NOTES

1. How is Freud's concept of subject different from Marx's concept of human essence?
Discuss differences between the focus on unconsciousness in Freud and the focus on labor
and class in Marx.

Freud: The Unconscious Mind

● Freud believed that what drives people is mostly hidden in their unconscious mind.
● He thought humans are shaped by inner conflicts between:
○ The Id: Basic desires (like for food, sex, and power).
○ The Ego: The rational part that balances desires and reality.
○ The Superego: The moral rules we learn from society.
● For Freud, our thoughts and behaviors come from these unconscious struggles, often
rooted in childhood experiences.

Marx: Labor and Class

● Marx thought people are defined by their ability to work and create things through labor.
● In capitalism, people become alienated because:
○ Workers don’t own what they make.
○ Their labor feels meaningless.
○ They are disconnected from each other.
● For Marx, the real struggle isn’t inside us (like Freud says) but between social classes—
especially between workers and the rich

The Big Picture

● Freud looks inside the mind to explain why people act the way they do.
 ● Marx looks at society and how work and money affect people’s lives.
● Together, they show how humans are shaped by both their inner world (Freud) and their
external world (Marx).

2. What's the relationship between capitalism and biopower? How can you analyze
dynamics of population control and mode of production by synthesizing social theories of
Foucault and Marx?

Key Ideas

1. Marx on Capitalism:
Capitalism controls workers to make profits.
○
○ Workers are treated as tools for production, valued for their labor power.
○ The system creates unemployment to keep wages low and maintain control.
2. Foucault on Biopower:
○ Biopower means controlling populations through health, education, and norms.
○ It focuses on making people productive, healthy, and obedient.
○ Control is subtle, shaping behavior instead of using force.

How They Work Together

● Capitalism Needs Biopower:

○ Biopower ensures workers are fit, skilled, and disciplined, which benefits
capitalism.
○ Policies like public health, education, and surveillance make people better
workers and more compliant.
● Population Control:
○ Marx explains why populations are controlled (to serve economic goals).
○ Foucault explains how populations are controlled (through laws, norms, and
institutions).
● Alienation and Discipline:
○ Marx: Workers feel alienated because they don’t own what they produce.
○ Foucault: People internalize rules, becoming "disciplined bodies" shaped by
power.
Example: Modern Jobs

● Marx’s View: Jobs exploit workers, paying them just enough to keep the system running.
● Foucault’s View: Jobs also train people to follow rules, monitor behavior (like tracking
productivity), and fit into society’s expectations.

The Big Picture

Capitalism uses biopower to manage and control people. Marx shows that this is for profit, while
Foucault shows it happens through subtle methods like education and healthcare. Together, they
explain how the economy and society shape how we live and work.

3. How did the body socialize in these different social theorists Marx, Foucault and
Aretxaga? What are the ways in which power is racialized and gendered in the way it is
applied in the body?

1. Marx: The Body and Work

● How the Body is Socialized:

○ The body is used as a tool for work in capitalism. Workers sell their labor,
and their bodies are controlled by employers to make profits.
● Racialized and Gendered Power:
○ Capitalism often gives different roles to people based on race and gender.
For example:
■ Women do unpaid domestic work.
■ People of color are often given the hardest or lowest-paid jobs.

2. Foucault: The Body and Discipline

● How the Body is Socialized:

 ○ Society controls bodies through rules and institutions like schools, hospitals,
and prisons.
○ The body becomes "disciplined" to follow social norms and be productive.
● Racialized and Gendered Power:
○ Power treats racialized bodies (e.g., minorities) differently, using things like
surveillance or profiling.
○ Gendered bodies are shaped by rules about appearance, behavior, and roles
(e.g., how women are expected to act or look).

3. Aretxaga: The Body and Resistance

● How the Body is Socialized:

○ Bodies are affected by political violence, especially in colonial or oppressive
systems.
○ People use their bodies to resist, like through hunger strikes or protests.
● Racialized and Gendered Power:
○ Violence often targets specific groups, like women or marginalized races.
○ Women’s bodies are especially symbolic, used in both control (e.g., violence)
and resistance (e.g., protests).

How Power is Racialized and Gendered

● Racialized Power:
○ Society treats some races as less valuable, controlling their bodies through
discrimination, forced labor, or violence.
● Gendered Power:
○ Women’s bodies are controlled through things like reproductive rules, beauty
standards, or sexual violence.
Conclusion

The body is controlled by society in many ways—through work (Marx), discipline (Foucault),
and violence/resistance (Aretxaga). These controls often depend on race and gender, shaping
how power is applied to different groups.

4. What is algorithmic will to power according to Issevenler? How does it escape

representation? What's the role of time and temporality in algorithmic power?

. What is Algorithmic Will to Power?

● Algorithms influence reality by organizing data, making predictions, and producing

results.
● They don’t rely on traditional ways of explaining or representing their actions (like
symbols or narratives).
● Instead, they work automatically, creating changes based on patterns in data.

