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UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY

New Site Campus Tuguegarao City,Cagayan

SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR and VICTIMOLOGY

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR

HUMAN BEHAVIOR
• Anything an individual does that involves self-initiated action and/or reaction to a
given situation.
• the sum total of man's reaction to his environment or the way human beings act
• It is the way in which a person behaves. It refers to the reaction to facts of
relationship between the individual and his environment. Human behavior is the
study of human conduct; the way a person behaves or acts; includes the study of
human activities in an attempt to discover recurrent patterns and to formulate rules
about man’s social behavior.

Human Beings
❖ Human beings are intelligent social animals with the mental capacity to comprehend,
infer and think in rational ways.

Definition of Terms:

1. Behavior - any act of person which is observable; any observable responses of a

person to his environment; manner of ones conduct.
2. Attitude - position of the body, as suggesting some thought, feeling, or action;
state of mind, behavior, or conduct regarding some matter, as indicating opinion or
purpose; internal processes.
3. Behavioral Genetics – A field of research in psychology that aims to determine
heritability and to determine how much of the behavior is accounted for by genetic
factors. It began in England with sir Francis Galton and his study of the inheritance
of genius in families
4. Psychology - the science that studies behavior and mental processes. From the
Greek word PSYCHE ,means mind or soul and LOGOS , means study or
knowledge.
5. Character - the combination of qualities distinguishing any person or class of
persons; any distinctive trait or mark, or such marks or traits collectively belonging
to any person, class or race.
6. Personality-that which distinguishes and characterize a person.

VIEWS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR:

1. Neurological View – deals with human actions in relation to events
taking place inside the body such as the brain and the nervous system.
2. Behavioral View – emphasizes on external functions of the human
being that can be observed and measured.
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3. Cognitive View – it is concerned with the way the brain processes

and transforms information into various ways.
4. Psychoanalytical View – emphasizes unconscious motives that
originate from aggressive impulses in childhood.
5. Humanistic View – focuses on the subject’s experience, freedom
of choice and motivation toward self-actualization.

ASPECTS OF BEHAVIORS:

❑ Intellectual Aspect – way of thinking, reasoning, solving problem, processing info

and coping with the environment.
❑ Emotional Aspect – feelings, moods, temper, strong motivational force with in the
person.
❑ Social Aspect – people interaction or relationship with other people.
❑ Moral Aspect – conscience, concept on what is good or bad.
❑ Psychosexual Aspect – being a man or a woman and the expression of love.
❑ Political Aspect – ideology towards society/government.
❑ Value/ Attitude – interest towards something, likes and dislikes

TYPES OF BEHAVIOR:

❑ Normal Behavior – the standard behavior, the socially accepted behavior because
they follow the standard norms of society.

A NORMAL PERSON IS CHARCTERIZED BY:

1. Efficient perception of reality

2. Self-knowledge
3. Ability to exercise voluntary control over his behavior
4. Self-esteem
5. Productivity
6. Ability to form affectionate relationship with others

❑ Abnormal behavior – behaviors that are deviant from social expectations because they
go against the norms or standard behavior of society.

1. Abnormal behavior according to the deviation from social norms

2. Behavior as maladaptive
3. Abnormality in its legal points- it is declares that a person is insane largely on the
basis of his inability to judge between right and wrong or to exert control over his
behavior.

ATTRIBUTES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR:

A. Conscious behavior- characterizes a reaction of which individual is aware.

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B. Unconscious behavior- characterizes a behavior of which the individual is not aware

and does not know the reason or motive for it.
C. Overt behavior – behaviors that are observable or consists responses which are
publicly observable.
D. Covert behavior – refers to responses which cannot be directly observed such as
thoughts feelings, etc. those that are internal process.
▪ those that are hidden from the view of the observer.
E. Simple behavior – less number of neurons are consumed in the process of behaving
F. Complex behavior – combination of simple behavior
G. Rational behavior - acting with sanity or with reasons
H. Irrational behavior – acting without reason/ unaware
I. Voluntary behavior – done with full volition of will or pertains to psychological or
muscular processes which are under the direct control of the cerebral cortex.
J. Involuntary behavior – bodily processes that goes on even when we are awake or
asleep.

TWO BASIC TYPES OF BEHAVIOR

❑ Inherited (Inborn) behavior – refers to any behavioral reactions or reflexes

exhibited by people because of their inherited capabilities or the process of natural
selection.
❑ Learned (Operant) behavior – involves knowing or adaptation that enhances
human beings’ ability to cope with changes in the environment in ways which
improve the chances of survival.
Learned behavior may be acquired through environment or training.

TOPIC 2. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
= is the process of enlarging people’s freedoms and opportunities and improving their well-
being.
= Human development is about the real freedom ordinary people have to decide who to be,
what to do, and how to live.

TYPES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. Nature is those things acquired by genetic or hereditary influences.

2. Nurture on the other hand is those things that are influenced by the environment
we live in.
➢ Nature can be said to be given whereas nurture can be said to be
learned.

CAUSES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

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1. Sensation – is the feeling or impression created by a given stimulus or cause that

leads to a particular reaction or behavior.
-it is the process of receiving, translating, and transmitting messages from
the outside world of the brains.

Human Senses:
➢ Visual – sight
➢ Olfactory – smell
➢ Cutaneous – touch
➢ Auditory – hearing
➢ Gustatory – taste

2. Perception – refers to the person’s knowledge of a given stimulus which largely help
to determine the actual behavioral response in a given situation.
3. Awareness – refers to the psychological activity based on interpretation of past
experiences with a given stimulus or object.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT HUMAN BEHAVIOR

HEREDITY – it is the passing of traits to offspring (from its parent or ancestors). This is
the process by which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the
characteristics of its parent cell or organism.

TRAITS THAT CAN BE INHERITED:

▪ physical appearance
▪ blood type
▪ intelligence
▪ emotional disposition
▪ sensory activity
▪ mental disorder
▪ and other abilities and capabilities

ENVIRONMENT – refers to surroundings of an object. It consists of conditions and factors

that surround and influence behavioral pattern.

Types of Environment

1. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT- refers to those things that affect man directly and
stimulates the sense organs. These are social environment that are physical
influences steaming from the outside contract with other people.
2. INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT- refers to the immediate environment within
which the genes exits or functions; the biological condition of the body.

HOW DOES ENVIERONMENT AFFECT THE INDIVIDUALS?

BAD ENVIRONMENT- it can suppress or even nullify good inheritance. GOOD

ENVIRONMENT- it is unfortunately not a substitute
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SOME ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ARE:

❖ The family background

❖ The influences of childhood trauma
❖ Pathogenic family structure – those families associated with high frequency of
problems such as:

I. The inadequate family – characterized by the inability to cope with the ordinary
problems of family living. It lacks the resources, physical or psychological, for meeting
the demands of family satisfaction.
II. The anti-social family – those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of the
influence of parents to their children.
III. The discordant/disturbed family – characterized by unsatisfaction of one or both parent
from the relationship they have that may express feeling of frustration. This is usually
due to value differences as common sources of conflict and dissatisfaction.
IV. The disrupted family – characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death,
divorce, separation or some other circumstances.
V. Institutional influences such as peer groups, mass media, church and school,
government institutions, NGO’s, etc.
VI. Socio-cultural factors such as war and violence, group prejudice and discrimination,
economic and employment problems and other social changes.
VII. Nutrition or the quality of food that a person intake is also a factor that influences man
to commit crime because poverty is one of the many reasons to criminal behavior.

LEARNING – is the process by which an individual’s behavior changes as a result of

experience or practice.

POSSIBLE WAYS OF LEARNING:

✓ One can learn by direct exposure to the events by experiencing the events by acting
and seeing the consequences of his actions.
✓ One can learn things vicariously by watching others experience the events.
✓ One can learn through language either by being told directly or by reading.
TOPIC 3. CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

PERSONALITY - Totality of a person.

❑ This term is taken from the latine words “per” and sonare” which literally means “ to
sound through”. This means that an actor’s mask through which the sound of his
voice was projected.
❑ It is defined as the sum total of all the traits and characteristics of a person that
distinguishes him or her from one another.

CHARACTERISTICS INVOLVED IN PERSONALITY

❑ PHYSICAL- Body built, height, weight, texture of the skin, shape of the lips, shape
of the face, etc.
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❑ MENTAL- range of ideas, mental alertness, ability to reason, to conceptualize, etc.

