Quantitative Research Methodology - SOC 509 VU

Lesson 01
INTRODUCTION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Topic 001: Introduction
Research
Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in
a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings.
This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new
and creative outcomes.
Types of Research

What is quantitative research?

Quantitative research collects and uses numerical data to explore, describe, explain, or predict
trends or phenomena. Quantitative research emphasizes objectivity and the control of
contextual factors that may impact the results. Quantitative research states hypotheses and
relies on statistical analysis to support conclusions made regarding the hypothesis.

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Definitions of Quantitative Research by Scholars

Aliaga and Gunderson (2002) have described the quantitative research as “Quantitative
research is an inquiry into a social problem, explain phenomena by gathering numerical data
that are analyzed using mathematically based methods e.g. in particular statistics”.
According to the Creswell (2003) researcher primarily uses post-positivist approach to develop
knowledge when quantitative research is selected (i.e cause and effect thinking, use of
measurement and observations, and test of theories), employs strategies of inquiry such as
experiments and surveys, and collects data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical
data.
Purpose of Quantitative Research
The main reasons behind the quantitative research are enlisted below;
Exploratory: Quantitative research investigates issues with the goal of providing insight and
information to the researcher. The quantitative research use pilot studies to test feasibility or
value of working in an area; focus groups to guide survey design.
Description: The quantitative research describe the current situation or classify situations,
events or groups and often use large scale data sets e.g. Surveys; correlational studies
Explanation: The quantitative research build, enrich, and explain theories. It also test theories
using quantitative methods
Prediction: The quantitative research establish predictors of some behavior. There are two
types of variables – predictor and criterion (outcome). Regression analysis is one statistical
procedure used for prediction
Evaluation: The quantitative research evaluates programs for their efficacy, come in different
forms and serve different functions
Aim of the Research
 The primary aim of a Quantitative Research is to focus more in counting and classifying
features and constructing statistical models and figures to explain what is observed.
 Quantitative Research is highly recommended because it provides the researcher a clearer
picture of what to expect in his research compared to Qualitative Research.
Features of Quantitative Research
Its main features are enlisted below:
 The Quantitative research use structured research instruments for data collection.
 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
 The researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are
sought.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or
other non-textual forms.
 The Quantitative research can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future
results, or investigate causal relationships.

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 The researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires and interview schedule to collect
numerical data.
Parts of Quantitative Research
There are four parts of Quantitative Research such as;
1. Measurement: Check reliability, validity, random and systematic errors in research).
2. Sampling: Key is that sample is representative of population to make a generalization in
interpretation).
3. Research Design: How to set up data collection to minimize counter interpretations to
the results).
4. Statistical Procedures: Descriptive and Inferential statistic
Advantages of Quantitative Research Approach
The advantage of the quantitative research is mentioned in the following;
 The use of statistical data as a tool for saving time and resources.
 Quantitative research approach can be seen as being scientific in nature.
 The use of scientific methods for data collection and analysis make generalization
possible.
 Replicability is another benefit of the quantitative research.
 The quantitative research relies on hypotheses testing, the researcher need not to do
intelligent guesswork, rather he would follow clear guidelines and objectives.
 This quantitative research gives room for the use of control and study groups in
experiment setting.
 The quantitative research as “researcher detachment” research approach which reduce the
chances of biasness.
 The quantitative research may guarantee respondent anonymity.
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research Approach
 Researcher detachment from the participants is also a weakness within the quantitative
research. Researcher detachment means that he is an “observer” or an “outside looking
in”.
 In the quantitative research, the participants have no room to contribute to the study. The
researcher is at the “driver’s seat”.
 The linear and non-flexible nature of a quantitative approach demands that the researcher
follow a certain order. He starts by setting the research question and hypotheses, conducts
a literature review, collects data, analyses the data and summarizes the result.
 A quantitative research is characterized as being structured with predetermined variables,
hypotheses and design. As a result of using predetermined working strategies, the
approach does not require or encourage imaginative, critical and creative thinking.
References:
Eyisi, D. (2016). The usefulness of qualitative and quantitative approaches and methods in
researching problem-solving ability in science education curriculum. Journal of
Education and Practice, 7(15), 91-100.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage publications.