2. How Does It Escape Representation?

● No Need for Explanation:

○ Traditional systems of power explain their decisions (e.g., laws or political
speeches).
○ Algorithms don’t—they just act, often invisibly.
● Opacity:
○ Algorithms are complex "black boxes," and it’s hard to know how they make
decisions.
○ This makes their power hard to see or challenge.

3. Role of Time in Algorithmic Power

● Speed:
○ Algorithms make decisions faster than humans can react, like in stock trading or
recommending products.
● Prediction:
 ○They shape the future by predicting what will happen (e.g., targeted ads, crime
forecasts).
○ By acting on these predictions, they make their version of the future more likely.
● Time Control:
○ Algorithms compress and manage time, making processes faster and reshaping
how we live and work.

In Simple Terms

Algorithms are powerful because they act directly and quickly, shaping the world without
needing to explain themselves. They predict the future and make decisions in ways we don’t
always see or understand, changing how power and time work in our lives.

5. How does Freud explain the existence of the unconscious? What are the signs of such
agency exceeding consciousness? How does trauma and desire contribute to an
understanding of the human unconscious?

1. Freud's Explanation of the Unconscious

● Unconscious Mind:
○ Freud believed that the mind has three parts: the conscious, the preconscious,
and the unconscious.
○ The unconscious holds thoughts, memories, desires, and experiences that are not
immediately accessible to our awareness but still influence our behavior.
 ○ Freud argued that things that are threatening or painful (like repressed memories
or desires) are pushed into the unconscious to protect the conscious mind from
anxiety.

2. Signs of Unconscious Agency (Exceeding Consciousness)

● Freudian Slips (or "Slip of the Tongue"):

○ When people say something they didn’t mean to, but it reveals hidden thoughts or
desires (e.g., calling someone by the wrong name, revealing an unconscious
thought).
● Dreams:
○ Freud saw dreams as a "royal road" to the unconscious. They express repressed
desires, thoughts, or memories in symbolic form.
● Neuroses:
○ Mental health issues, like anxiety or phobias, are often caused by unconscious
conflicts or repressed emotions pushing through into conscious life.
● Freudian Symptoms:
○ Behaviors that don’t make sense on the surface (like compulsive actions) can
reveal unconscious drives or desires.

3. The Role of Trauma and Desire

● Trauma:
○ Trauma involves overwhelming experiences that the conscious mind cannot fully
process, so the mind represses these memories into the unconscious.
○ This repression can cause symptoms like anxiety or recurring nightmares.
● Desire:
○ Freud believed that much of our unconscious mind is driven by repressed
desires, especially sexual desires.
○ These desires are pushed into the unconscious because they’re socially
unacceptable or cause anxiety.
○ Unconscious desires influence our actions, even if we're not aware of them (e.g.,
falling in love with someone who represents repressed feelings).
Summary

● Unconscious: Freud believed that the mind has hidden, unconscious parts that influence
our behavior, especially when repressed feelings or memories try to surface.
● Signs of Unconscious Agency: These include Freudian slips, dreams, and symptoms like
anxiety or phobias that point to repressed material.
● Trauma and Desire: Trauma causes memories to be pushed into the unconscious, and
repressed desires (especially sexual) drive much of our unconscious activity.

In Simple Terms

Freud explained that the unconscious mind holds repressed thoughts and feelings, especially
those we find painful or unacceptable. These hidden desires and memories can "leak out" in
dreams, slips of the tongue, or mental health issues. Trauma and repressed desires play a big role
in shaping our unconscious mind.

6. How does social institutions contribute to repression and disavowal of bodily feelings?
Synthesize accounts of Freud and Foucault.

1. Freud's View on Repression

● Repression of Bodily Feelings:

○ Freud believed that society pressures individuals to suppress certain bodily
desires (especially sexual desires) because they are seen as inappropriate or
dangerous.
○ Social institutions like family, religion, and law enforce these repressions by
creating moral rules about what is "acceptable" behavior.
○ When people repress these desires, they are pushed into the unconscious mind.
While they are not consciously recognized, they still influence behavior, often in
harmful or unexpected ways (e.g., anxiety or neuroses).

2. Foucault's View on Power and the Body

● Discipline and Control:

 ○ Foucault focused on how social institutions like schools, hospitals, prisons, and
even the family train and regulate bodies.
○ Rather than just suppressing desires, Foucault argued that power works by
disciplining bodies—shaping how people move, behave, and feel through
constant surveillance and control.
○ Bodily feelings are not simply repressed, but regulated. For example, institutions
teach us how to feel (e.g., how to manage our emotions or desires) and make
certain feelings "normal" while others are viewed as inappropriate.

3. Synthesis: Freud and Foucault on Repression and Bodily Feelings

● Both Freud and Foucault argue that social institutions play a significant role in shaping
our relationship with our bodies and emotions.
○ Freud sees repression as a psychological process where society pushes
unacceptable desires into the unconscious.
○ Foucault looks at how power operates through institutions to control and
normalize bodily behaviors and feelings.
● Together, their ideas suggest that society not only suppresses certain emotions but also
trains individuals to regulate their own bodies and desires in ways that fit social norms.