❑ EMOTIONAL- one’s temperament, moods, prejudices, bias, emotional response
such as aggressiveness and calmness etc.
❑ SOCIAL- relations with other people
❑ MORAL- his positive or negative adherence to the dos an don’ts of his society ❑
SPIRITUAL- faith, beliefs, philosophy of life, etc.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PERSONALITY

✓ INHERITED PREDISPOSITION
✓ ABILITIES
✓ FAMILY AND HOME ENVIRONMENT
✓ CULTURE

THEORIES AND APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY

- CARL GUSTAV JUNG, a Swiss psychologist identified the Theory of

Personality types:
❖ Extrovert - persons who are friendly, flexible and adaptable, happy
working with others, free from worries, and outgoing.
❖ Introvert - inclined to worry, reserved, lacking in flexibility, self-
centered or self-interested person.
❖ Ambivert - in between extrovert and introvert.

PHYSIQUE OR BODY TYPES

- William Sheldon - Identified the somatotypes in relation to personality:

❖ Ectomorph - identified as fragile and thin.
❖ Endomorph - identified as soft-rounded and fat.
❖ Mesomorph - identified as medium-built.

BODY CHEMISTRY AND ENDOCRINE BALANCE

- Galen- a roman physician
4 PERSONALITY TYPES
❑ SANGUINE PERSON- a person with too much blood (warm-hearted, pleasant,
active and confident)
❑ PHLEGMATIC- a slow moving and emotionally flat
❑ MELANCHOLIC PERSON- a person with excess of black bile (suffers from
depression and sadness)
❑ CHOLERIC- with too much yellow bile (quick to anger and violence,
temperamental)
THREE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY (ACCORDING SIGMUND FREUD)

➢ ID - It is that part of the personality with which we are born. ID is the animalistic
self.
➢ Ego - the mediator between the ID and the superego. It refers to the developing
awareness of self or the “I”. It is also known as the integrator of the personality.
➢ Superego - the socialized component of the personality.
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STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

1. ORAL STAGE (0-1 year old)

- Principal source of pleasure is the mouth. The infant gets pleasure from sucking and
swallowing.
- Unfulfilled or fulfilled gratification may lead to oral fixation

RESIDUAL TRAITS- the person develops a strong ID, thus he is greedy, dependent,
talkative, constantly eating, smoking and drinking to the point of being obvious to the
need of others.

2. ANAL STAGE- (2-3 years old)

- Energies are centered on anal gratification (toilet training)

RESIDUAL TRAITS
• Overdeveloped super ego leads to stinginess, possessiveness, punctuality,
perfectionist, orderliness and sadistic.
• Underdeveloped super ego to a psychopathic personality (anti-social personality)

3. PHALLIC STAGE (3-6 years old)

- The genital become the primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic pleasure foces
on masturbation, that is on self-manipulation of the genitals. - He develop a sexual
gratification to the parent of the opposite sex.

OEDIPUS COMPLEX – Stage when young boys experience rivalry with their
father for their mother’s attention and affection. The father is viewed as a sex
rival. This conflict is resolved by the boys’ repression of his feelings for his
mother.
ELECTRA COMPLEX – The stage when a girl sees her mother as a rival for her
father’s attention but for fear for her mother is less.

Note: Both attachment to the mother and father, the Electra complex is gradually replaced
by a strengthened identification with the mother.

RESIDUAL TRAITS
- Homosexualitty, affect relationship towards mena and women, expectation of wives
and husbands, sexual crisis as an adult.

4. LATENCY STAGE (6-11 years old)

- This is the stage or time of social and intellectual development. Sexual energy is
going through the process of sublimation and is being into interest in school work,
riding bicycle, playing house and sports.

5. GENITAL STAGE- 11 years to adulthood)

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- The stage for the attainment of sexual and physiological maturity and more focus is
on opposite sex.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (ERIK ERIKSON)

- One of the best known theories of personality in psychology. - Erikson’s believed that
personality develops series of stages.
- Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.
- He also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each
stage is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.
- If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is
sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. On the other hand, if the stage is
managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

STAGES BASIC CONFLICT IMPORTANT OUTCOME

EVENTS

Children develop a sense of trust

Infancy (birth to 18 moths) Trust vs mistrust Feeding when caregivers provide
reliability care and affection.
Alack
Children need to develop a sense
of personal control over physical
Early childhood (2 to 3 and as sense of independence.
years old) Autonomy vs. Shame Toilet training success leads to feeling of
and doubt autonomy, failure results in
feeling of shame and doubt
Children need to begin asserting
control and power over the
environment. Success in this
Pre-school (3 to 5 years Initiative vs guilt Exploration stage leads to a sense of
old) purpose. Children who try to
exert too much power
experience disapproval resulting
in a sense of guilt.
Children need to cope with new
social and academic demands.
School age (6 to 11 years Industry vs inferiority Schools Success leads to a sense of
old) competence, while failure results
in feelings of inferiority.
Teens need to develop to inform
intimate, loving relationship
Adolescence (12 to 18 Identity vs Role School with other people. Successes
years old) confusion relationship lead to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to
the role confusion and a weak
sense of self.
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Young adults need to form

intimate, loving relationship
Young adulthood (19 to 40 Intimacy vs Isolation Relationship with other people. Success leads
years old) to strong relationships, while
failure results in loneliness and
isolation.
Adults need to create or nurture
things that will outlast them,
often by having children or
(40 to 65 years old) Generatively vs Work and creating a positive change that
Stagnation Parenthood benefits other people. Success
leads to feelings of usefulness
and accomplishment, while
failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
Maturity ( 65 years old to Ego integrity vs Reflection on Older adults need to look back
death) Despair life on life and a feel sense of
fulfillment. Success at this stage
leads to feelings of wisdom,
while failure results in regret,
bitterness and despair.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES

ALBERT BANDURA- he urges that personality is shaped not only by the environment
influences on the person, but also by the person’s ability to influence the environment.
Social learning- states that thinking is an important determinant of behavior

LEARNING THEORIES

KAREN HORNEY’S ANXIETY THEORY

- HORNEY’S is a American psychoanalyst who developed this theory. She was a
major neo-freudian, who revised some of Freuds theories and gave greater attention to
cultural influences.
- She was a pioneer in the development of feminine psychology.
- The central concept of this theory is the social influence in the development of a
child. These include parental threats and dominion, tension and conflict between
parents, being required to do too much and mistrusted, criticism, coldness,
indifference, etc..which the child deals within certain ways forming pattern of
“neurotic needs”. The neurotic need for affection and approval is developed if the
child learns to cope with anxiety.

ALFRED ADLER (Founder of individual psychology) - He coined the term “inferiority

complex” to describe the conflict, partly conscious and unconscious, which the individual
make attempts to overcome the distress accompanying inferiority complex of feelings.
Thus, the person who has strong feelings of inferiority may behave in a superior way or
develop some special skill to compensate for the supposed inadequacy.

SOME OF THE FILIPINO TRAITS

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1. BAHALA NA- it implies completes trust. It also means resignation for whatever lot
he has in life.
2. SMOOTH INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS- the facility of getting along with
others in such a way as to avoid outward signs of conflicts, gloomy or sour locks,
harsh words. (pakikisama)
3. MANANA HABIT – this means procrastination. Putting off for the next day what
they can do for the day.
4. NINGAS COGON- defined as enthusiasm which is intense only at the start but
gradually fades away.
5. UTANG NA LOOB- defined as a debt of gratitude, it is considered to be an negative
traits by many, which sometimes a deterrent to progress, as one my forego
opportunities’ just to be with or do something whom you owe a debt of gratitude.
6. HIYA- it is kind of anxiety, a fear of being left, exposed, unprotected and unaccepted.
7. HOSPITALITY- refers to the warm welcome that the Filipino gives to visitors who
come to his or her home especially strangers and foreigners.
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8. COMPADRE SYSTEM- refers to the attitude of Filipino family to use

established relationship for protection and for acquiring necessary position or
reward even if such is not due them by way of basic rules.

NEEDS, DRIVES AND MOTIVATIONS

❑ Drives are aroused state that results from some biological needs. The aroused
condition motivates the person to remedy the need.
❑ Needs are the triggering factor that drives or moves a person to act. It is a
psychological state of tissue deprivation.
❑ Motivation on the other hand refers to the causes and “why’s” of behavior as
required by a need.
❑ Drive and motivation covers all of psychology, they energizes behavior and give
its direction to man’s action. For example, a motivated individual is engaged in a
more active, more vigorous, and more effective that unmotivated one, thus a
hungry person directs him to look for food.