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Lesson 02
RESEARCH PROCESS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Topic 002: Research Process
Introduction
A Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps. Research process consist of a number of
closely related activities. Various steps involved in a research process are not mutually
exclusive; nor they are separate & distinct. The research process provides to produce new
knowledge, or to offer a new manner of understanding present knowledge.
Steps in Quantitative Research Process

Step – 1: Identifying the Problem/Topic

The first and foremost task in the entire process of quantitative research is to identify a research
problem or topic. A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-
important phases of the research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the
research methodology. This may be a general area of study or an issue of professional or
personal interest. Topics are broad, such as the effects of divorce, reasons for delinquency,
impact of homelessness, or how elites use the media
Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature
A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the
researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his
interest that has not been so far researched. Such a review, not only provides him exposure to
a larger body of knowledge but also equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow
the research process. To ignore the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of
the researchers. If the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic, or related topics, he
will be in a much better position to assess the significance of his work and to convince others
that it is important. In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing the
literature:

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 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
 It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and reported on the problem.
 It helps the researcher to become familiar with the types of methodology followed by
others.
 It helps the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his area of
investigation.
 It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies,
contradictions, and inconsistencies in findings.
 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research questions.
 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.
 It will help the researcher to consider the inclusion of variables in his research that he might
not otherwise have thought about.
Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses
A topic is too broad for actually conducting a study. We must narrow the topic to focus on a
specific research question that a study can address. Often this requires reviewing the research
literature and developing hypotheses that often come from social theory. For example, a broad
topic—reasons for delinquency—becomes the focused research question: Are teenage East
Asian immigrant males with strong ties to their home culture and who have not assimilated
into the new society more likely to engage in delinquent acts than those with weaker home
culture ties and who have assimilated? Notice how the initial broad topic, reasons for
delinquency, becomes focused. We focus on a specific reason for delinquency (i.e., degree of
assimilation) and look at a specific group of people (i.e., teenaged immigrant males from East
Asia).An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of
information that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. The
best expression of a research objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis. A
hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by
empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.
Step -4: Choosing the study design
Once we settle on a research question, we need to design the study. The research design is the
blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering research questions. It is a master
plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing the
collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to conduct his or
her study;
1. Survey,
2. Experiment,
3. Secondary data study
4. Observational study.
The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four designs depends primarily
on four factors:
 The type of problem
 The objectives of the study,
 The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and
 The resources are available for the study.
Step – 5: Deciding on the sample design

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Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling
is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions of a
universe to conclude the whole population.
A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inference
or generalization.
A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain
statistical procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same
characteristics as the population as a whole.
Sample design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting a sample from the population
and the estimating technique, vis-a-vis formula for computing the sample statistics. The basic
question is, then, how to select a sample? To answer this question, we must have acquaintance
with the sampling methods. These methods are basically of two types: probability sampling
and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling ensures every unit have equal chance of
selection within the target population. The most widely used probability sampling methods
are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster
sampling, and systematic sampling. They have been classified by their representation basis
and unit selection techniques.
If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be employed. The
basis of such selection is entirely dependent on the researcher’s discretion. This approach is
variously called judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling, and
purposive sampling.
Step – 6: Collecting data
After we design a study in detail, we must carefully record and verify information typically in
the form of numbers. Next we must transfer numerical data into a computer-readable format if
it is not already in that format.
Step-7: Processing and Analyzing Data
Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure
consistency across respondents and to locate omissions. The coding process facilitates
processing the data. The personal computer offers an excellent opportunity in data editing and
coding processes. The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical
technique to very complex multivariate analysis depending on the objectives of the study,
research design employed, and the nature of data collected. This step usually requires the use
of computer software to manipulate the numerical data to create many charts, tables, graphs,
and statistical measures. These computer-generated documents provide a condensed picture of
the data. After we produce charts, tables, and statistics, we must determine what they mean.
We examine the analyzed data, use knowledge of the research topic, and draw on theory to
answer our research question. We consider alternative interpretations of the data, compare our
results with those of past studies, and draw out wider implications of what we have learned.
Step-8: Writing the report
At this stage, we write a report about the study in a specific format and present a description of
both the study and its results. It is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and
recommendations to administrators, policymakers, and program managers for the intended
purpose of making a decision. The dissemination may be made through a conference, a
seminar, a report, or an oral or poster presentation.

