carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharides, lipids of fatty acids and glycerol, proteins of
amino acids, and nucleic acids of nucleotides.
 Role in Genetic Information:
Proteins and lipids do not carry genetic information, whereas nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) play
a central role in the storage and transmission of genetic information.
5. Which of the means of transport of materials in cells are active and which are passive?
What is the difference?
The distinction between these two types is based on the energy requirement and the direction of
movement of molecules across the cell membrane.
 1. Passive Transport:
Energy Requirement: No energy (ATP) is required.
Movement Direction: From an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
(along the concentration gradient).
Types:
Diffusion: The spontaneous movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area
of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached.
Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of substances across the cell membrane with the help of transport
proteins, also following the concentration gradient.
Osmosis: The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower
solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
 2. Active Transport:
Energy Requirement: Energy (usually ATP) is required.
Movement Direction: Against the concentration gradient, from an area of lower concentration to
an area of higher concentration.
Types:
Primary Active Transport: Direct use of energy (ATP) to pump molecules against their
concentration gradient. Example: Sodium-Potassium Pump.
Secondary Active Transport (Co-transport): Indirect use of energy. It relies on the energy stored
in the electrochemical gradient established by primary active transport. Examples include symport
and antiport systems.
Difference:
 Energy Requirement:
Passive transport does not require energy input. It relies on the natural kinetic energy of molecules
to move across the membrane.
Active transport requires energy, typically in the form of ATP, to pump molecules against their
concentration gradient.
 Direction of Movement:
Passive transport moves substances from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration.
Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient, from areas of lower
concentration to higher concentration.
Examples:
Examples of passive transport include diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.

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Examples of active transport include the sodium-potassium pump, which actively transports
sodium and potassium ions, and secondary active transport systems.
6. Explain the development of cell theory?
The cell theory is a fundamental principle in biology that states:
All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and
organization in living organisms. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Here is an overview of the key developments leading to the establishment of cell theory:
a. Robert Hooke (1665):
English scientist Robert Hooke used a primitive microscope to examine thin slices of cork and
observed small, box-like structures, which he called "cells" (Latin: cellulae). This was the first
recorded observation of cells, although Hooke did not fully comprehend their biological
significance.
b. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674):
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch scientist, improved the microscope and made detailed
observations of various microorganisms, including bacteria and protists. He described these
microorganisms as "animalcules," contributing to the understanding of microscopic life.
c. Matthias Schleiden (1838):
German botanist Matthias Schleiden proposed that all plants are composed of cells. This was the
first suggestion that cells are a fundamental unit of plant structure.
d. Theodor Schwann (1839):
German zoologist Theodor Schwann extended the idea proposed by Schleiden, asserting that all
animals are also composed of cells. Schwann and Schleiden together formulated the first two tenets
of cell theory.
e. Rudolf Virchow (1855):
German physician Rudolf Virchow proposed the third component of cell theory by stating that all
cells arise from pre-existing cells. His famous dictum, "omnis cellula e cellula" (every cell from a
cell), emphasized the continuous nature of cell division and the generation of new cells.
f. Collective Formulation (Late 19th Century):
By the late 19th century, the cell theory had been widely accepted as a unifying concept in biology.
The work of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow laid the foundation for the
understanding that cells are the basic building blocks of life, and all living organisms are composed
of cells.
7. What are the factors affecting the rate of diffusion?
The key factors affecting the rate of diffusion include:
 Concentration Gradient:
The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion. The greater the difference
in concentration between two regions, the more molecules will move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
 Temperature:
Higher temperatures generally result in increased kinetic energy of particles. As particles gain
energy, they move more rapidly, leading to an increased rate of diffusion. Conversely, lower
temperatures reduce kinetic energy and slow down diffusion.