Types of Human Needs:

Biological or Biogenic Needs:

1) food – hunger: the body needs adequate supply of nutrients to function efficiently.
“An empty stomach sometimes drives a person to steal.”
2) air – need of oxygen
3) water - thirst
4) rest – weary bodies needs this.
5) sex – a powerful motivator but unlike food and water, sex is not vital for survival
but essential to the survival of the species.
6) avoidance of pain – the need to avoid tissue damage is essential to the survival of
the organism. Pain will activate behavior to reduce discomfort.
7) stimulus seeking curiosity – most people and animal is motivated to explore the
environment even when the activity satisfies no bodily needs.

Psychological (psychogenic or sociogenic) needs.

1) love and affection
2) for security
3) for growth and development and
4) recognition from other human beings.

Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of Needs:

- The American psychologist Abraham Maslow devised a six-level hierarchy of
motives that, according to his theory, determine human behavior. Maslow
ranks human needs as follows:
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▪ physiological;
▪ security and safety;
▪ love and feelings of belonging;
▪ competence, prestige, and esteem;
▪ self-fulfillment; and
▪ curiosity and the need to understand.

PSYCHOPATHIC BEHAVIOR – The second groups of abnormal behaviors typically

stemmed from immature and distorted personality development, resulting in persistent
maladaptive ways of perceiving and thinking. People with psychopathic behaviors are
also called sociopaths or psychopaths. Some common characteristics are:
❑ absence of a conscience
❑ emotional immaturity
❑ absence of a life plan
❑ lack of capacity for love and emotional involvement
❑ failure to learn from experience

- Further, they are generally called “personality or character disorders”.

These groups of disorders are composed of the following:

TOPIC 4: PERSONALITY DISORDERS

PERSONALITY DISORDERS

Personality disorders, formerly referred to as character disorders, are a class of

personality types and behaviors defined as “an enduring pattern of inner experience and
behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the culture of the individual
who exhibits it”. This category includes those individuals who begin to develop a
maladaptive behavior pattern early in childhood as a result of family, social, and cultural
influences.
TYPES OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS

1. PARANOID PERSONALITY
❑ This is characterized by suspiciousness, hypersensitivity, rigidity, envy,
excessive self-importance, and argumentativeness plus a tendency to
blame others for one's own mistakes and failures and to ascribe evil
motives to others.
2. SCHIZOID PERSONALITY
❑ Individuals with this personality disorder neither deserve nor enjoy close
relationship. They live a solitary life with little interest in developing
friendships. They exhibit emotional coldness, detachment, or a constricted
affect.
❑ characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships, a tendency
towards a solitary lifestyle, secretiveness, and emotional coldness.
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3. SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY
❑ Individuals with this type of personality disorder exhibit odd behaviors based
on a belief in magic or superstition and may report unusual perceptual
experiences.
4. HISTRIONIC PERSONALITY
❑ this is characterized by attempt to be the center of attention through the use of
theatrical and self-dramatizing behavior. Sexual adjustment is poor and
interpersonal relationships are stormy.
❑ Characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking, including an
excessive need for approval and inappropriate seductiveness, usually
beginning in early adulthood.
5. NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY
❑ Individuals with this type of personality have a pervasive sense of self-
importance.
❑ A disorder and its derivatives can be caused by excessive praise and criticism
in childhood, particularly that from parental figures.
6. ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY
❑ This is characterized by a lifelong history of inability to conform to social
norms. They are irritable and aggressive" and may have repeated physical
fights. These individuals also have a high prevalence of morbid substance
abuse disorders.
7. BORDERLINE PERSONALITY
❑ this is characterized by instability, reflected in drastic mood shifts and
behavior problems. Individuals with this type of personality are acutely
sensitive to real or imagined abandonment and have a pattern of repeated
unstable but intense interpersonal relationships that alternate between
extreme idealization and devaluation. Such individuals may abuse
substances or food, or be sexually promiscuous.
8. AVOIDANT PERSONALITY
❑ Individuals with this personality are fearful of becoming involved with
people because of excessive fears of criticism or rejection.
9. DEPENDENT PERSONALITY
❑ This is characterized by inability to make even daily decisions without
excessive advice and reassurance from others and needs others to assume
responsibility for most major areas of his or her life.
10. COMPULSIVE PERSONALITY
❑ This is characterized by excessive concern with rules, order efficiency, and
work coupled with insistence that everyone do things their way and an
inability to express warm feelings.
11. PASSIVE-AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY
❑ The individual with personality disorder is usually found to have
overindulged in many things during the early years to the extent that the
person comes to anticipate that his needs will always be met and gratified.

TOPIC 1. ABNORMAL BEHAVIORS

What is Abnormal Behavior?

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- Literally means "away from the normal". It implies deviation from some
clearly defined norm. In the case of physical illness, the norm is the structural
and functional integrity of the body.

CAUSES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR:

1. Anxiety (psychological perspective). Stressful situations that if become extreme,

it may result to maladaptive behavior.
2. Faulty Learning (behavior perspective). The failure to learn the necessary
adaptive behavior because of wrongful development. This usually results to delinquent
behavior based on the failure to learn the necessary social values and norms.
3. Blocked or distorted personal growth (humanistic perspective). Presumably,
human nature tends towards cooperation and construction activities, however, if we show
aggression, cruelty or other maladaptive behavior, the result may be an unfavorable
environment
4. Unsatisfactory interpersonal relationship. Self-concept in early childhood by
over critical parents or by rigid socialization measures usually cause deviant behaviors
among individuals because they are not contented and even unhappy on the kind of social
dealings they are facing.
5. Pathological social condition. Poverty, social discrimination and destructive
violence always result to deviant behavior.

TYPES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIORS

PSYCHOSOMATIC DISORDER
A disorder in which the physical illness is considered to be highly associated with
emotional factors. The individual may not perceive that his emotional state is
contributing to his physical illness

NEUROSIS
Neurosis is a class of functional mental disorders involving distress but neither delusions
nor hallucinations, whereby behavior is not outside socially acceptable norms. The
distinguishing feature of neurosis is a sustained characteristic of showing anxiety, fear,
endless troubles that carries significant aspects of the individual’s life.

- THE NEUROTIC BEHAVIOR – The group of mild functional personality

disorders in which there is no gross personality disorganization and the individual
is not required for hospitalization. People with neurotic behaviors are sometimes
called psychoneurotic.

- Further, neurosis embraces a wide range of behaviors that are considered the core
of most maladaptive life style. Basic to this neurotic lifestyle are:

“NEUROTIC NUCLEUS” – the faulty evaluation of reality and the tendency to avoid
rather than to cope with stress. It is characterized by anxiety, avoidance instead of coping,
and blocked personal growth. 2. Neurotic Paradox – the tendency to maintain the life
style despite its maladaptive nature. It is characterized by unhappiness and
dissatisfactions.
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Neurotic Behaviors are composed of the following disorders:

Anxiety disorders - These are commonly known as “neurotic fear”. When it is occasional
but intense, it is called “panic”. When it is mild but continuous, it is called “worry”.
- Anxiety disorders are blanket terms covering several different forms of abnormal
and pathological fear and anxiety. People experience excessive levels of the kind
of negative emotions that we identify as being nervous, tense, worried, scared,
and anxious. These terms all refer to anxiety.

- They are considered as the central feature of all neurotic patterns. They are
characterized by:

Anxiety disorders are grouped as:

a. Obsessive-compulsive disorders – When an individual is

compelled to think about something that he do not want to think about or carry out
some action against his will.
OBSESSION – This is an anxiety provoking thoughts that will not go away.
Thoughts and impulses which occur in the person’s mind despite attempts to keep them
out. They seem uncontrollable, as if they do not belong to the individual's mind.
COMPULSION – It is an urge wherein a person is compelled to perform some
actions against his free will and with duress as a result of external factors. This is an
irresistible urge to engage in certain pattern of behavior.

Examples of compulsion
❑ Arithomania – the impulse to count anything.
❑ Dipsomania – the impulse to drink liquor.
❑ Homicidal mania – the impulse to kill.
❑ Kleptomania – the impulse to steal.
❑ Megalomania – the impulse for fame or power. ❑ Pyromania – the
impulse to set fire.
❑ Suicidal mania – the impulse to take one’s life.

b. Asthenic Disorders (Neurasthenia) – An anxiety disorder

characterized by
chronic mental and physical fatigue and various aches and pains.
c. Phobic Disorders – the persistent fear on some objects or situation
that present
no actual danger to the person.
PHOBIAS- this is an intense, unrealistic fear. In this case, anxiety is
focused so intensely on some objects or situations that the individual is acutely
uncomfortable around it and will often go to great pain to avoid it.