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Examples of Quantitative Research

Example 1
Authors and title of the study
Lowery and colleagues (2007) “Long-Term Effects of Subliminal Priming on Academic
Performance”
1. Select a topic: Priming and academic performance
2. Focus the question: Do undergraduate college students who are “primed” subliminally with
intelligence-related words improve their performance on a test? Subliminally means to present
something in a way so that the receiver is not consciously aware of it. Priming occurs when a
word, image, or information alerts, prepares or “sets up” a person for a subsquent behavior.
3. Design the study: The authors conducted two similar experiments. The first was with
seventy students in a beginning undergraduate statistics class. The second was with seventy-
eight students in an introduction to social psychology class. In both experiments, the authors
showed students words on different sides of a computer screen. They told students that the
study was about their ability to locate the words (this was not true). One random half of students
saw words related to intelligence (e.g., sharp, bright, genius, educated). The other random half
saw unrelated words. Students in both experiments took a practice exam. A few days later, they
took the exam in their course.
4. Collect the data: Data for this study were test results for both the practice and actual exam
in both the statistics and introduction to social psychology classes.
5. Analyze the data: The authors looked at various tables and conducted statistical tests.
6. Interpret the data: The results showed that the students in both classes who had been
exposed or “primed” with intelligence-related words scored much higher on both tests.
7. Inform others: A description of the study with its results appeared in the scholarly journal
Basic and Applied Social Psychology.
How does theory fit in? The authors retested a theory of subliminal priming. They looked at
whether effects can continue for several days after a priming event.
Example 2
Authors and title of the study: Penny Edgell and Eric Tranby (2007) “Religious Influences on
Understandings of Racial Inequality in the United States”
1. Select a topic: Religion and racial attitudes
2. Focus the question: Does a white evangelical Christian subculture and belief system
encourage or discourage an individualist, nonsupportive stance toward inequality and toward
African Americans?
3. Design the study: The authors prepared a large scale national survey in 2003 involving
2,081 randomly selected adults in the United States.
4. Collect the data: The randomly selected adults answered many questions on social
backgrounds, religious practice and belief, explanations of racial inequality, and beliefs about
African Americans in a 30-minute telephone interview.
5. Analyze the data: The authors looked at numerous tables with percentages and statistical
tests.

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6. Interpret the data: The authors found that survey respondents with strong conservative
Protestant Christian beliefs and who were most involved in religious activities favored
individualistic explanations of Black inequality (i.e., personal failings, lack of motivation) over
structural explanations (i.e., racial discrimination). In addition, among conservative Christians,
the views of women differed from men, and the educated from the less educated.
7. Inform others: The authors prepared a description of the study with its results that they
submitted to the scholarly journal Social Problems.
How does theory fit in?
The authors examined a theory suggesting that a white evangelical subculture fosters particular
attitudes about social and political issues; it deemphasizes structural explanations
(discrimination, government help) and emphasizes individualist, self-help explanations.
Example 3
Authors and title of the study:
Rory McVeigh and Julian Sobolewski (2007) “Red Counties, Blue Counties, and Occupational
Segregation by Sex and Race”
1. Select a topic: Social inequality and voting
2. Focus the question: Did occupational segregation by gender and race—a major source of
social inequality—influence how people voted in the 2004 U.S. presidential election?
Occupational segregation occurs when one group (e.g., one gender, one race) almost
exclusively holds a type of job.
3. Design the study: The authors identified specific factors for which the government collects
data at the county level: choice of presidential candidate and occupational segregation by race
and gender. They also considered features of the labor market in a county (e.g., racial mix of
the county, educational credentials of women and non-Whites, degree of mobility into a
county) that might threaten or weaken the degree of occupational segregation.
4. Collect the data: Data came from the U.S. census on occupations, demographics, and
voting.
5. Analyze the data: The authors examined numerous correlations, charts, and statistical tests.
6. Interpret the data: The authors found that both occupational and sex segregation in county
level labor markets to be related to election outcomes. In counties that had equal or integrated
labor markets, the Democratic Party candidate received more votes. In counties with highly
segregated labor markets, especially with other conditions that threatened to undermine the
segregation, the Republican Party candidate received more votes.
7. Inform others: The authors submitted a description of the study with its results to the
scholarly journal American Journal of Sociology.
How does theory fit in? The authors used ethnic competition theory and split labor market
theory to explain how county-level inequality influence the local political climate and voting
behavior.
References:
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage publications.

