EDITORIAL

Human nature: Indian perspective revisited

Sarvasastraprayojanamatmadarshanam In Indian scriptures, the roots of psychology can be

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traced back to the vast storehouse of ancient religious and

“The end of all the scientific pursuit and endeavor is to philosophical text. The analysis of various sources like
know our own self.” Atharveda, the Upanishads, the Mahabharata and others
reveals the fine aspect of human nature. Ancient Indian

H
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uman existence on earth, as per the Hindu mythology, thinkers were characteristically synthetic in their views.
dates back to over 8 million years. These years have According to Indian conception, human nature is not the
been divided into four “yugas,” viz. Satyuga (5.6 million accidental offshoot of an unconscious nature, but has its
years), Treta (1.4 million years), Dwapar (4.68 lakh years) root like every other thing in the being of an absolute self.[6]
and the present yug “Kalyug” that started approximately
5000 years ago. Ancient Indian literature was considered to Transpersonal psychology as a developing branch, also
be written around 5000–1000 BC. Ancient Indian literature referred to as fourth force, has found in the Indian
was considered to be written around 5000–1000 BC(1).[1] tradition a significant body of knowledge on transcendental
dimension of human nature.[7] Tart[8] has referred to
Indian thinkers placed enough emphasis on consciousness ancient traditions like Buddhism, Christian mysticism,
as the primary reality. This also led to the conjecture Hinduism, Sufism and others as spiritual psychologies.
that first and foremost, we are conscious self, one with He is categorical in asserting that modern psychology
Brahman. The proof in psychology was considered to be developed in western context has nothing to offer about
subjective experience. The Indian tradition has approached self and one has to look toward these spiritual psychologies
the problem by focusing on the quality, purity, and to fill the void. Thus, transpersonalists have found Indian
concentration of the antahkarana, the inner instrument of wisdom literature like Veda, Upanishads, Yoga Sutra and
knowledge used by the person who has experience. The others as spiritual psychologies and also as consciousness
Indian tradition has developed a plethora of methods to disciplines[9] which offer insight into farther reaches of
enhance the quality and reliability of inner observation. human nature. The thought has close affinity to that of
The relook in Indian conceptualization of human nature Maslow,[10] who referred to the transcendental dimension
reveals interesting observations about the doctrines of of human existence. Indian tradition has much to offer
mind, personality and self. Indian writing has placed by way of theoretical models and practical techniques in
enough emphasis on the positive view of human nature. enhancing human potential and optimal well-being. In
The human nature is viewed to be having strong inwardly fact, the Holistic Therapy concept of body–mind–spirit
character. Human nature is kaleidoscopic; this has been has been influenced by the Indian tradition, in particular
amply stated by both eastern and western scientists.[2]
by Ayurveda and Yoga.
Western literature referred to experiences of self nearly
6000 years ago; the experiences during sleep and dreams
were considered to be wandering, shadow-like entities, EVOLUTION OF ATMAN CONCEPT IN INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY
which in Shamanism came to be known as “spirits.” This
idea of a wandering spirit capable of ethereal travel into The analysis of the ultimate reality can be traced back to
and outside the body has existed among cultures until the upanishadic terms of Brahman and Atman. Brahman in
8th–5th century BC. Homer explained the presence of these Upanishads meant “prayer,” being derived from a root (brh)
entities, i.e. spirit, as the "soul." Interestingly, the location meaning “to grow” or to burst forth. Brahman as prayer is
of these spirits was considered to be head by Homer.[3-5] what manifests itself in audible speech. The philosophic
significance it bears in the Upanishads is the primary cause
Access this article online of the universe that bursts forth spontaneously in the form
Quick Response Code: of nature as a whole and not as mere speech.
Website: www.industrialpsychiatry.org

Atman originally meant “breath” and then came to be

applied to whatever constitutes the essential part of man,
DOI: 10.4103/0972-6748.90335 his self or soul. The distinctive meaning of Brahman is
the ultimate source of outer world while that of Atman