TYPES OF PHOBIAS
❑ Acrophobia - high places
❑ Agoraphobia - open spaces and market places
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❑ Malgophobia - pain
❑ Astraphobia - storms, thunder, and lightning
❑ Gynophobia – fear of dogs
❑ Claustrophobia - closed places
❑ Hematophobia - blood
❑ Mysophobia - contamination or germs
❑ Monophobia - being alone
❑ Nyctophobia - darkness
❑ Ochlophobia - crowds
❑ Hydrophobia - water
❑ Pathophobia - disease
❑ Pyrophobia - fire
❑ Syphilophobia - syphilis
❑ Zoophobia - animals or some particular animals

“SOMATOFORM DISORDERS” - Complains of bodily symptoms that suggest the

presence of physical problem but no organic basis can be found. The individual is pre-
occupied with his state of health or diseases.
- "Soma" means body, and somatoform disorders involve a neurotic pattern in
which the individuals complain of bodily symptoms that suggest the presence of a
physical problem, but for which no organic basis can be found. Such individuals
are typically preoccupied with their state of health and with various presumed
disorders or diseases of bodily organs.

Somatoform disorders are grouped as:

a. Hypochondriasis – the excessive concern about the state of health

or physical
condition (multiplicity about illness).
b. Psychogenic Pain Disorder – characterize by the report of severe
and lasting pain. Either no physical basis is apparent or the reaction is greatly in
excess of what would be expected from the physical abnormality.
c. Conversion Disorders (Hysteria) – a neurotic pattern in which
symptoms of
some physical malfunction or loss of control without any underlying organic abnormality.

Sensory Symptoms of Hysteria:

❑ Anesthesia – loss of sensitivity
❑ Hyperesthesia – excessive sensitivity
❑ Hypesthesia – partial loss of sensitivity
❑ Analgesia – loss of sensitivity to pain
❑ Paresthesia - exceptional sensations

Motor Symptoms of Hysteria

1. Paralysis – selective loss of function
2. Astasia-abasia – inability to control leg when standing
3. Aphonia – partial inability to speak
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4. Mutism – total inability to speak

Three Distinct Somatoform Patterns

1. Somatization Disorder
- This is an intensely and chronically uncomfortable condition that indirectly
creates a high risk of medical complications. It takes the form of chronic and
recurrent aches, pains, fever, tiredness and other symptoms to bodily illness.
Individuals frequently experience memory difficulties, problems with walking,
numbness, block-out spells, nausea, menstrual problems and a lack of pleasure
from sex.
2. Conversion Disorders and Somatoform Pain Disorders
- Conversion disorders – are somatoform disorders in which individuals experience
serious somatic symptoms such as functional blindness, deafness, paralysis,
fainting, seizures, inability to speak or other serious impairments in the absence
of any physical cause.
2. Somatoform pain disorders
- are somatoform disorders in which the individual experiences a relatively specific
and chronic pain that has a psychological rather than physical cause. It is very
similar to conversion disorders except that the primary symptom is pain that has
no physical cause.

“DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS” - A response to obvious stress characterized by:

a. Amnesia – partial or total inability to recall or identify past experiences.
- Brain pathology amnesia – total loss of memory and it cannot be
retrieved by simple means. It requires long period of medication.
- Psychogenic amnesia – failure to recall stored information and
still they are beneath the level of consciousness but “forgotten material”.
b. Multiple Personality – also called “dual personalities”. The person manifests two
or
more symptoms of personality usually dramatically different.
c. Depersonalization – loss of sense of self or the so-called out of body experience.

“AFFECTIVE DISORDERS” - The affective disorders are “mood disorders”, in which

extreme or inappropriate levels of mood – extreme elation or extreme depression.

Forms of affective disorders:

a. Neurotic affective – also called “neurotic mania”, characterized by overactive,

dominating, and deficient in self-criticism.
b. Neurotic depression – sadness and dejection (grave sadness), the individual
often fails to return to normal after a reasonable period of time resulting to high level of
anxiety and lowers self-confidence and loss of initiative.
c. Major depressive disorders – also called “severe affective disorders” with the
following classifications:
1) Sub-acute major depressive disorders – symptoms of this
depressive disorder includes loss of enthusiasm, feeling of dejection, feeling of
failure and unworthiness, fatigue and loss of appetite.
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2) Acute major depressive disorder – symptoms includes mild

hallucinations, feeling of guilt, want to be alone, and increasingly inactive.
3) Depressive stupor – a severe degree of psychomotor retardation,
almost unresponsive, refuse to speak, and confusions or hallucinations.

TOPIC 2. PSYCHOTIC BEHAVIOR

The group of disorders involving gross structural defects in the brain tissue, severe
disorientation of the mind thus it involves loss of contact with reality. People suffering
from psychotic behaviors (psychosis) are also called psychotic. They are regarded as the
most severe type of mental disorder.
- A psychotic has tensions that disturb thinking, feeling and sensing; the perception
of reality is distorted. He may have delusions and hallucinations.

1. Organic Mental Disorders - this occurs when the normal brain has been damage
resulted from any interference of the functioning of the brain.

Types of Organic Mental Disorders:

a. Acute brain disorder – caused by a diffuse impairment of the brain
function. Its
symptoms range from mild mood changes to acute delirium.
b. Chronic brain disorder – the brain disorder that result from
injuries, diseases, drugs, and a variety of other conditions. Its symptoms include
impairment of orientation (time, place and person), impairment of memory,
learning, comprehension and judgment, emotion and self-control.

Groups of Organic Mental Disorders

a. Delirium – the severe impairment of information processing in the
brain
affecting the basic process of attention, perception, memory and thinking.
b. Dementia – deterioration in intellectual functioning after
completing brain maturation. The defect in the process of acquiring knowledge or
skill, problem solving, and judgment.
c. Amnestic Syndrome – the inability to remember on going events
more than a few
minutes after they have taken place.
d. Hallucinosis – the persistent occurrence of hallucinations, the false
perception that arise in full wakefulness state. This includes hallucinations on
visual and hearing or both.
e. Organic Delusional Syndrome – the false belief arising in a
setting of known or
suspected brain damage.
f. Organic Affective Syndrome – the extreme/severe manic or
depressive state with
the impairment of the cerebral function.
g. Organic Personality Syndrome – the general personality changes
following brain damage.
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h. General Paresis – also called “dementia paralytica”, a syphilitic

infection of the
brain and involving impairment of the CNS.

2. Disorders Involving Brain Tumor - A tumor is a new growth involving abnormal

enlargement of body tissue. Brain tumor can causes variety of personality alterations, and
it may lead to any neurotic behavior and consequently to psychotic behavior.

3. Disorders Involving Head Injury - Injury to the head as a result of falls, blows,
and accidents causing sensory and motor disorders; and mental disorder such as:
a. Retrograde Amnesia – the inability to recall events preceding
immediately the
injury.
b. Intra-cerebral Hemorrhage – gross bleeding at the site of damage.
c. Petechial Hemorrhage – small spots of bleeding at the site of
damage.

- These injuries may also impair language and other related sensory motor functions and
may result to brain damage such as:
1) Auditory Asphasia – loss of ability to understand spoken words.
2) Expressive Asphasia – loss of ability to speak required words.
3) Nominal Asphasia – loss of ability to recall names of objects.
4) Alexia – loss of ability to read.
5) Agraphia – loss of ability to express thoughts in writing
6) Apraxia – loss of ability to perform simple voluntary acts.

4. Senile and Pre-senile Dementia

a. Senile Dementia – mental disorder that is accompanied by brain degeneration
due to old age.
b. Pre-senile Dementia – mental disorder associated with earlier degeneration of
the brain.