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Neumann, L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.

Seven Edition. Pearson.

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Lesson 03
PHILOSOPHICAL STANDPOINT OF THE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Topic 003: Philosophical Standpoint of the Quantitative Research
Research Paradigm
A research paradigm is “the set of common beliefs and agreements shared between scientists
about how problems should be understood and addressed” (Kuhn, 1962). In simple words, a
paradigm is ‘a basic set of beliefs that guide action.
There are many definitions of paradigm. In general, a scientific paradigm is a whole system of
thinking. It includes basic assumptions, the important questions to be answered or puzzles to
be solved, the research techniques to be used, and examples of what good scientific research is
like.
Components of Research paradigm
According to Guba (1990), research paradigms can be characterized through their:
Ontology – What is reality?
Researchers view of the nature of reality. What assumptions do we make about the way in
which the world works?
Epistemology – How do you know something?
What nature of knowledge. Researchers view on what constitutes acceptable knowledge.
What is the relationship between the knower (the researcher) and the knowable?
Axiology– How much values involved in the study?
Researchers view on role of value/ethics in research methodology. How should the
researcher/inquirer go about finding out knowledge?
Methodology – How do you go about finding it out?
Methodology is “the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use
of particular methods and linking the choice and use of the methods to the desired outcomes.”
Crotty, (2003: 3).

Couch (1987:106) summarized the different approaches as follows: The ontological and
epistemological positions of these . . . research traditions provide the foundation of one of the
more bitter quarrels in contemporary sociology. . . . Each side claims that the frame of thought
they promote provides a means for acquiring knowledge about social phenomena, and each
regards the efforts of the other as at best misguided. . . . They [the positions] differ on what
phenomena should be attended to, how one is to approach phenomena, and how the phenomena
are to be analyzed. The quote mentions two areas of philosophy, ontology and epistemology.

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All scientific research rests on assumptions and principles from these two areas whether or not
a researcher acknowledges them. We do not need a deep discussion over philosophical
assumptions to conduct research; however, we make choices implicitly among them when we
do a study. Most of us accept assumptions without question. However, by becoming aware of
the assumptions, you can better understand what underlies your choices about research.
Different philosophical assumptions highlight how and why the approaches to social research
differ. This is not a text about the philosophy of science, but research methodology rests on a
foundation of ontological and epistemological assumptions. Ontology dictates epistemology
and both philosophies guides research methodology. Research methodology guides the
selection of research methods.
Ontology
Ontology concerns the issue of what exists, or the fundamental nature of reality. When we do
a study, we are making assumptions about what we will study and its place in the world. In
simple words it is called theory of being in research.
Positions of Ontology in Research
There are two basic positions within ontology such as;
 Realist
 Nominalist
Realists position
Realists see the world as being “out there.” The world is organized into preexisting categories
just waiting for us to discover. A realist assumes is that the “real world” exists independently
of humans and their interpretations of it. This makes accessing what is in the real world less
difficult. To use a cliché, “What you see is what you get.”A subgroup of realists, critical
realists, modify this assumption. They say that it is not easy to capture reality directly and that
our inquiry into reality “out there” can easily become distorted or muddied. Our preexisting
ideas, subjectivity, or cultural interpretations contaminate our contact with reality. The critical
realist adds a few safeguards or adjustments to control the effect of such interpretations.
Nominalist Position
The nominalist assumes that humans never directly experience a reality “out there.” Our
experience with what we call “the real world” is always occurring through a lens or scheme of
interpretations and inner subjectivity. Subjective-cultural beliefs influence what we see and
how we experience reality. Our personal biography and cultural worldview are always
organizing our experiences into categories and patterns. They do this without our realizing it.
Nominalists recognize that some interpretative schemes are more opaque than others, yet they
hold that we can never entirely remove the interpretative lens. We are always limited in how
far we can reach beyond our inner thoughts, cultural background, and subjectivity.
Distinction between Realist and the Nominalist Position
Let us make this abstract distinction between realists and nominalists more concrete with help
of example. A realist sees a rug. She says reality presents her a rug— something to cover a
floor and walk upon. She looks at a person’s facial features, hair, and skin tone and recognizes
that the person belongs to one of the world’s racial groupings. She examines a person’s body
in depth—such as skeleton, genitals, breasts, results of chemical tests for hormones, and hair
coverage—and sees that the person is a biological male or female.