Summary

● Freud: Social institutions repress bodily feelings by making certain desires (especially
sexual ones) unacceptable, pushing them into the unconscious.
● Foucault: Social institutions regulate and control bodily feelings, shaping how we
experience and express our emotions and desires.

In Simple Terms

Social institutions like schools, families, and governments teach us what feelings and desires are
"okay" and which ones should be hidden or controlled. Freud says they push these feelings into
the unconscious mind, while Foucault argues they shape and control how we feel and act with
our bodies. Together, they show that society doesn’t just suppress bodily feelings—it trains us to
regulate them.
7. How would you analyze the documentary on the productive and ritual aspects of Mardi
Gras? Which sociologists are useful to understand various sociological components of this
ritual?

1. Ritual Aspects of Mardi Gras

Mardi Gras is a ritual because it brings people together through shared traditions, like parades
and costumes, creating a sense of community.

Durkheim:

● Social Bonding: Mardi Gras helps build a sense of community by creating shared
experiences that unite people.
● Sacred and Profane: During Mardi Gras, normal rules and roles are relaxed, allowing
people to act differently and break social norms.

Turner:

● Equality: Mardi Gras is a time when everyone, no matter their social status, can come
together and celebrate as equals.

2. Productive Aspects of Mardi Gras

Mardi Gras is also a big economic event. It involves a lot of work (making costumes, building
floats) and generates money from tourism, businesses, and vendors.

Marx:

● Labor: People work to create the costumes, floats, and food, which helps make the event
happen.
● Capital: Mardi Gras also makes money for local businesses, but some workers may not
benefit much from it.

Weber:

● Organization: Mardi Gras is a big event that requires a lot of planning and organization,
such as permits and security, making it more like a business.
3. Social Functions of Mardi Gras

Mardi Gras helps people express themselves and feel like they belong to a certain group, whether
through the krewes (social groups) they belong to or the way they dress.

Bourdieu:

● Cultural Capital: The way people participate in Mardi Gras shows their status. For
example, being in an elite krewe shows a higher social position.

Goffman:

● Impression Management: People use Mardi Gras to present a certain image of

themselves through their costumes and behavior.

In Simple Terms

Mardi Gras is not just fun and games; it's a mix of celebration, work, and money. It brings people
together (thanks to Durkheim and Turner), involves a lot of work and money (explained by
Marx and Weber), and shows how people express their social status and identity (through
Bourdieu and Goffman).

8. What's the difference between a gift economy and a market economy? What are the
basic elements of gift-exchange? Discuss some sociological examples.
1. Gift Economy vs. Market Economy

● Gift Economy:
○ In a gift economy, goods and services are given without the expectation of
immediate return or direct payment. The exchange is based on social
relationships and mutual respect.
○ Social bonds are the main reason for exchanging gifts. People give because of
shared traditions, family ties, friendship, or other social reasons, not for profit.
● Market Economy:
○ In a market economy, goods and services are exchanged based on price, usually
involving a direct transaction of money.
○ People exchange goods to make a profit or to fulfill specific personal needs or
desires, with no expectation of building a social relationship or bond in the
process.

2. Basic Elements of Gift-Exchange

Gift exchange has several key elements that differentiate it from market exchange:

● Reciprocity:
○ There is an expectation that gifts will be reciprocated, though not immediately or
in the same form. For example, if someone gives you a gift, you are expected to
give something back eventually.
● Social Bonding:
○ The main purpose of giving gifts is to create or strengthen relationships between
people. The exchange is less about the material value of the gift and more about
the social connection it fosters.
● Obligation:
○ Giving and receiving gifts often carries a sense of social obligation. Even if there
is no formal contract, people feel a moral duty to give and accept gifts in certain
social contexts (e.g., birthdays, holidays).
● Non-Market Value:
○ In a gift economy, the value of the exchange is based on social significance, not
the monetary worth of the goods or services. The emphasis is on the meaning and
the relationship behind the exchange.
3. Sociological Examples of Gift-Exchange

Here are some sociological examples to understand how gift economies and market economies
work:

Gift Economy Example:

● Potlatch Ceremonies (Indigenous Cultures in the Pacific Northwest):

○ In some Native American tribes, there is a practice called a potlatch, where chiefs
or wealthy families give away large quantities of goods, like food, blankets, or
canoes. This is done to demonstrate wealth and status but also to strengthen
community ties. The exchange is not meant to gain something back directly but
to build respect and solidarity.
● Family Gifts:
○ Think about birthday gifts or Christmas presents. You may give a gift to someone
not because you're expecting something back right away, but because it’s a way to
show love and build relationships. The value of the gift isn’t just in its material
worth but in the meaning and connection it represents.

Market Economy Example:

● Buying and Selling Goods (Supermarkets, Online Shopping):
○ In a market economy, when you buy a loaf of bread or order a product online, you
exchange money for the item. There’s no expectation of social bonding—just a
transaction based on need or desire.
● Labor Markets:
○ In the labor market, employees sell their labor in exchange for a salary or wage.
There’s no personal relationship beyond the transaction—workers provide
services or skills, and employers pay for them.
In Simple Terms

● Gift Economy: You give without expecting something back right away, mainly to build
relationships and social bonds (e.g., gifts, potlatch ceremonies).
● Market Economy: You exchange goods for money, aiming for profit and personal need
satisfaction (e.g., buying bread at the store).