5. Mental Retardation - A mental disorder characterized by sub-average general

functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior.
- It is a common mental disorder before the age of 18. The person is suffering from low
I.Q, difficulty in focusing attention and deficiency in past learning.
Levels of Mental Retardation
a. Mild Mental Retardation (I.Q. 52-67) - “educable”
b. Moderate Mental Retardation (I.Q. 36-51) - “trainable”
c. Severe mental Retardation (I.Q. 20-35) - “dependent retarded”
d. Profound Mental Retardation (I.Q. under 20) – life support retarded”

❑ Idiot – an offensive term in a now disused classification system for somebody

with an IQ of about 25 or under and a mental age of less than 3 years.
❑ Imbecile – somebody with an IQ between 25 and 50 and a mental age of between
3 and 7 years.
❑ Moron – an offensive term that deliberately insults somebody's intelligence.
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6. Schizophrenia and Paranoia Schizophrenia – refers to the group of psychotic

disorders characterized by gross distortions of reality, withdrawal of social
interaction, disorganization and fragmentation of perception, thoughts and
emotion. It also refers to terms such as “mental deterioration”, “dementia
praecox”, or “split mind”.
- A psychotic condition marked by withdrawal from reality, indifference concerning
everyday problems, and tendency to live in a world of fantasy.
- Formerly called dementia praecox by Emil Kreaplin, a German psychiatrist. - The
term schizophrenia was given by Eugene Bleuler which literally means “splitting of
minds”.

Types of Schizophrenia

1. Simple Schizophrenia – is characterized by a gradual decline of interest and

ambition. The person withdraws from social contacts as well as irritable and
inattentive.
2. Paranoid Schizophrenia – is characterized principally by delusions of
persecutions and/or grandeur. Hallucinations, usually auditory, are most of time
present.
3. Hebephrenic Schizophrenia – manifests severe integration of personality and can
be observed through inappropriate giggling and smiling without apparent reasons
which to an untrained observer may only be childish playfulness.
4. Catatonic Schizophrenia – manifests extreme violence and shown with excessive
motor activity, grimacing, talkativeness and unpredictable emotional outburst.

Other Groups of Human Disorders

A. Addictive Groups of Disorders - This group of disorders includes substance

use, obesity and pathological gambling.
1. Substance Use (Alcohol and Drug Abuse) Alcoholism or
“problem drinking” is an addictive source of human disorders.
2. Extreme obesity – also known as “habitual over eating” is an
addictive form of disorder. It is a life threatening disorder, resulting in such
conditions as diabetes, high blood pressures and other cardiovascular diseases
that can place an individual at high risk of heart attack.
3. Pathological gambling – is an addictive form of disorder, which
does not involve chemically addictive

PARANOIA
- Paranoia refers to cases showing delusions and impaired contact with reality but
without the severe personality disorganization characteristic of schizophrenia.

- Paranoia – the same as “delusions”, “impaired contact with reality”. A psychotic

behavior characterized by delusion of apprehension following a failure or frustration.

- The main symptom is characterized by SUSPICION

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COMMON TYPES OF PARANOIA

1. Persecutory Paranoia – having delusions of persecution.

2. Litigious Paranoia – both delusions of persecution and grandeur
3. Erotic Paranoia – delusion that a certain person is in love with him or her.
4. Exalted Paranoia – with great power of importance.
5. Jealous Paranoia – characterized by irrational jealousy.

TOPIC 3. SEXUAL DEVIANCY

- A sexual act that seeks gratification by means other than heterosexual relationship.

HETEROSEXUALITY – normal sexual relationship between members of the opposite

sex which could lead to reproduction.

Sexual Deviations
• the impairment of either the desire to sexual gratification or in the ability to
achieve it
• common causation of sex crimes, as:

a. an ancient and universal crime

b. there is close contact between offender and victim
c. it is committed by one sex against the opposite sex
d. sex is an inborn instinct
e. sex act as crime depends on the existing moral value of society
f. many sex crimes are committed and not reported
g. it is committed in strict privacy
h. it is common crime among the lower class of society
i. unlike other crimes, sex crimes can be pardoned by marriage
j. there is a seasonal variation in the frequency of its commission
k. severity of punishment does not deter its commission
l. its consequence (pregnancy) becomes a legal problem
m.the usual victims are children
n. psychic trauma suffered by the victim varies with the moral standard of the
victim

THOSE AFFECTING MALES

1. Erectile Insufficiency (Impotency) – inability to achieve erection

2. Pre-Mature Ejaculation – sexual stimulation that result to the failure of the
female partner to achieve satisfaction
3. Retarded Ejaculation – inability to ejaculate during intercourse

THOSE AFFECTING WOMEN

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1. Arousal Insufficiency (Frigidity) – partial or complete failure to attain the

lubrication or swelling response
2. Orgasmic Dysfunction – difficulty in achieving orgasm
3. Vaginismus – involuntary spasm of the muscles at the entrance of the vagina that
prevent penetration of the male sex organ
4. Dyspareunia – painful coitus/sexual acts in women

SEXUAL BEHAVIOR LEADING TO SEX CRIMES

1. AS TO SEXUAL REVERSALS
a. Homosexuality – directed towards same sex; “lesbianism/tribadism” for
female
b. Transvestism – dressing as a member of the opposite sex
c. Fetishism – by looking at some body parts, underwear or other objects of
the opposite sex

2. AS TO THE CHOICE OF PARTNER

a. Pedophilia – desire with a child of either sex
b. Bestiality – with animals
c. Auto-sexual (self-gratification/masturbation) – called self-abuse; without
the cooperation of another
d. Gerontophilia – with an elder person
e. Necrophilia – erotic intercourse with corpse
f. Incest – between person who by reason of blood relationship can not
legally marry

3. AS TO SEXUAL URGE
a. Satyriasis – excessive desire of men to have sexual intercourse
b. Nymphomania – strong sexual feeling of women with an excessive sexual
urge

4. AS MODE OF SEXUAL EXPRESSION

• Oralism – use of mouth or the tongue
a. Fellatio – male sex organ to the mouth of the women
b. Cunnilingus – licking the external female genitalia
c. Anilism (anillingus) – licking the anus of the sexual partner
• Sado-Masochism (Algolagnia) – pain/cruelty for sexual gratification
a. Sadism – infliction of physical pain; could be animals or human
b. Masochism – infliction of pain to oneself

5. AS TO PART OF THE BODY

a. Sodomy – through the anus
b. Uranism – through fingering, holding the breast of licking parts of the body
c. Frottage – rubbing the sex organ against body parts of another person
d. Partailism – sexual libido on any part of the body of partner
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6. AS TO VISUAL STIMULUS
a. Voyeurism – “the peeping Tom”, through clandestine peeping and
frequently masturbate during the peeping
b. Scoptophilia – intentional act of watching people undress or during sexual
intimacies

7. AS TO NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS IN THE SEXUAL ACT

a. Froilism – three persons
b. Pluralism – group of persons; called “sexual festival”

8. OTHER SEXUAL ABNORMALITIES

a. Exhibitionism – called “indecent exposure”; intentional exposure of genitals
to opposite sex under inappropriate condition
b. Coprolalia – use of obscene language to achieve sexual satisfaction
c. Don Juanism – act of seducing women as a career without permanency

TOPIC 4. Strategies and approaches in dealing with abnormal behavior

FRUSTRATION IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Frustration refers to the situation which blocks the individual’s motivated

behavior. Sustained frustration may be characterized by anxiety, irritability, fatigue or
depression.

Three Basic Forms of Conflict

1. Approach-Avoidance Conflict - occurs when an individual moves
closer to a seemingly desirable object, only to have the potentially negative
consequences of contacting that object push back against the closing behavior.
2. Approach-Approach Conflict - This is a conflict resulting from the
necessity of choosing between two desirable alternatives. There are usually two
desirable things wanted, but only one option can be chosen.
3. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - This form of conflict involves
two undesirable or unattractive alternatives where a person has to decide of
choosing one of the undesirable things.

COPING MECHANISM
- It is defined as the way people react to frustration. People differ in the way they
react to frustration. This could be attributed to individual differences and the way
people prepared in the developmental task they faced during the early stages of
their life.

Frustration Tolerance - It is the ability to withstand frustration without developing

inadequate modes of response such as being emotionally depressed or irritated, becoming
neurotic, or becoming aggressive.

Broad Reactions to Frustration

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1. Fight – is manifested by fighting the problem in a constructive and direct way by

means of breaking down the obstacles preventing the person reaching his goals.
2. Flight – it can be manifested by sulking, retreating, becoming indifferent and
giving up.