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  Molecular Size and Mass:
Smaller and lighter molecules generally diffuse more rapidly than larger, heavier ones. The size
and mass of particles influence their ability to move through a medium or across a membrane.
 Surface Area:
A larger surface area available for diffusion enhances the rate of diffusion. In biological systems,
this is particularly relevant in structures like the alveoli of the lungs or the microvilli in the small
intestine, where increased surface area facilitates efficient diffusion.
 Medium through which diffusion occurs:
The nature of the medium impacts diffusion. Diffusion occurs more quickly in gases than in liquids
and more rapidly in liquids than in solids. Additionally, the presence of barriers or obstacles in the
medium can impede diffusion.
 Distance:
The shorter the distance over which diffusion occurs, the faster the rate. Molecules have to travel
a shorter distance to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
 Solubility of Molecules:
The solubility of molecules in a particular medium affects their ability to diffuse through that
medium. Lipid-soluble molecules, for example, can easily pass through cell membranes, while
water-soluble molecules may require specific transport mechanisms.
 Pressure:
Changes in pressure can influence the rate of diffusion. An increase in pressure can enhance the
rate of diffusion, while a decrease in pressure may slow it down.
 Presence of a Membrane:
The permeability of a membrane through which diffusion occurs affects the rate. A selectively
permeable membrane allows only certain molecules to pass through, influencing the rate of
diffusion.
8. What are the risk factors of metabolic disorder?
The following are general risk factors:
 Genetics:
Inherited genetic mutations or variations can predispose individuals to certain metabolic disorders.
Some disorders, such as phenylketonuria (PKU) or familial hypercholesterolemia, have a strong
genetic component.
 Family History:
Having a family history of metabolic disorders can increase the risk. If close relatives have been
diagnosed with conditions like diabetes, hyperlipidemia, or metabolic syndrome, there may be a
genetic predisposition.
 Age:
The risk of metabolic disorders often increases with age. This is particularly true for conditions
like type 2 diabetes and certain lipid disorders, which are more prevalent in older populations.
 Lifestyle Factors:
Unhealthy lifestyle choices contribute significantly to metabolic disorders. Factors such as a
sedentary lifestyle, poor dietary habits (high in processed sugars and saturated fats), and lack of
regular physical activity can contribute to obesity, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome.

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  Obesity:
Excess body weight, especially abdominal obesity, is a major risk factor for metabolic disorders.
Obesity is strongly associated with insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and dyslipidemia.
 Physical Inactivity:
Lack of regular exercise and physical activity is linked to metabolic disorders. Physical inactivity
contributes to weight gain, insulin resistance, and an increased risk of cardiovascular problems.
 Medical Conditions:
Certain medical conditions, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), hormonal disorders, and
thyroid disorders, can influence metabolic function and increase the risk of metabolic disorders.
 Insulin Resistance:
Insulin resistance, where the body's cells do not respond effectively to insulin, is a key factor in
the development of type 2 diabetes. Factors such as obesity, physical inactivity, and genetics can
contribute to insulin resistance.
 Gestational Diabetes:
Women who have had gestational diabetes during pregnancy have an increased risk of developing
type 2 diabetes later in life. Additionally, their children may be at a higher risk for metabolic
disorders.
 Ethnicity and Race:
Certain ethnic and racial groups have a higher predisposition to specific metabolic disorders. For
example, individuals of South Asian, African, Hispanic, or Native American descent may have an
increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
9. How are metabolic disorders treated?
Here are common approaches to the treatment of metabolic disorders:
 Dietary Modifications:
Adopting a healthy and balanced diet is crucial for managing many metabolic disorders. This may
involve limiting the intake of certain nutrients such as sugars, saturated fats, and cholesterol, while
increasing the consumption of fiber, fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.
 Weight Management:
For individuals with obesity-related metabolic disorders, weight management is a key component
of treatment. This may include dietary changes, increased physical activity, and behavioral
interventions to achieve and maintain a healthy weight.
 Physical Activity:
Regular exercise is beneficial for improving insulin sensitivity, managing weight, and promoting
overall cardiovascular health. It is often recommended as part of the treatment plan for metabolic
disorders, including type 2 diabetes and obesity-related conditions.
 Medications:
Depending on the specific metabolic disorder, medications may be prescribed to help manage
symptoms, control blood sugar levels, lower cholesterol, or address other metabolic abnormalities.
Examples include insulin for diabetes, statins for hyperlipidemia, and medications for thyroid
disorders.