In a gift economy, the focus is on relationships and social meaning; in a market economy, the
focus is on transactions and money.
9. How can gift-exchange may become a productive-type of power? Discuss Mauss's theory
of gift and Foucault's theory of power.

1. Mauss's Theory of Gift Exchange

● Mauss argued that giving a gift isn’t just about kindness—it’s about creating social
bonds and obligations.
● When you give a gift, the receiver feels obligated to give something back later, which
creates a cycle of exchange.
● The giver holds some power because they control the gift, and the receiver becomes
indebted, creating a power balance.

In simple terms: Gifts create social ties and obligations that give people power over each other.

2. Foucault's Theory of Power

● Foucault said that power isn’t just something people have; it’s something that shapes
society. Power is everywhere, and it works through social rules and relationships.
● Power is productive, meaning it doesn’t just control people, but also shapes who they are
and how they act.

In simple terms: Power is not just about controlling people—it shapes how we think and act in
society.
3. How Gift Exchange is Productive Power

When you combine both ideas:

● Gift exchange is a way to create social power. Giving a gift creates obligations and
shapes how people interact. Over time, these exchanges can create social roles and
hierarchies (some people give more, some give less).
● Foucault’s idea: These exchanges also create social norms—rules about how gifts
should be given, when, and why.
In simple terms: When you give a gift, you’re not just being nice—you’re also shaping social
relationships and creating power dynamics. Gifts can make people feel obligated and can create
rules and roles in society.

10. How can we conceptualize intergenerational relationships as a gift-exchange that is

mediated by the ica of society? Incorporate positions of Durkheim, Mauss, Freud and
Foucault

1. Durkheim: Social Bonds

● Durkheim says that society is held together by shared values. In intergenerational

relationships, the gifts (like traditions or advice) help connect generations and keep the
society united.

In simple terms: Gifts from older generations help keep society connected by passing on shared
values and beliefs.

2. Mauss: Reciprocity

● Mauss argues that gift-giving creates obligations. When older generations give gifts (like
wisdom or material things), the younger generation feels obligated to give something
back, such as by honoring traditions or continuing family roles.

In simple terms: Gifts create a cycle where each generation gives and receives, keeping the
family or society in balance.
3. Freud: Emotions and Unconscious Influence

● Freud would say that intergenerational gifts also involve emotions. Older generations
pass on not just material things but also emotional patterns, like love, care, or even
trauma. These emotional gifts shape how future generations think and act, often without
realizing it.

In simple terms: The emotional gifts passed down (like love or trauma) affect how future
generations behave and feel.

4. Foucault: Power and Knowledge

● Foucault focuses on how knowledge and social rules are passed down. Older
generations teach younger ones social norms and expectations (e.g., gender roles, moral
values), which shapes how people think and act. This is a way of passing down power
through knowledge.

In simple terms: Older generations pass down rules and knowledge that shape how younger
generations behave and view the world.

Putting It All Together

In intergenerational relationships, older generations give gifts (knowledge, values, love) that
shape how younger generations act. These exchanges:

● Unite society (Durkheim),

● Create obligations to continue traditions (Mauss),
● Shape emotions and behavior (Freud), and ● Pass down knowledge and power
(Foucault).

In simple terms: Intergenerational relationships are a form of gift exchange where older
generations shape future generations through values, emotions, and rules, helping society stay
connected and organized over time.
 1. How does Freud’s concept of subject differ from Marx’s concept of human essence.
Discuss differences between the focus on unconscious in Freud and the focus on labor
and class in Marx.

Freud’s idea of what makes us who we are focuses on the unconscious mind, suggesting that
much of our behavior is driven by hidden desires and inner conflicts we’re not even aware of.
Marx, on the other hand, sees human essence as tied to labor, the work we do and how it
connects to the bigger picture of class and society. Freud looks inward, exploring how our minds
are shaped by internal struggles, while Marx looks outward, examining how economic systems
and social structures shape us. Freud’s perspective is more about the individual psyche, while
Marx’s is about the collective experience of people within a system. Both offer very different
ways of understanding what drives human beings.

2. What’s the relationship between capitalism and biopower/ How can you analyze
dynamics of population control and mode of production by synthesizing social theories of
Foucault and Marx?

The relationship between capitalism and biopower can be understood by combining Marx’s
focus on modes of production with Foucault’s ideas about population control. Marx explains
how capitalism organizes society around the production of goods and the exploitation of
labor, while Foucault shows how power operates not just through economics but by
managing and regulating populations, through things like public health, education, and
surveillance. Together, they reveal how capitalism doesn’t just rely on economic structures
but also uses biopower to maintain control, shaping how people live, work, and even think.
This synthesis helps us see how economic systems and power over life are deeply connected,
reinforcing each other to sustain social order.

3. How body is socialized in these different social theorists Marx, Foucault, and Aretxaga?
What are the ways in which power is racialized and gendered in the way it is applied on
the body?