Different Types of Reaction to Frustration

❑ Direct approach - can be seen among people who handle their problems
in a very objective way. They identify first the problem, look for the most
practical and handy way to solve it, and proceeded with the constructive
manner of utilizing the solution which will produce the best results.
❑ Detour - when an individual realizes that in finding for the right solution
of the problem, he always end up with a negative outcome or result. Thus,
he tries to make a detour or change direction first and find out if the
solution or remedy is there.
❑ Substitution - most of time are resulted to in handling frustration when an
original plan intended to solve the problem did not produce the intended
result, thus the most practical way to face the problem, is to look for most
possible or alternative means.
❑ Withdrawal or retreat - is corresponding to running away from the
problem or flight which to some is the safest way.
❑ Developing feeling of inferiority - comes when a person is unable to hold
on to any solution which gives a positive result. Being discourage to go
on working for a way to handle a frustration could result to diminishing
self-confidence, until the time when inferiority complex sets in.
❑ Aggression - is a negative outcome of a person's inability to handle
frustration rightly. Manifestation in physical behavior can be observed in
one's negative attitudes towards life both in the personal and professional
aspect.
❑ Use of Defense Mechanism – is the most tolerated way of handling
frustration. It is a man’s last result when a person attempts to overcome
fear from an anticipated situation or event.
❑ Defense Mechanism – is an unconscious psychological process that
serves as safety valve that provides relief from emotional conflict and
anxiety.

COMMON DEFENSE MECHANISMS

 Displacement - strong emotion, such as anger, is displaced onto another person or

object as the recipient of said emotion (anger), rather than being focused on the
person or object which originally was the cause of said emotion.
 Rationalization - is the defense mechanism that enables individuals to justify
their behavior to themselves and others by making excuses or formulating
fictitious, socially approved arguments to convince themselves and others that
their behavior is logical and acceptable
 Compensation - is the psychological defense mechanism through which people
attempt to overcome the anxiety associated with feelings of inferiority and
inadequacy in one is of personality or body image, by concentrating on another
area where they can excel.
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 Projection - manifest feelings and ideas which are unacceptable to the ego or the
superego and are projected onto others so that they seem to have these feelings or
ideas, which free the individual from the guilt and anxiety associated with them.
 Reaction formation - is defined as the development of a trait or traits which are
the opposite of tendencies that we do not want to recognize. The person is
motivated to act in a certain way, but behaves in the opposite way. Consequently,
he is able to keep his urges and impulses under control.
 Denial – when a person uses this, he refuses to recognize and deal with reality
because of strong inner needs.
 Repression – is unconscious process whereby unacceptable urges or painful
traumatic experiences are completely prevented from entering consciousness.
 Suppression - which is sometimes confused with that of repression, is a
conscious activity by which an individual attempts to forget emotionally
disturbing thoughts and experiences by pushing them out of his mind.
 Identification - an individual seeks to overcome his own feelings of inadequacy,
loneliness, or inferiority by taking on the characteristics of someone who is
important to him. An example is a child who identifies with his parents who are
seen as models of intelligence, strength and competence.
 Substitution - through this defense mechanism, the individual seeks to overcome
feelings of frustration and anxiety by achieving alternate goals and gratifications.
 Fantasy - this is resulted to whenever unfulfilled ambitions and unconscious
drives do not materialize.
 Regression – a person reverts to a pattern of feeling, thinking or behavior which
was appropriate to an earlier stage of development.
 Sublimation – is the process by which instinctual drives which consciously
unacceptable are diverted into personally and socially accepted channels. It is a
positive and constructive mechanism for defending against own unacceptable
impulses and needs.

Strategies and approaches in dealing with abnormal behavior

Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with

psychopathology and abnormal behavior, often in a clinical context. The
term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsessive-
compulsive disorder (OCD) to personality disorders. Counselors, clinical
psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field.

Overview

In order to understand abnormal psychology, it's essential to first understand

what we mean by the term "abnormal." On the surface, the meaning seems
obvious; abnormal indicates something that is outside of the norm.
Many human behaviors can follow what is known as the normal curve.
Looking at this bell-shaped curve, many individuals are clustered around the
highest point of the curve, which is known as the average. People who fall
very far at either end of the normal curve might be considered "abnormal."
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Consider a characteristic such as intelligence. A person who falls at the very

upper end of the curve would fit under our definition of abnormal; this
person would also be considered a genius. Obviously, this is an instance
where falling outside of the norms is a good thing.

When you think about abnormal psychology, rather than focus on the
distinction between what is normal and what is abnormal, focus instead on
the level of distress or disruption that a troubling behavior might cause. If a
behavior is causing problems in a person's life or is disruptive to other
people, then this would be an "abnormal" behavior that may require some
type of mental health intervention.

Perspectives

There are several different perspectives used in abnormal psychology. While some
psychologists or psychiatrists may focus on a single viewpoint, many mental health
professionals use elements from multiple areas in order to better understand and treat
psychological disorders. These perspectives include:

Psychoanalytic Approach

This perspective has its roots in the theories of Sigmund Freud. 1 The
psychoanalytic approach suggests that many abnormal behaviors stem from
unconscious thoughts, desires, and memories.

While these feelings are outside of awareness, they are still believed to
influence conscious actions.

Therapists who take this approach believe that by analyzing memories,

behaviors, thoughts, and even dreams, people can uncover and deal with
some of the feelings that have been leading to maladaptive behaviors and
distress.

Behavioral Approach

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on observable behaviors. 2 In

behavioral therapy, the focus is on reinforcing positive behaviors and not
reinforcing maladaptive behaviors.

The behavioral approach targets only the behavior itself, not the underlying
causes. When dealing with abnormal behavior, a behavioral therapist might
utilize strategies such as classical conditioning and operant conditionin g to
help eliminate unwanted behaviors and teach new behaviors.
Medical Approach

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the biological causes of

mental illness, emphasizing understanding the underlying cause of disorders,
which might include genetic inheritance, related physical illnesses,
infections, and chemical imbalances. Medical treatments are often
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pharmacological in nature, although medication is often used in conjunction

with some type of psychotherapy.

Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach to abnormal psychology focuses on how internal

thoughts, perceptions, and reasoning contribute to psychological disorders.
Cognitive treatments typically focus on helping the individual change his or
her thoughts or reactions.

Cognitive therapy might also be used in conjunction with behavioral

methods in a technique known as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).

Types of Psychological Disorders

Psychological disorders are defined as patterns of behavioral or

psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life. These mental
disorders create distress for the person experiencing symptoms.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is published by

the American Psychiatric Association (APA) and is used by mental health
professionals for a variety of purposes. The manual contains a listing of
psychiatric disorders, diagnostic codes, information on the prevalence of
each disorder, and diagnostic criteria. Some of the categories of
psychological disorders include:

• Anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and

generalized anxiety disorder
• Mood disorders, such as depression and bipolar disorder
• Neurodevelopmental disorders, such as an intellectual disability or
autism spectrum disorder
• Neurocognitive disorders like delirium
• Personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder, avoidant
personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
• Substance use disorders

Treatment of Psychological Diseases and Disorders

According to the most recent Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders (DSM 5), there are nearly 400 different psychological disorders.
Some of these disorders fit the definition of “disease,” a problem that
impairs functioning and that mostly stems from biological causes. Common
examples include bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
Other “disorders” impair functioning but are determined by a more diverse
array of causes, some of which are psychological and social/cultural in
nature. In this sense, these conditions are not true “diseases.” Examples
include anxiety disorders, depression, addictive disorders, and eating
disorders.
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The distinction between “diseases” and “disorders” helps to suggest

appropriate treatments. In general, diseases require biological intervention.
Research suggests, for example, that medication is very successful in helping
individuals to manage symptoms that accompany bipolar disorder and
schizophrenia. Although it may encourage them to take their medication
regularly, manage stress effectively, and help with emotional struggles,
research shows that psychotherapy generally does not help people overcome
the symptoms of these diseases very well without biological intervention.

Biological treatments also may help people with disorders in some cases. For
example, in one of the largest and most rigorous studies ever conducted on
the treatment of clinical depression, researchers in the late 1980s found that
antidepressant medication helped manage the symptoms of severe
depression (which I would define as involving significant suicidal thinking,
that often recurs, or that is chronic) more than other treatment options, at
least during the time span in which individuals were taking the medicine.

On the other hand, decades of carefully controlled clinical studies have

shown that medication often is not the best treatment for many disorders.
Often times, any symptom relief that medication provides ends when
individuals stop taking them.

Increasingly, I also see researchers skeptical of the underlying

pharmaceutical claim that “chemical imbalances” of serotonin explain why
some people struggle with emotional disorders. Apparently, some of the best
evidence that there is a chemical imbalance of serotonin involved in
disorders such as depression is that antidepressant medications sometimes
help. However, this is akin to saying that if Tylenol sometimes helps you
overcome a headache, then headaches must be caused by a “Tylenol
imbalance.” This doesn’t necessarily take away from the fact that
antidepressant medications can be helpful in some circumstances, but it does
suggest, at least, that the mechanisms by which antidepressants sometimes
work are in question by many in the scientific community.