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By contrast, a nominalist looks at a rug and asks what this might be. He asks what is it made
of, how was it created, in what ways is it used, why is it here, and how does a specific historical
cultural setting and people’s practices with it shape what we see. Is it only something to wipe
his feet on and walk upon? Do some people sit, sleep, and eat on the rug all day? Do people
hang it on walls to keep a room warm? Can it be a work of art to be admired and provide
aesthetic pleasure? Do people see the rug as a religious object and worship it? When the
nominalist sees a person’s skin tone and facial features, he is perplexed. Why are there
categories of racial distinction? What might such categories contain when the entire idea of
race varies greatly by culture and historical era? Likewise, a nominalist looks at a human body
and worries about ambiguities in the physical differences. Is everyone clearly one or another
of the biological sexes? How well do biological-physical differences match the gender-social
differences of a society? As with racial categories, the number of gender categories and what
distinguishes one from another varies greatly by culture and era. What a nomialist sees largely
comes from imposing a subjective viewpoint onto the visible physical appearances, and what
other people might see could be very different. We can put realist-nominalist ontological
assumptions on a continuum (see Figure 1).

A hardcore realist says we see what exists, and we can easily capture it to produce objective
knowledge. A critical realist is more cautious and recognizes that subjective-culture
interpretations may color some of our experiences with reality. A moderate Ontology An area
of philosophy that deals with the nature of being, or what exists; the area of philosophy that
asks what really is and what the fundamental categories of reality are. Nominalist says
subjective-cultural factors greatly shape all of our experiences with the physical and social
world, and we can never totally remove such factors. An extreme nominalist says our basic
understanding of every physical-social experience is depends so heavily on interpretative-
cultural factors that the experiences make no sense without these factors and any form of
objective knowledge is impossible.
Epistemology
Epistemology is ‘a way of understanding and explaining how we know what we know’,
(Crotty, 2003:3). Epistemology is also ‘concerned with providing a philosophical grounding
for deciding what kinds of knowledge are possible and how we can ensure that they are both
adequate and legitimate.’ In simple words it is called theory of knowledge in research.
Positions of Epistemology in Research
There are two epistemological position in research
 Positivism
 Constructionism
Positivism
Positivism seeks to explain and predict what happens in the social world by searching for
patterns and relationships. There is single reality in the universe and can be measured.
Hypothesis are developed and tested. If we adopt a positivist position, we can produce

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knowledge and learn about reality by making careful observations of it. A positivist standpoint
says there is an empirical world “out there” that exists apart from our inner thoughts and
perceptions of it. As we gather empirical evidence we find that some of our ideas about reality
can be verified or found consistent with the evidence, while other ideas are false because they
lack supporting empirical evidence.
Constructionism
There is no single reality and truth therefore reality needs to be interpreted. If we adopt a
Constructionist position, making observations will not lead to knowledge about reality because
interpretations and subjective views greatly influence all observations. The same holds true for
people we might observe—their interpretations and subjective views shape all they say and do.
What we and other people experience as reality is constructed from the outcome of a constant
process of actions and interpretations that take place in particular locations and times. It is
impossible to separate an objective “out there” reality from interpretations or effects of the
time/place in which it occurs. The best we can do is to recognize our own viewpoints and
interpretations. We might try to discover other people’s inner, subjective views and
interpretations as they carry out their daily lives. General laws of social life, laws that hold
across all people and places, are not possible to create. The best knowledge about the world
that we can produce is to offer carefully considered interpretations of specific people in specific
settings. We can offer interpretations of what we think other people are doing and what we
believe to be their reasons in specific settings. To produce social science knowledge, we must
inductively observe, interpret, and reflect on what other people are saying and doing in specific
social contexts while we simultaneously reflect on our own experiences and interpretations.
Axiology
Axiology is an objective format for measuring intangible attitudes and values. Measures the
level of development and the types of one’s perceptual biases in one’s thinking. In simple words
it is called theory of values in research.
Positions of Axiology in Research
There are two Axiology position in research
 Value free
 Value laden
Value free
Value free contends that researcher can conduct research without the imposition of values.
Value laden
Value laden contends this is simply impossible.
What is Philosophy?
All research is based on assumptions about how the world is perceived and how we can best
come to understand it. Nobody really knows how we can best understand the world.
Philosophers have been arguing about it for 1000s of years. For us, as researchers, need to
consider how we know about the world around us. What is our philosophical approach to
knowledge?
Research Philosophy
Research philosophy is an over-arching term relating to the development of knowledge and the
nature of that knowledge.