Marx, Foucault, and Aretxaga all explore how the body is shaped by social forces, but they do so
in different ways. Marx focuses on how capitalism turns the body into a tool for labor, reducing
it to a commodity within the economic system. Foucault looks at how power operates through
discipline and biopower, showing how institutions like prisons, schools, and hospitals regulate
and control bodies. Aretxaga brings in a more specific focus on how power is felt and embodied,
particularly in contexts of political violence and resistance, people use their bodies in protests,
like the dirty protest, to fight back against authority. Across all three, power isn’t applied
equally—it’s racialized and gendered, meaning that bodies are treated differently based on race
and gender, with some being more heavily controlled or marginalized. Together, their work
shows how the body is a key site where social power plays out.
 4. What is algorithmic will to power according to Issvenler? How does it escape
representation? What’s the role of time and temporarily in algorithmic power?

Algorithmic will to power describes how algorithms autonomously shape societal behavior and structures,
drawing on Nietzsche’s idea of power as self-perpetuating influence. By acting through real-time data
analysis, algorithms escape representation, as their decisions emerge from opaque, pattern-based
processes rather than explicit human direction or symbolic meaning. Temporality is key; algorithms
operate dynamically and predictively, reorganizing experiences like social media timelines or predictive
policing. Foucault’s view of power as relational and embedded in systems highlights how algorithms
seamlessly integrate control into everyday life, reshaping reality without overt recognition.

5. How does Freud explain existence of unconscious? What are the signs of such agency
exceeding consciousness? What are the signs of such agency exceeding consciousness?
How does trauma and desire contribute to an understanding of human unconscious?

Freud explains the unconscious as a foundational part of the human psyche, containing
thoughts, memories, and desires that are repressed because they are too distressing or socially
unacceptable for the conscious mind to acknowledge. The unconscious exists beyond direct
awareness but exerts significant influence over conscious thoughts and behaviors. Evidence
of its activity includes phenomena such as Freudian slips, where unintended words reveal
hidden thoughts, dream symbolism, and symptoms of psychological disorders, such as
phobias or compulsive behaviors that lack an apparent rational cause. Freud’s model of the
mind—comprising the id, ego, and superego—emphasizes the unconscious as the seat of the
id, which houses primal drives and desires. This unconscious agency often clashes with the
ego, the conscious self, leading to internal conflicts that manifest as anxiety, defense
mechanisms, or neurotic symptoms.

Trauma plays a central role in Freud’s understanding of the unconscious. Painful experiences
are often repressed, buried in the unconscious to protect the conscious mind from distress.
However, this repression creates psychic tension that surfaces indirectly, such as through
nightmares, irrational fears, or bodily symptoms (e.g., hysteria). Similarly, unfulfilled
desires, particularly those tied to childhood experiences, linger in the unconscious and shape
adult behavior, often driving actions in ways that the individual may not fully understand. In
Freud’s theory, these repressed traumas and desires collectively explain the dynamic and
sometimes disruptive influence of the unconscious on human thought, emotion, and behavior.
This framework underscores the unconscious as not merely a passive repository of forgotten
material but an active and potent force shaping the complexities of human life.

6. How does social institutions contribute to repression and disavowal of bodily feelings?
Synthesize accounts of Freud and Foucault.
Social institutions play a significant role in the repression and disavowal of bodily feelings by
shaping how individuals experience and express their physical and emotional states. Freud’s
perspective highlights how societal norms and taboos, often enforced through institutions like the
family, education, and religion, demand the repression of desires and instincts deemed
unacceptable. This repression forces bodily feelings into the unconscious, where they continue to
influence behavior in hidden ways, such as through neuroses or symbolic expressions.

Foucault adds to this by examining how modern institutions—such as schools, prisons, hospitals,
and governments—discipline and regulate bodies, imposing norms that dictate how people
should behave, feel, and even perceive their own bodies. This control often leads individuals to
internalize societal expectations, disavowing or suppressing feelings that don’t align with these
norms. Together, Freud and Foucault show that repression is not only a psychological process
but also a social one, enforced through systems of power that manage both the mind and body.
Institutions don’t just shape behavior; they redefine how people relate to their own physical and
emotional selves, often prioritizing control and conformity over authenticity.

Overall, Social institutions play a central role in repressing and disavowing bodily feelings, as
shown through the combined insights of Freud and Foucault. Freud argues that societal norms
enforced by institutions like families, schools, and religious organizations demand the
suppression of desires and instincts, particularly those tied to sexuality and aggression. This
repression forces these feelings into the unconscious, where they persist and influence behavior
indirectly, manifesting in dreams, anxieties, or neurotic symptoms. Foucault complements this
by exploring how modern institutions regulate and discipline the body, shaping not only behavior
but also the way individuals perceive and experience their own bodies. Hospitals, schools, and
prisons impose norms that teach people to monitor and suppress physical sensations, emotions,
and desires that don’t align with social expectations. Together, Freud and Foucault reveal that
repression is both a psychological and social process: institutions shape the unconscious by
enforcing control over bodies and feelings, creating individuals who internalize these
expectations and disavow parts of their authentic physical and emotional selves.