•According to the most recent data released by the National Center for
Health Statistics, approximately 11 percent of all Americans aged 12
and older are taking an antidepressant medication for some reason.
Approximately 25 percent of American women aged 40 to 59 are
taking an antidepressant. More than 60 percent of individuals taking
an antidepressant have done so for over 2 years, and approximately 14
percent have been taking them for over 10 years.
Many of these individuals taking antidepressant medication suffer from
significant side effects. Others believe that they are being helped by the
medicine and thus do not work to resolve the underlying issues that are at the
“root” of the problem. In fact, much of the therapeutic effect of medicine
likely stems from psychological factors such as the cathartic release of
telling their doctor about their problems, the relationship between them and
their doctor, or the faith or hope they experience from the treatment. Of
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course, there are other ways to treat psychological disorders that may
provide these factors without needing to take a pharmacological substance.

The best treatment option for many people who struggle with disorders is
psychotherapy. Several forms of psychotherapy — cognitive therapy,
behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, and psychodynamic therapy —
have been found to successfully treat many disorders, including disorders
with severe symptoms. Furthermore, compared with the effects of
medication, psychotherapy often seems to provide better treatment in the
long-term. Perhaps one of the reasons why psychotherapy is so helpful in
many cases is that it gets at the “root” causes of people’s problems.
Furthermore, although psychotherapy seems unrelated to biology, research
shows that biological changes happen through this treatment just like it does
when medication is helpful.

Available research suggests that there is not necessarily one kind of

psychotherapy that is better than the rest (the main exception being that
exposure-based treatments seem to work better than all other treatments for
anxiety disorders). Rather, it seems that there are certain “common factors”
involved in good treatment, including a trusting relationship with a treatment
provider, client factors such as motivation to follow suggestions, and the
faith and hope that the treatment will help.

Based on this, individuals struggling with depression would do well to seek a

referral to a good therapist and “try them out” to see how they “click” with
them. Usually, someone can tell after the first session whether they like the
therapist. If the first therapist one tries doesn’t work out, another provider
might work better.

There also are other activities that might help people with disorders. Some of
these might be encouraged by a therapist, and include working through self-
help materials (see David Burns’ books “Feeling Good” and “When Panic
Attacks” for books shown to work in comparative research), regular aerobic
exercise, keeping an emotions journal in which one writes about difficult
emotions, keeping a gratitude journal in which one records what one is most
thankful for, engaging in pleasurable activities, talking with a trusted friend
about one’s problems, performing random acts of kindness, getting lost in
nature, and managing stress through effective coping techniques. Although
these kinds of activities haven’t really been established as successful
treatments in themselves, they are linked with mood in various ways. In fact,
I wouldn’t be surprised if many of these lifestyle-based approaches someday
are shown to perform at least as well as — if not better than — conventional
treatments available today.

In conclusion, people struggling with a mental illness should know that there
is hope. Almost all conditions can be managed effectively through the right
combination of treatment options. Many disorders can be overcome long-
term without the use of medicine. Probably the most difficult step in
treatment is acknowledging that you have a problem and taking the first step
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to seek help. However, with this humility and courage, people can
experience relief and improvement.

Standard procedures in handling cases involving normal and abnormal

behavior

• The best treatment option for many people who struggle with
disorders is psychotherapy. Several forms of psychotherapy —
cognitive therapy, behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, and
psychodynamic therapy — have been found to successfully treat many
disorders, including disorders with severe symptoms.

Psychotherapy

• refers to a range of treatments that can help with mental health

problems, emotional challenges, and some psychiatric disorders. It
aims to enable patients, or clients, to understand their feelings, and
what makes them feel positive, anxious, or depressed.
• Psychotherapy is a type of therapy used to treat emotional problems
and mental health conditions.

It involves talking to a trained therapist, either one-to-one, in a group or with

your wife, husband or partner. It allows you to look deeper into your
problems and worries, and deal with troublesome habits and a wide range of
mental disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia.
Psychotherapy usually involves talking, but sometimes other methods may
be used – for example, art, music, drama, and movement.
Psychotherapy can help you discuss feelings you have about yourself and
other people, particularly family and those close to you. In some cases,
couples or families are offered joint therapy sessions together.
You will meet your therapist regularly, usually once a week, for several
months, or sometimes even years. Individual sessions last about 50 minutes,
but group sessions are often a bit longer.

Read more about how psychotherapy works.

Psychotherapists
Psychotherapists are mental health professionals who are trained to listen to
a person's problems to try to find out what is causing them and help them
find a solution.
As well as listening and discussing important issues with you, a
psychotherapist can suggest strategies for resolving problems and, if
necessary, help you change your attitudes and behaviour.
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Some therapists teach specific skills to help you tolerate painful emotions,
manage relationships more effectively, or improve behaviour. You may also
be encouraged to develop your own solutions. In group therapy, the
members support each other with advice and encouragement.
A therapist will treat sessions as confidential. This means you can trust them
with information that may be personal or embarrassing.

What is psychotherapy used to treat?

Psychotherapy can be used to treat a wide range of mental health conditions,
including:

• depression
• anxiety disorders
• borderline personality disorder (BPD)
• obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
• post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• long-term illnesses
• eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia and binge eating •
drug misuse
People with significant emotional problems may also benefit from
psychotherapy, including people dealing with stress, bereavement, divorce,
redundancy, or relationship problems.

Types of psychotherapy
Several different types of psychotherapy are available. These include:
• psychodynamic (psychoanalytic) psychotherapy – a psychoanalytic
therapist will encourage you to say whatever is going through your
mind. This will help you become aware of hidden meanings or
patterns in what you do or say that may be contributing to your
problems.
• cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) – a form of psychotherapy that
examines how beliefs and thoughts are linked to behaviour and
feelings. It teaches skills that retrain your behaviour and style of
thinking to help you deal with stressful situations.
• cognitive analytical therapy (CAT) – uses methods from both
psychodynamic psychotherapy and CBT to work out how your
behaviour causes problems, and how to improve it through self-help
and experimentation.
• interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) – looks at the way an illness can be
triggered by events involving relationships with others, such as
bereavements, disputes or relocation. It helps you cope with the
feelings involved, as well as work out coping strategies.
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• humanistic therapies – encourage you to think about yourself more

positively and aim to improve your self-awareness.
• family and couple (systemic) therapy – therapy with other members of
your family that aims to help you work out problems together.
The type of therapy that is most suitable for you will depend on the problem
you have.

PIONEERS IN VICTIMOLOGY
• Jan Van Dijk (1999) proposed that there are two types of victimology:
1. General victimology
– Studies victimity in the broadest sense, including those that have been
harmed by accidents, natural disasters, war, etc.
– Focuses on the treatment, prevention, and alleviation of the
consequences of being victimized, regardless of the cause
2. Interactionist (or penal) victimology
– Combines issues concerning the causation of crimes with those relating to
the victim’s role in the criminal proceedings, where victims are only those
who become such as a result of crime – Focuses on advocacy for victims
• Jerin and Moriarty (1998) contend that there are three distinct historical
eras defining the victims’ role within systems of justice:
1. The Golden Age
– Existed prior to written laws and established governments, tribal law
prevailed
– Victims played a direct role in determining punishments for the unlawful
actions that others committed against them or their property
– Retribution was the resolution for criminal matters
2. The Dark Age
– Resulted from the emergence of structured local governments and the
development of legal statutes
– Offenses were viewed as perpetrated against the laws of the king or
state, not just against the victim or the victim’s family
– Focus shifted towards offender punishments and rights, as opposed to
victim rights and restoration
3. The Reemergence of the victim
– Realization that victims were being overlooked as a source of
information about crime and criminal
– Studying victims led to the birth of traditional victimology as a
discrete scientific endeavor

KEY FIGURES
The origins of scientific victimology can be attributed to the following key
figures in criminology:

HANS VON HENTIG (1887-1974)

• Sought to develop crime prevention strategies
• Determined that certain victim characteristics played a role in shaping
the crimes suffered
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• Believed that some victims contributed to their own victimization by

virtue of many converging factors, not all of which were in their control
• he attempt to identify the characteristics of a victim that may
effectively serve to increase victimization risk
• he considered as that victims may provoke victimization acting as agents
provocateurs based on the characteristics
• he argued that crime victims could classified victims into one of 13
categories
• The Young
• Females
• The Old
• The Mentally Defective and Deranged
• Immigrants
• Minorities
• Dull Normal
• The Depressed
• The Acquisitive
• The Wanton
• The Lonesome of Heartbroken
• The Tormentor
• The Blocked, Exempted, or Fighting