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Types of Research Philosophies

Within the scope of Sociology in particular there are four main research philosophies:
 Positivism (Reality )
 Realism (objects exists independently of our knowledge)
 Interpretivism (Understand the difference between humans in their role as social actors)
 Pragmatism (Arguing that it is possible to work within both positivist & interpretivist)

Comparison between Research Philosophies in Sociology

Empiricism
In philosophy, empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from
sensory experience. It is one of several views of epistemology, along with rationalism and

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skepticism. Empiricism emphasizes the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas,
rather than innate ideas or traditions. The major shift in scientific thought occurred during the
16th century, when British philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) suggested that knowledge
can only be derived from observations in the real world. Based on this premise, Bacon
emphasized knowledge acquisition as an empirical activity (rather than as a reasoning activity),
and developed empiricism as an influential branch of philosophy. Bacon’s works led to the
popularization of inductive methods of scientific inquiry, the development of the “scientific
method” (originally called the “Baconian method”), consisting of systematic observation,
measurement, and experimentation, and may have even sowed the seeds of atheism or the
rejection of theological precepts as “unobservable.” Empiricism continued to clash with
rationalism throughout the Middle Ages, as philosophers sought the most effective way of
gaining valid knowledge.
Conclusion
The quantitative research opt realist ontological position, positivist epistemological standpoint
and value free axiological position in research. The research philosophy of the quantitative
research is Positivism and Post positivism.

References:
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage publications.

Neumann, L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.

Seven Edition. Pearson.

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Lesson 04
POSITIVIST SOCIAL RESEARCH AND ITS MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS
Topic 004: Positivist Social Research and its Major Assumptions
History of Positivist Social Research
Positivism believes the basis for knowledge and thought should depend on the scientific
method. It was introduced by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher who coined the term
“positivism.” The positivist does not derive conclusions from a subjective approach and does
not let feelings and emotions cloud his judgment because these things are in the person’s
consciousness. The consciousness, Comte inferred, cannot be objectively observed.
Positivism has been a dominant paradigm in social science, especially as practiced in the United
States since 1945. Positivism was the dominant epistemological paradigm in social science
from the 1930s through to the 1960s, its core argument being that the social world exists
externally to the researcher, and that its properties can be measured directly through
observation. Anthropology and history are the least positivist fields and economics and
experimental psychology the most positivist with political science and sociology somewhat
mixed. Several paradigms compete in sociology, but it “has been Paradigm A general
organizing framework for theory and research that includes basic assumptions, key issues,
models of quality research, and methods for seeking answers. Predominantly positivist since
1945, aside from a brief period of epistemological turmoil . . .” (Steinmetz, 2005a:25).
Introduction
Positivism tries to uncover the one truth about how things are – or a least what we focus on. It
is defined as a system recognizing only that which can be scientifically verified or logically
proved, and therefore rejecting metaphysics and theism’ (Oxford, 1989: pp. 385-386)
Positivism argues that reality consists of what is available to the senses – that is, what can be
seen, smelt, touched, etc. Inquiry should be based upon scientific observation and empirical
inquiry. The natural and human sciences share common logical and methodological principles,
dealing with facts and not with values. A structured method, combining logical deduction with
precise empirical (well known) observations (of the behavior of individuals). To open up and
confirm causal relationships that are generally valid with a known probability and which can
therefore be used for prediction. The purpose of science is to uncover the truth & make it to be
able to control and predict. Humans are expected to be rational. Objectivity and precision is
important. Therefore measurement and measures, tools and procedures are very important.
Because reality is stable and truths are generally valid.
Main Assumptions of positivism
Positivism is a philosophy that holds that empirical evidence obtained through the senses is the
only firm foundation for knowledge. Further, it insists that valid knowledge can only be
assumed if all observers come up with essentially the same description of a thing. Last, it
requires that these descriptions be uniform across all researchers or observers, which leads to
the requirement that measurement is the royal road to knowledge. Thus, positivism leads to the
following four sets of assumptions:
 Ontological assumptions (nature of reality): There is one defined reality, fixed,
measurable, and observable.
 Epistemological assumptions (knowledge): Genuine knowledge is objective and
quantifiable. The goal of science is to test and expand theory.