7. How would you analyze the documentary on the productive and ritual aspects of Mardi
Gras? Which sociologists are useful to understand various sociological components of
this ritual?

Analyzing the documentary on the productive and ritual aspects of Mardi Gras involves examining
both the economic activities (e.g., bead production, tourism, and local industries) and the cultural
practices (e.g., parades, masking, and community celebration). From a sociological perspective,
Emile Durkheim’s theories on rituals and collective effervescence help illuminate how Mardi Gras
fosters social cohesion and reinforces shared cultural values. Karl Marx’s critique of capitalism is
useful to analyze the exploitation within the production of Mardi Gras commodities, such as beads
manufactured under poor labor conditions. Clifford Geertz’s symbolic anthropology provides insight
into how Mardi Gras rituals express deeper meanings of identity and community.
 8. What's the difference between a gift economy and a market economy? What are the basic
elements of gift-exchange? Discuss some sociological examples.

A gift economy operates on principles of reciprocity and social bonds, where goods and services are
exchanged without explicit monetary value or contractual obligation, fostering community and
mutual dependence. In contrast, a market economy relies on monetary transactions and supply-
demand dynamics to regulate exchanges. The basic elements of gift exchange, as outlined by
anthropologist Mauss, include the obligations to give, receive, and reciprocate, which create social
ties and maintain social harmony. Sociological examples include the Kula ring in Melanesia, where
ceremonial trading of shell valuables strengthens alliances, and modern-day gift-giving during
holidays, which reinforces familial and social bonds.

9. How can gift-exchange may become a productive-type of power? Discuss Mauss's theory
of gift and Foucault's theory of power.

Gift exchange can become a productive form of power by creating and sustaining social hierarchies
and obligations. Mauss’s theory of the gift highlights how giving, receiving, and reciprocating are not
only economic actions but also mechanisms that build social relationships, foster alliances, and
establish influence. Gifts create moral obligations that bind individuals and groups, generating a
network of interdependence. Foucault’s theory of power complements this by explaining how power
operates through social practices and relationships, subtly shaping behavior and reinforcing
hierarchies. For instance, in the potlatch ceremonies of Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest,
gifts are used to assert status and redistribute resources, simultaneously establishing dominance and
fostering community solidarity.

10. How can we conceptualize intergenerational relationships as a gift-exchange that is

mediated by the ica of society? Incorporate positions of Durkheim, Mauss, Freud and
Foucault

Intergenerational relationships can be conceptualized as a form of gift exchange mediated by societal

norms and obligations. Mauss’s theory of the gift highlights the binding nature of reciprocal obligations,
evident in how older generations provide care and knowledge, expecting respect and continuity in
return. Durkheim’s focus on social cohesion and moral obligations underscores how these exchanges
maintain societal stability. Freud adds a psychoanalytic dimension, suggesting that familial relationships
are shaped by unconscious dynamics of dependency and authority. Foucault’s theory of power
contextualizes these exchanges as not merely reciprocal but also regulatory, mediated by institutions
like family and education, which reinforce societal norms and control across generations. For example,
inheritance or mentorship can be seen as a “gift” that sustains both individual ties and social hierarchies.

Intergenerational relationships, like between a parent and child, work like a gift exchange where
parents give care, love, and support as a "gift," and children are expected to give back in some
way over time. According to Mauss, gifts create obligations, so the care a parent gives isn’t just
one-sided—it’s part of a bond that builds responsibility. Durkheim would say society enforces
this exchange through norms, while Freud points out the emotional weight, where kids feel a
deeper duty to repay their parents unconsciously. Foucault adds that this relationship is also
about shaping kids to fit into society, so the "gift" of upbringing is tied to power and control.

1. Unconscious, Unconscious Desire, Unconscious Trauma

Key Concepts

• Unconscious: In psychoanalysis, the part of the mind that holds thoughts,

memories, and desires not accessible to conscious awareness but influencing behavior.
• Unconscious Desire: Hidden, repressed wants that shape actions and choices.
• Unconscious Trauma: Repressed traumatic events that manifest indirectly
through behaviors, symptoms, or dreams.

Sources

1. Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents

• Explores the tension between individual desires and societal norms.
• Focus on repression as a central mechanism of the unconscious.
• Key ideas: The role of repressed drives (e.g., libido) in the formation of
civilization.
2. Aretxaga, Dirty Protest
• Examines the intersection of political and psychological trauma during the
Northern Ireland conflict.
• Links unconscious trauma to acts of resistance and bodily expression.
3. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Chapter 5
• Critiques the Freudian model of repression.
• Explores how discourses on sexuality shape the unconscious, linking it to power
dynamics.
4. Borges, The Ethnographer
• A narrative about hidden knowledge, experience, and the inability to fully
articulate unconscious understanding.

2. Power, Disciplinary Power, Biopower

Key Concepts

• Power: Not merely repressive but productive, existing within relationships and
shaping behavior.
• Disciplinary Power: Focused on individuals, it governs bodies through
surveillance, normalization, and control.
• Biopower: Governs populations by regulating life processes (e.g., health,
reproduction, mortality).