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 Srivastava: Human nature Indian perspective

is the inner self of man. Though they seem to be having Cognition: In Indian psychology, the root of the word
independent significance, they were used interchangeably. “mind” was originally used in the sense of thinking and that
The source of the central essence of the individual is of the “soul” in the sense of a substantial principle different
distinguished from the physical form leading to the from it, of which the physical body and development are
development of the word Atman as the meaning of soul manifestations.
or self. Atman as the soul or self is the inmost truth of
man; the method of unveiling the truth was subjective
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MIND IN UPANISHADS
and often it was based on introspection. The concept
of universal consciousness was universalized, i.e. the The Aitareya Upanishad gives the following as the names
universe was described as parts of purusa or a giant man. of manas: samjnana, ajana, vjana, prajnana, medhasdtisttidhrti,
To exemplify few, the departed soul was addressed in the
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mati, manias, giti, smuti, sankalp, kratu, asu, kama and vasa. The
funeral hymns as “let thin eye go to the sun, thy breath,
cognitive aspect of human nature was quantified in these
to the wind, etc.” The notion of parallelism between the
descriptions. The functions of manas may be translated as
individual and the world runs throughout the literature of
to determine knowledge, feeling of lordship, differential
the later vedic period. Atman as the self or inmost truth
cognition and intelligence. Besides the word manas, the
of man becomes the cosmic soul or self. The concept of
word citta is also used in this Upanishad. Chitta is what
unity is so wonderfully integrated into the upanishadic
understands the pragmatic value of things.
teaching that is expressed in the great saying (Mahavaka)
like “I am Brahman” or by the equation Brahman–Atman.
The individual as well as the world is the manifestation MIND IN ADVAITA VEDANTA
of the same reality and both are therefore at bottom
one. There is continuity between nature and man. The Mind in the Advaita is described as the internal organ
Vedantic psychology asserts that Brahman is the innermost (antahkarna). The external organs are instruments of either
universal being characterized by pure consciousness (Chit) action or perception. Hands, feet, etc. are organs of activity;
and Atman (the self) is the innermost individual being eye, ear, etc. are organs of sense perception. The five sense
characterized by individual consciousness (Chitta). The organs have as their objects, sight, hearing, touch, taste and
essence of personality is something beyond body, life, smell. Mind is capable of establishing contact with all the
mind and intellect. It is Atman, the self. Its chief attribute external organs. The entire apparatus of the internal organs
is consciousness. The self exists before, in and after the consists of four divisions: manas, buddhi, ahanakara and citta.
various states of consciousness: wakeful, dream and sleep. The Advaitins often include ahankar in manas and citta in
Denial of consciousness means denial of everything else. buddhi, and divide antahkarna into budddhi and manas only.
Hence, mind and self are not identical. The self is knower
(kshetrajna), the seer (drasta), the witness (sakshi), and the MIND IN THE PURVA MIMANSA
immutable (kutastha). The composite whole of chit and achit
(consciousness and matter), kshetrajna and kshetra (knower The theory of mind according to Purva mimansa is
and known), karta and karana (doer and its instrument) is different from Advaita. The two leading exponents of
the total personality called Jiva and Jivatman – the embodied the mimansa are Prabhakara and Kumarila. According
self. Jiva (the individual), Purusha (the person), Samsari to Prabhakara, manas is a substance (dravya), atomic (anu),
(the worldly person), Vijnanaghana/Vijnanatma, Prajna, eternal and extremely mobile. Kumarila, like Prabhakara,
Atma/Pratyagatma, Sariri, Karta, Bhokta, and Kshetrajna are treats manas as an organ (indriya). It is never operative apart
synonymous.
from the body. Advaita treats antehkarna as being composed
of four divisions; the mimansa as a whole treats it as being
This concept of manas had existed in the upanishadic
composed of only one entity manas.
teaching as cosmic soul. The Upanishads use two other
terms for the soul, viz. bhokta (experiment) and karta
(agent), they together emphasize the psychological MIND IN THE SAMKHYA AND ALLIED SCHOOLS
or conscious aspect of the activity. The principle of
unconscious activity is termed prana and that of conscious The Samkhya account of mind is akin to that of the
activity is termed as manas. The conscious side activity Advaita; mind is called antahkarna or inner organ and
of soul is carried out by the manas with the aid of the 10 consists of only three divisions: buddhi, ahankara, and
indriyas: 5 of knowledge (cakus, srota, tvak, ghrana, touch, manas. Manas is called an indriya or organ, the number of
smell and flavor) and 5 of action (vak, pana, pada, payu indriyas thereby becoming 11 instead of 10. It has a special
and upastha, which are respectively the organs of speech, function to perform, namely, perceiving sukha (pleasure)
holding, moving, excretion and generation). and dukkha (pain).