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 Axiological assumptions (role of values): Objectivity is good, and subjectivity is

inherently misleading.
 Methodological assumptions (research strategies): Using quantitative research methods
such as experiments, quasi-experiments, exploratory and analytical models, case studies,
and so on—which require objective measurement and analysis—is the only acceptable
method to generate valid knowledge.
As should be obvious, such assumptions lead to quantitative studies, which rely on objective
measurement of observable phenomena. That which cannot be measured cannot be reliably
known.
Positivistic Research Study Example:
In 2012 Venkatesh, Thong and Xu published their article, "Consumer Acceptance and Use of
Information Technology: Extending the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of
Technology," examining consumer acceptance and use of information technology. (If you wish
to review the entire article, it is linked in the Track 2 Courseroom Resources section.)
Venkatesh, Thong and Xu made the following assumptions:
 Ontological assumption: Consumer acceptance and use of information technology can be
observed and measured. There is one defined reality for these constructs and if measured,
will be readily visible to all who observe it.
 Epistemological assumption: The acquisition of knowledge of consumer acceptance and
use of information technology is an objective process, one that can be measured, and that
measured and objective report is reliable and useful knowledge.
 Axiological assumption: The measurements for consumer acceptance and information
technology will objectively inform the theory of acceptance and use of technology, which
is a valuable to understand.
 Methodological assumption: Quantitative design—A new survey instrument was adapted
from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)—a four input
construct model of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and
facilitating conditions which influence behavioral intentions of use (Vankatesh et al.,
2003). Additional existing scales were also adapted to measure variables of hedonic
motivation, price value, and habit with moderating variables of age, gender and experience.
After a pilot study, a two-stage online survey was conducted to explain behavioral intention
and the subsequent mobile use behavior. The measurement and structural models were
tested using Partial Least Squares to create UTAUT2.
Key Features of Positivism
The key features of the Positivism enlisted below;
 It is concerned with the search for the unification of scientific method, that is, with the
notion that logic and inquiry are universal principles extending across all scientific
domains.
 That the ultimate end of scientific inquiry is to gives explanations of social phenomenon
and to make predictions about their behavior as according to discernable laws of society.
Thus positivism in the social sciences seeks also to develop a ‘general law of social
understanding’, by discovering necessary and sufficient conditions for any phenomenon.
 Positivism maintains that social scientific knowledge must always be subject to proof
through empirical experimentation. All subjects of research and investigation in the social
sciences should be based upon observations derived from sense-perceptions.

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 Social sciences must seek to free themselves of value-judgments as far as possible, and of
moral, political, and religion ideas that might contaminate their research. Thus, in short:
social sciences must seek to discover universal conditions behind social phenomena; all
social scientific empirical statements must be absolute truths which are true at all times and
true in all places; finally, research can proved only by empirical experimentation.
 Positivists also believe that sociology can and should use the same methods and approaches
to study the social world that “natural” sciences such as biology and physics use to
investigate the physical world. By adopting “scientific” techniques sociologists should be
able, eventually, to uncover the laws that govern societies just as scientists have discovered
the laws that govern the physical world.
 In positivist research, sociologists tend to look for relationships, or ‘correlations’ between
two or more variables. This is known as the comparative method
Positivist use of Quantitative Research
 Use it to uncover & measure patterns of behavior.
 Produce precise mathematical statements about the facts they are investigating.
 Seek to discover the laws of cause & effect that determine behavior.
 Research should be detached & objective.
 Positivists researchers should check their subjective feelings, values or prejudices at the
door as it can affect their research & findings.