Sources
 1. “How to Read Foucault”, Part 3
• An accessible introduction to Foucault’s theories of power.
• Explains disciplinary power and biopower with real-world examples.
2. Foucault, Discipline and Punish
• Key text on disciplinary power.
• Analyzes how modern institutions (prisons, schools, factories) shape behavior.
• Core example: The panopticon as a metaphor for surveillance.
3. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Chapters 2 and 5
• Chapter 2: Explains biopower in the context of regulating sexuality and
populations.
• Chapter 5: Links power to knowledge and discourses.
4. Issevenler, Intentional Decoherence in Deportability
• Explores power in migration policies and the creation of deportable subjects.
• Examines how the state exercises disciplinary power over non-citizens.
5. Issevenler, An Event-Without-Witness
• Discusses the invisibility of marginalized subjects under disciplinary regimes.
6. Mardi Gras
• A cultural event highlighting the interplay of power, control, and subversion in
public space.

3. Gift-Exchange

Key Concepts

• Gift-Exchange: A system where gifts are given not out of altruism but as part of
social obligations, creating bonds and hierarchies.
• Reciprocity: A core principle of gift economies, ensuring mutual obligation and
social cohesion.
• Symbolism: Gifts carry meaning beyond their material value, reinforcing social
ties or power dynamics.

Sources

1. Marcel Mauss, The Gift

• Seminal work on gift-exchange in pre-capitalist societies.
• Key ideas: Gifts are never “free”; they demand reciprocity and are central to
social cohesion.
2. Mardi Gras
• As a ritual, Mardi Gras involves symbolic exchanges (beads, favors) that
reinforce community bonds.
• Highlights the interplay of gift-giving with power, excess, and cultural
performance.

What is a Social Fact? By: Emilee Durkheim

Definition of Social Facts
• Social facts are ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside the
individual but exert control over them.
• They are external to individuals and operate independently of personal will.
• Examples include laws, customs, moral norms, language, and social institutions.

Key Characteristics of Social Facts

1. Externality:
• Social facts exist outside the individual, originating from society rather than
personal consciousness.
• They are not reducible to individual behaviors but are collective in nature.
2. Constraint:
• Social facts impose themselves on individuals through social pressure, sanctions,
or norms.
• Individuals may conform to these facts without fully realizing their influence.
3. Generality:
• Social facts are widespread across a society and not tied to individual variations.
• They represent collective ways of functioning.

Examples
• Legal rules: Enforced through systems of punishment, compelling compliance.
• Religious beliefs: Shared across communities, shaping individual behavior and
thought.
• Economic systems: Govern trade, work, and resources independent of individual
choice.

Difference Between Social Facts and Individual Phenomena

• Social facts are collective and cannot be explained by individual actions or
psychology.
• For example, a crime is not just an individual act but a violation of societal
norms, which are themselves social facts.

Sociology’s Role
• Sociology must study social facts as things, treating them as objects of scientific
inquiry.
 • Social facts should be analyzed through their causes (social context) and their
functions (contributions to society).

Durkheim’s Argument Against Reductionism

• He rejects the idea that social phenomena can be explained solely by biology or
psychology.
• Social facts have unique characteristics and require distinct methods of
investigation.

Methods of Identifying Social Facts

• Look for elements that are external, coercive, and general within society.
• Avoid relying on subjective or individual interpretations; focus on objective,
observable phenomena.

Borges’ “The Ethnographer”

Overview
• A short story by Jorge Luis Borges exploring the themes of knowledge, secrecy,
and the limits of understanding.
• The story revolves around Fred Murdock, an ordinary man who undergoes a
transformative journey as an ethnographer.

Plot Summary
1. Introduction to Fred Murdock
• Murdock is described as an unremarkable young man chosen for a research
project to study an indigenous tribe.
• He is sent to live among the tribe to observe and learn their way of life.
2. Immersion into Tribal Life
• Murdock adopts the tribe’s customs, diet, and language, becoming deeply
integrated.
• Over time, he gains the trust of the tribe and is taught a sacred, secret doctrine.
3. Revelation and Decision
• The tribe shares their sacred knowledge with Murdock, profoundly changing his
perspective.
• Upon returning, Murdock refuses to document or share the secret, claiming it
must be experienced to be understood.
4. Conclusion
 • Murdock abandons academia, choosing an ordinary life. The narrator notes that
Murdock’s choice reflects a personal truth rather than universal knowledge.

Key Themes
1. Knowledge and Experience
• The story emphasizes that certain truths cannot be conveyed through language or
writing; they must be lived.
• It questions the value of academic or detached observation in truly understanding
a culture.
2. Secrecy and the Incommunicable
• The sacred doctrine symbolizes knowledge that is both deeply personal and
culturally bound.
• Murdock’s refusal to share reflects the ineffability of certain experiences.
3. Cultural Relativity
• The story critiques the ethnographic method by highlighting the limitations of
studying a culture from the outside.
• It suggests that true understanding requires immersion and transformation.
4. Alienation and Transformation
• Murdock’s journey alienates him from both the tribe and his own world, leaving
him between two realities.
• His ultimate choice signifies a rejection of objective knowledge in favor of lived
truth.