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 Srivastava: Human nature Indian perspective

Atman or purusa is different from antahkarana. It is pure cit or AFFECT: INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
consciousness. Antahkarna is due to the reflection of Atman
in prakrti, which is composed of three gunas (constituents): Indigenous contribution theory in this sphere is the
sattva (purity), rajas (activity) and tamas (insensibility). Out theory of rasa. Rasa is esthetic pleasure, which is said
of prakrti comes mahat or buddhi; out of buddhi comes to be taken to the sublime bliss of God realization
ahankara; out of ahankara comes manas and 10 organs of (Brahmasradesahodara). The Upanishads say that the
sense and action. nature of Braham is ananda (bliss).
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Manas is regarded as both an organ of sense and an organ The writers on alankara (rhetoric, poetics) follow the
of action, for the reason that it directs the activities of upanishadic view and say that rasa is one and is Braham.
both kinds of organs. All these mental processes, i.e. But it can take different forms, which are usually
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buddhi, ahankara, manas and the senses can operate either accepted as nine corresponding to nine bhavas (emotions
simultaneously or in succession. or sentiments). They are sringara (love), una (heorism),
karuna (pity), adhbuta (wonder), hasya (laughter), bhayanak
MIND – IN THE NYAY AND VAISESIKA SCHOOL (dread), bibhatsa (disgust), raudra (fury), and snata (quiet
or peace). At their base lie the corresponding dominant
Atman, according to the Upanishads, is sat (existence), feelings of rati (sexual craving), utsaha (energy), soka
cit (consciousness) and anand (bless). So, every form of (sorrow), vismaya (astonishment), hasa (mirth), bhaya
happiness or pleasure, the Advaita maintains, should be (fear), yugupsa (aversion), krodha (anger) and nirveda (self-
derived from the ananda of Atman. disparagement). Besides the description of various rasas,
they have been given different symbolic meanings in
According to Nyayavaisesika, Atman has 14 qualities: buddhi consonance with their respective nature. The furious, the
(knowledge), sukha (pleasure), dukha (pain), iccha (desire), terrible, the comic, the erotic, the pathetic, the horrible,
dvesa (hatred), yatna (striving), sankhya (number), pramiti the marvelous and the heroic are supposed to be red,
(size), prathaktva (distinctness), amyoga (contact), vibhya black, white, dark gray, dark blue, orange and yellow,
(separation), bhavana (imagination), dharma (merit) and respectively.
adharma (demerit).
Interestingly, pleasure (sukha), happiness (pitti), and bliss
Buddhist literature has no conception of manas apart from (ananda) are supposed to form an ascending series. The
buddhi, citta, or vjnana. The concept of atman and pudgala neutral feeling which characterizes the state of dispassion
are used interchangeably in Buddhist school of thought. or indifference (vairagya) is necessary for attaining the
It designates self with soul (atman). They regarded it as highest condition of the mind or soul. Higher feelings are
being composed of five skandhas (aggregates): rupshandha or those connected with spiritual elevation, e.g. contentment,
the aggregate of matter, vednanshandha or the aggregate of peace, magnanimity, love, kindness, humility, honesty, etc.
concept, sanskaraskandha or the aggregate of latent forces and those proceeding from an enlightened interest in the
like instincts third skandha “samjna” means perception well-being of fellow greatness; they are classified under the
or the capacity to conceptualize things, and vijnanaskandha four forms: maître, karuna, mudita and upeksa. The training
refers to the aggregate of consciousness. Everything except to master the feeling and achieving the higher goals was
rupshandha is having psychological component. Personality inherent in our system, which is time and again reflected
is viewed just as an aggregate of aggregates. in modern psychology under adaptability and emotional
quotient.
MIND IN JAINISM
CONATION: INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
The concept of manas in Jainism is neither a single function
nor a single entity. The name is given to two different There are four ideals of life which prompt a man to act.
things – dravyamanas or substantial manas and bhavamanas They are dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kama (desire) and
or ideal manas. The former is the matter or pudgale and the moksa (liberation). Though a big part of voluntary action
latter is jnana or buddhi and so belongs to Atman. There is a is connected with the obeying of scriptural injunctions,
material as well as spiritual manas. If we look at the analysis performance of appointed duties are the cultivation of
done by Indian authors, manas can be defined as a functional spiritual disciplines. Conation occurs in the whole range of
concept constituted by mood, thought, and intellect, behavior of human philosophy. Jainism gives the longest
which are nicely amalgamated and synchronized and cannot list of actions that men perform for their moral elevation
function in isolation. They always function in unison.[11] or undoing.