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  Insulin Therapy:
For individuals with type 1 diabetes or advanced cases of type 2 diabetes, insulin therapy may be
necessary to regulate blood glucose levels. Various types of insulin and insulin delivery methods
are available.
 Hormone Replacement Therapy:
Some metabolic disorders, such as hormonal imbalances or deficiencies, may require hormone
replacement therapy. This can help restore normal hormonal levels and alleviate associated
symptoms.
 Genetic Therapies:
In cases where a metabolic disorder is caused by a genetic mutation, emerging genetic therapies
and advancements may offer potential treatments. However, genetic therapies are still in the early
stages of development for many conditions.
 Surgical Interventions:
In certain cases, surgical procedures may be recommended. For example, bariatric surgery may be
considered for severe obesity, and pancreatic or liver transplant may be options for specific
metabolic disorders affecting these organs.
Monitoring and Regular Check-ups:
Regular medical check-ups and monitoring of key parameters (e.g., blood glucose levels, lipid
profiles) are essential for managing metabolic disorders. This helps healthcare providers adjust
treatment plans as needed and detect any complications early.
 Patient Education and Support:
Patient education is a critical aspect of managing metabolic disorders. Individuals need to
understand their condition, learn how to monitor their health, make informed lifestyle choices, and
adhere to prescribed medications or treatment
10. Write down the common metabolic disorders and their symptoms
Here are some common metabolic disorders along with their associated symptoms:
 Diabetes Mellitus:
Type 1 Diabetes:
Symptoms often develop rapidly and include excessive thirst, frequent urination, unexplained
weight loss, fatigue, and blurred vision.
Individuals with type 1 diabetes require insulin therapy for blood sugar control.
Type 2 Diabetes:
Symptoms may develop gradually and include increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, blurred
vision, slow wound healing, and unexplained weight loss.
Lifestyle modifications, oral medications, and/or insulin therapy may be part of the treatment plan.
 Obesity:
Excessive accumulation of body fat leading to a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher.
Symptoms include increased body weight, difficulty losing weight, fatigue, and an elevated risk
of other metabolic disorders like type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
 Hyperlipidemia:
Elevated levels of lipids (cholesterol and triglycerides) in the blood.
Often asymptomatic, but long-term complications can include atherosclerosis, heart disease, and
stroke.

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  Metabolic Syndrome:
A cluster of conditions including abdominal obesity, elevated blood pressure, high blood sugar,
and abnormal lipid levels.
Symptoms may include central obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, and elevated blood
glucose.
 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS):
A hormonal disorder affecting the ovaries.
Symptoms include irregular menstrual cycles, excess androgen (male hormone) levels, acne,
hirsutism (excess body hair), and polycystic ovaries observed in imaging studies.
Gout:
A form of arthritis caused by the accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joints.
Symptoms include sudden and severe joint pain, swelling, redness, and limited joint mobility.
 Phenylketonuria (PKU):
An inherited disorder affecting the breakdown of the amino acid phenylalanine.
Symptoms include intellectual disabilities, developmental delays, seizures, and musty odor in the
breath, skin, and urine.
 Wilson's Disease:
A rare inherited disorder that leads to the accumulation of copper in the body.
Symptoms may include liver problems, neurological symptoms (tremors, difficulty speaking), and
psychiatric symptoms.
 Maple Syrup Urine Disease (MSUD):
A genetic disorder affecting the breakdown of certain amino acids.
Symptoms include sweet-smelling urine, developmental delays, feeding difficulties, and
neurological problems.
 Cystic Fibrosis:
A genetic disorder affecting the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems.
Symptoms include chronic cough, lung infections, difficulty breathing, poor growth, and digestive
issues.
 Hemochromatosis:
A condition causing excessive iron absorption and accumulation in the body.
Symptoms may include joint pain, fatigue, abdominal pain, and bronze or gray skin discoloration.

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