BENJAMIN MENDELSOHN
• First used victimology in 1947 to describe the scientific study of crime
victims
• He is known as the ‘father of victimology’.
• Developed the term victim precipitation
• He became interested to the relationship between the victim and the
criminals
• Developed a typology that categorizes the extent to which a victim is
capable of his or her own demise (focusing on situational factors)
• Completely innocent victims
• Victim with minor guilt
• Voluntary victim
• Victim more guilty than the offender
• Most guilty victim
• Simulating or imaginary victim

STEPHEN SCHAFER
• Published the first textbook on the subject of victimology
• Interviewed criminals and aimed to build upon the previous typologies,
focusing on victim culpability
• Proposed seven types of victim responsibility
• Unrelated victims
• Provocative victims
• Precipitative victims
• Biologically weak victims
• Socially week victims
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• Self-victimizing
• Political victims

MARVIN E. WOLFGANG
• First presented empirical research findings as support for his theories of
victimology
• Presented his study of police homicide records, which concluded that
over a quarter of the homicides in the city of Philadelphia between 1948-
1952 involved an element of victim contribution and participation

DEFINITION OF TERMS:
VICTIMOLOGY
• Victimology as an academic term contains two elements: (1) One is the
Latin word “Victima” which translates into “victim”. (2) The other is the
Greek word “logos” which means a system of knowledge
• In a narrower sense, victimology is the empirical, factual study of
victims of crime and as such is closely related to criminology, and thus
may be regarded as a part of the general problem of crime.
• In a broader sense, victimology is the entire body of knowledge
regarding victims, victimization and 'the efforts of society to preserve the
rights of the victim.
• The criminal-victim relationship is called "victimology" and it is
considered as an integral part of criminology.
• Victimology is a branch of criminology that scientifically studies the
relationship between an injured party and an offender by examining the
causes and the nature of the consequent suffering.
The aims of victimology are intricately related to the meaning and issues of
victimology. Therefore, the study of victimization is the study of crime
giving importance to the role and responsibility of the victim and his
offender.
Aims of Victimology: to analyze the magnitude of the
victim's problems; to explain causes of
victimization; and
to develop a system of measures to reduce victimization.

The use and purpose of victimology the actual usefulness of the model in
research, and the probable outcome
of action based upon it. is to identify what factors may increase someone's
chances of becoming a
victim.
The objective of victimology to gain knowledge on victims
of crime and abuse of power.
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VICTIM
• are individual who have suffered harm, including physical or mental
injury and emotional suffering through acts or omissions that are in
violation of criminal laws.
• one of the most neglected subjects in the study of crime.
CRIME VICTIM
• is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured
and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone committing a
crime.

Classification of Victims
For Mendelsohn (1976) victims are classified primarily in conformity with
the degree of contribution to the crime. Hence Mendelsohn categorized the
victims as follows:
1. The "completely innocent victim." The victim can be a child or a
person who is unconscious.
2. The "victim with minor guilt" and the "ignorant victim." The victim
can be a woman who agrees for a mis-carriage and as a result pays with her
life.
3. The voluntary victim and the "victim as guilty as the offender." The
victim can be a person who commits suicide or asks for euthanasia.
4. The "victim more guilty than the offender." The victim can be a
person who provokes or induces someone to commit a crime.
5. The "most guilty victim" and the "victim who is guilty alone." The
victim can be the aggressive victim who kills the attacker in self-defense.
6. The "stimulating" or "imaginary victim." The victim can be a paranoid
or a hysteric or a senile person.
7. The "female" victim. The female is a symbol of weakness. The male
criminals have the benefit of greater physical strength in crimes against
women, especially in sexual assault.
8. The "young" victim. For Henting, children are physically
underdeveloped and psychologically immature. They are weak compared to
adults. So they are easy prey to kidnapping and sex
9. The "old" victim. They are physically and mentally weak. They often
fall victims of crimes.
10. The "mentally defective and mentally deranged." They are commonly
potential and actual victims of crimes. The insane, the alcoholic, the drug
addict, the psychopath and those who suffer from any other mental
abnormality can frequently be victims.
11. The "minority." Because of racial, linguistic, religious and caste
prejudice they often become victims of powerful groups.
12. The "depressed." He is a psychological victim type. He suffers from
feelings of inadequacy and hopelessness, apathy and submission. He can be
his own victim.
13. The "wanton." He is malicious. His actions are generally unjustifiable.
He acts without adequate motive or provocation. He has often no regard for
what is right. He can be sexually lawless and unrestrained and he frequently
falls victim of physically powerful criminals.
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14. The "lonesome and the heartbroken." These persons can have a desire
for companionship and happiness and in this process become victims.
15. The "tormentor." He tortures others and at the end he himself become
the victim of the tormented.

VICTIM OFFENDER RELATIONSHIP

Victim-offender relationship is one of the most important notions in
victimology. Mendelsohn calls the victim and his offender the "penal
couple."

VICTIMIZATION
• is an asymmetrical relationship that is abusive, parasitical, destructive,
unfair and illegal. Offenders harm their victims physically, financially and
emotionally.
• refers to an event where persons, communities and institutions are
damaged or injured in a significant way.
• the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system that is
the police and courts and corrections official

Theoretical Victimology
Largely concerned with causal explanations of victimization, theoretical
victimology focuses on data collection, analysis, and theory formulation. In
doing so, several theoretical models have been advanced to explain variation
in victimization risk, correlates of victimization, and repeat victimization.
These theoretical models focus primarily on victim demographics as well as
on victim-offender interactions and relationships.

There are two general types of theoretical models. The first focuses on
opportunity. This type of criminal victimization theories focuses on
opportunities for crime rather than on criminal motivation in their
explanation of crime and criminal events. The second type of theoretical
model focuses on the interaction between victim and offender. Victim-
offender interaction theories concentrate on the interplay between victim and
offender in their attempt to explain personal crimes.

General victimology involves a broader focus on the study of all victims,

not just victims of crime. Some scholars refer to general victimology as
victimity.
includes the study of five specific types of victimization: criminal
victimization, self-victimization, social environmental victimization,
technological victimization, and natural disaster victimization.

Critical Victimology.
The newest type of victimology to have emerged is called critical
victimology.
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is concerned with the larger social environment in which crime occurs—

especially, the impact social structure and context have on criminal
victimization.
Accordingly, critical victimologists are interested in how crimes are
defined as well as in why some victims are overlooked or ignored by both
the criminal justice system and society as a whole.
Data Gathering.
An important task for victimologists is the gathering of empirical data.
Data on victims of crime are collected through victimization surveys.
Victimization surveys, such as the National Crime Victimization Survey,
allow for the analysis of patterns and trends related to victimization.
Although victimization surveys have been criticized for methodological
problems, these types of surveys have produced important data on crime
victims—information that is generally lacking from other sources of data on
crime

THE CONCEPT OF VICTIMOLOGY

The part played by the victim in the origin of crime is the central problem in
victimology. This, in essence, is the question of responsibility; who is
responsible for what and to what extent? According to Viano (1976:2), there
is a rather well-developed vocabulary in English connected with the idea of
victim:
Victimhood: the state of being a victim
Victimizable: capable of being victimized
Victimization: the action of victimizing, or fact of being victimized, in
various senses.
Victimize: to make a victim of; to cause to suffer inconvenience, etc. either
deliberately or by misdirected attentions; to cheat, swindle or defraud; to put
to death as, or in the manner of a sacrificial victim; to slaughter: to destroy
or spoil completely.
Victimizer: one who victimizes another or others.
Victimless: the absence of a clearly identifiable victim other than the doer.
The concept of victimology can be better understood if we analyze the
meaning, issues and aims of victimology.

THE ROLE OF THE VICTIM IN CRIME:

VICTIM PRECIPITATION VICTIM FACILITATION VICTIM PROVOCATION

-defined as the extent to which - the concept of this is -occurs when a person
a victim is responsible for similar to victim does something that
his/her own victimization. precipitation incites another person to
-occurs when a victim commit
- the concept of victim unintentionall makes it an illegal act.
precipitation is rooted in the y easier for an offender to -provocation suggests
notion that, although some commit a that without the
victims are not all responsible crime. victim’s behavior,
for the victimization and other the crime would not have
victims. occurred.
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- it is problematic,
however, when it is used to
blame the victim while ignoring
the offender’s role.

Prepared by:
Jovelyne Remigio, RCrim