Narrative Style
• Borges’ characteristic brevity and ambiguity challenge readers to reflect on the
nature of storytelling and truth.
• The unnamed narrator adds a layer of detachment, leaving Murdock’s inner
transformation largely unexplained.

Interpretation
• “The Ethnographer” critiques scientific methods of knowledge acquisition,
emphasizing subjective experience over objective analysis.
• It reflects Borges’ fascination with epistemology, language, and the paradoxes of
understanding otherness.
The German Ideology (I. Feuerbach)
• Central Argument: Material conditions and economic systems, not ideas, shape history
and human consciousness.

Key Themes and Concepts

1. Critique of Idealism
• German philosophers (Hegel, Feuerbach) emphasized abstract ideas as the driving
force of history.
• Marx and Engels argue that ideas arise from material conditions rather than
shaping them.
• “Life is not determined by consciousness, but consciousness by life.”
2. Historical Materialism
• Definition: The material conditions of a society’s mode of production (economic
base) shape its superstructure (culture, politics, religion).
• Humans distinguish themselves through production: how they produce their
means of life defines their social and historical reality.
3. Division of Labor
• Evolution of labor correlates with societal structures:
• Tribal society → primitive communism.
• Feudal society → estate-based systems.
• Capitalist society → division between bourgeoisie and proletariat.
• Division of labor creates contradictions, alienating individuals from their labor,
society, and nature.
4. Criticism of Feuerbach
• Feuerbach focused on religion and humanity in abstraction.
• Marx and Engels argue for a practical focus on humans as material beings shaped
by their socio-economic context.
5. Role of Revolution
• Historical change occurs through class struggle driven by material contradictions.
• The proletariat’s revolutionary potential comes from its position as the exploited
class under capitalism.

My Brooklyn by Kelly Anderson

• Focus: Gentrification in Downtown Brooklyn and the impact on longtime
residents, businesses, and cultural dynamics.
• Main Goal: Critically examine urban development policies, systemic inequalities,
and the role of community resistance.
Key Themes and Concepts

1. Gentrification
• Definition: The process of urban renewal that displaces lower-income residents
while attracting wealthier individuals.
• In Brooklyn, this involves replacing affordable housing and small businesses with
luxury developments.
2. Urban Planning and Policy
• Examines how government policies (e.g., rezoning plans) prioritize real estate
development over community needs.
• Developers and officials collaborate, creating economic incentives for
displacement.
3. Race and Class
• Highlights the racial dynamics of gentrification, with communities of color
disproportionately displaced.
• The documentary critiques how systemic racism underpins urban renewal
projects.
4. Community Resistance
• Features grassroots efforts by residents and activists to fight for their right to stay
and preserve their neighborhoods.
• Illustrates the tension between economic development and social justice.
5. Cultural Erasure
• Explores how gentrification leads to the loss of historical and cultural landmarks,
replacing them with homogenized spaces catering to wealthier demographics.

Of Other Spaces by Michel Foucault

• Focus: Explores how societies organize and conceptualize space.
• Central Concept: Heterotopias, or “other spaces,” that exist outside the norms of
conventional societal spaces.

Key Concepts and Definitions

1. Utopias vs. Heterotopias

• Utopias: Idealized, imagined spaces that reflect perfect societies. They are
fundamentally unreal.
 • Heterotopias: Real, physical spaces that juxtapose, challenge, or reflect societal
norms.
2. Principles of Heterotopias
Foucault outlines six principles defining heterotopias:
1. Universality: All cultures have heterotopias, though they manifest differently.
2. Change Over Time: Their functions and meanings evolve with society.
3. Juxtaposition: Heterotopias can bring together incompatible or contradictory
spaces.
4. Linked to Time: Often associated with temporal discontinuities (e.g., cemeteries
mark the transition between life and death).
5. Restricted Access: Entry to heterotopias is often regulated or requires specific
permissions.
6. Dual Role: They simultaneously mirror and invert the norms of the surrounding
society.
3. Examples of Heterotopias
• Cemeteries: Reflect changing societal attitudes toward death.
• Museums and Libraries: Accumulate time and preserve the past within a static
space.
• Ships: Foucault describes ships as “heterotopias par excellence,” connecting
disparate spaces while remaining separate from land-based society.

1. Space and Power

• Foucault highlights how space reflects and enforces societal norms and power
dynamics.
• Heterotopias serve as sites of resistance or compliance within this spatial
framework.
2. Spatial Relativity
• Spaces are not absolute but relative, contextualized by culture, history, and power
structures.
3. Functionality and Subversion
• Heterotopias perform societal functions (e.g., organizing deviance or memory).
• They also challenge or destabilize dominant spatial and social orders.

1. Spaces are socially constructed and integral to the exercise of power.

2. Heterotopias are unique spaces that reflect, challenge, and organize societal norms.
3. Understanding heterotopias provides insight into how societies manage identity, memory,
and deviance.