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 Srivastava: Human nature Indian perspective

TYPES OF HUMAN NATURE (knowledge, devotion and action). They are being conceived
as the margas or ways of life. The individuals in whom will
Medical man undertook studies on human nature in terms prevails take to karma yoga. Bhakti marga pursues the path
of two main habits – the phthisis and apoplectic – or in of devotion. The Gita attempts another classification of
terms of four humors, i.e. food, phlegm, black bile and man's nature according to his sraddga (preponderant desire),
yellow bile. Indian medical classification categorizes men sattviki, rajasiki or tamasiki resulting from the dominating
according to the preponderance of vayu (mind), pitta influence of the fundamental constituting components of
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(bile), and kapha (phlegm). The subsequent classification sattva, rajas or tamas in life of desire.
systems of Dr. Kretshmer and Dr. W Sheldon are equally
comprehensive.
THERAPEUTIC ASPECTS OF INDIAN CULTURAL
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The Dharma Sastra has given a psycho-sociological scheme TRADITIONS

of classification in order to establish the fourfold social
structure (catuvana) on the sattva, rajas, and tamas. Under Indian cultural traditions call it religious rituals or customary
the distinctive principle laws, karma and heredity are the traditions. All of them are nicely woven into the system
determining factors in the development of human nature, providing cushioning impact. The supportive or reassuring
aspect of Indian psychological intervention is built in
Caraka: The exponent of the Ayurveda system of medicine within the network of relationships. The nurturant aspect
has analyzed the human constitution as a mind–body of relationships is the most unique part of Indian culture.
complex, with a view to discovering the etiology of bodily The significant word in the therapy is “arise” (uthishthe).
and mental diseases and their remedies. This arousal is from their areas of inactivity, from ignorance
to knowledge, from apathy to a positive feeling and from
Caraka's classification inertia to purposeful activity. Gita brings out the ingredients
A) of the relationship so well that Krishna considers his
1. Brahmasattva type - Highly intellectual and moral pupil as a friend capable of intelligent interrogation and
2. Aryasattva type - Endowed with care perception exercising the power of discrimination. There is on the part
3. Aindrasattva type - Energetic powerful of Arjuna, a total sense of surrender and readiness to be
4. Yamyasattva type - Endowed with presence of instructed and to be told what is to be done. The master
mind and the pupil in Gita display what is extremely necessary
5. Varunassattva type - Calm but courageous for a rapport. The counseling on the battle field was akin
6. Kauberasattva type - Fond of family life to crisis intervention and a noteworthy brief intervention.
7. Gandharvasattva type - Fond of music The immense potentiality in resources of human mind is
brought about in the discourse on the battle field. These
B) Following are named after demonic and aggressive parameters indicate Gita as a masterpiece of psychotherapy
animal species in which the element of rajas touching upon every aspect of mental activity.
predominates: Nasto Mohan Smritit Labdha
1. Asurasattva type - Characterized by physical tvatprasadhanmayacyuta
prowess Sthitosrigatsamsehah
2. Raksasa type - Marked by enduring wealth, Karisyecacnamtava
aggressively cruel
3. Paisava type - Cowardly “My delusion is destroyed. I have regained my memory
4. Sarpa - Heroic in anger through your grace Achyuta. I am firm. I am free from
5. Praithya - Loving food doubt. I shall act according to your word.”
6. Sakura - Given to sensuous desires
These psychotherapeutic traditions provided a global
C) The following are named after lower animals, framework of physical psychological and spiritual health.
vegetation. These are the classes wherein the element The rescue from teen jap-addhi, uyaadhi and upaadhi was the
of tamas predominates. goal of these traditions.
1. Pasavasattva type - Dirty in dress
2. Matsyasattva type - Given to anger The buddhist tradition
3. Vanaspatya type - Living a purely vegetative life The way of Nirvana was provided by the Buddhist
tradition. Psychology of Nirvana considered Nirvana to
Classification of human nature in Bhagavad Gita is based be the goal of mental health. Nirvana is attained as a result
on the main faculties of human mind: thinking, will, feeling of transformation – a transformation is a state of self-

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 Srivastava: Human nature Indian perspective

fulfillment, realistic self-evaluation, freedom from inner The immense psychotherapeutic value that each school
conflicts and a stable emotional life. of thought individually offers is indeed promising to the
mental health professionals.
The yogic tradition
Yoga means union –union of the individual consciousness
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Kalpana Srivastava
Editor, IPJ
CONCLUSION
Address for correspondence:
An attempt has been made here to present, in brief, the Dr. Kalpana Srivastava,
main thrust of different schools of Indian philosophy Scientist 'F', Department of Psychiatry,
Armed Forces Medical College,
in as much as it relates to an understanding of human Pune – 411 040, Maharashtra, India.
personality and its behavioral paradigms. It is evident from E-mail: kalpanasrivastava@hotmail.com
the above that the vast reservoir of knowledge and wisdom
that forms an inherent part of Indian philosophers and How to cite this article: Srivastava K. Human nature: Indian perspective
thinkers has much to offer to the students of psychology. revisited. Ind Psychiatry J 2010;19:77-81.

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