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Advantage of Positivist Social research

Positivism relies on quantitative data that positivists believe is more reliable than qualitative
research. Quantitative research is more “scientific” in its methods than qualitative research and
thus more trustworthy. In research, quantitative data provides objective information that
researchers can use to make scientific assumptions. Positivism follows a well-defined structure
during studies and discussions. Positivists believe that since there are set laws and rules
followed, there will be minimum room for error. This structure also gives little room for
variance and drastic variable changes, thus making the study more accurate when it comes to
experiments and applications as it tries to follow specific rules using objective mathematical
and scientific tools.
Disadvantage of Positivist Social research
Positivism believes that objective inferences and conclusions can be reached as long as the
person doing the observation is objective and disregards her emotions. However, human
behavior naturally comes with emotional responses. Although positivism encourages
researchers to disregard human emotion and behavior, there is no guarantee that this will occur
at all times during studies. Some scholars believe that since positivists believe everything can
be measured and calculated, they tend to be inflexible. Positivists see things as they are and
tend to disregard unexplained phenomena. If a theory that says A only occurs when B and C
combine, then B can never be A. This belief can eliminate lateral thinking, which is the process
of finding answers by creatively and indirectly finding out ways to solve a problem.

References
Venkatesh, V., Thong, J. Y., & Xu, X. (2012). Consumer acceptance and use of information
technology: Extending the theory of acceptance and use of technology. MIS
Quarterly, 36, 157–178.
Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003) User acceptance of
information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27, 425–478.

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Lesson 5
THEORY AND RESEARCH-I
Topic 005: Theory and Research
Introduction
A Theory is a set of interrelated concepts used to describe, explain, and predict how society
and its parts are related to each other. Theories are sets of interrelated concepts and ideas that
have been scientifically tested and combined to clarify, and expand our understanding of
people, their behaviours, and their societies. Without theories, science would be a futile
exercise. A theory is a set of propositions that provide an explanation by means of a deductive
or inductive system. The three major functions of theory are description, explanation and
prediction.
WHAT IS THEORY?
Social theory is a system of interconnected ideas. It condenses and organizes knowledge about
the social world. We can also think of it as a type of systematic “story telling” that explains
how some aspect of the social world works and why. Many courses in social theory emphasize
the history of social thought or teach us what great thinkers said. Classical social theorists (e.g.,
Durkheim, Marx, Mills, Tonnies, and Weber) generated many innovative ideas. They radically
changed how we see and understand the social world around us by developing highly original,
broad theories that laid the foundation for subsequent generations. We continue to study their
writings because they offered many creative and interrelated ideas. Such true geniuses who can
generate many insightful ideas and fundamentally shift how we see the social world are very
rare. Despite the value of their contributions, theory is more than what the classical social
theorists wrote. It is also more than we learn from recent leading theorists (e.g., Jeffrey
Alexander, Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman, Michel Foucault, Anthony Giddens, and Erving
Goffman). Although theorists generate many new ideas and theories, we all can use theory.
Theories are not static. We are constantly modifying older theories and developing new
ones. Theories come in many shapes and sizes. Some are broad systems of thought while others
are narrow and specific explanations of one particular issue. At their core, we use social
theories to organize and systematize our thinking and to deepen and extend understanding.
Because they organize knowledge, theories also become a way to communicate effectively
with one another. Most likely, we all encounter social theories in daily life, although few are
explicit or labeled as such. For example, newspaper articles or television reports on social
issues usually rely on implicit social theories or partial theories. Such theories may be shallow
and incomplete, but they contain assumptions, interconnected concepts, and explanations.
Nature of Theory
A theory is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts. In other words, a theory is
explanation for why a phenomenon occurs. Without theories to explain the relationship
between concepts, we would not be able to understand cause and effect relationships in social
life.
Characteristics of Theory
The major characteristics of theory are given below.
 Time boundedness: Scientific theories always seek to transcend the particular and the
time bound. Scientific theories are therefore about the generic, the fundamental, the
timeless, and the universal.

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 Objectivity: Another characteristic of scientific theories is that they are stated more
formally than ordinary language. Theory is stated in neutral, objective, and unambiguous
terms so that the theory means the same thing to all who examine it.
 Reliability and Verifiability: A final characteristic of scientific theories is that they are
designed to be systematically tested with replicable methods against the facts of particular
empirical settings.
Elements of theory
Theory is a mental activity revolving around the process of developing ideas that explain how
and why events occur. Theory is constructed with the following basic elements or building
blocks:
(1) Concepts
(2) Variables
(3) Statements
(4) Formats.
Though there are different types of theory, the basic elements are common to all.
1. Concepts
Theories are built from concepts. Generally, concepts denote phenomena. A concept embraces
the aspects of the social world that are considered essential for a particular purpose. Concepts
are constructed from definitions. A definition is a system of terms that inform investigators as
to the phenomenon denoted by a concept. A definition allows visualising the phenomenon that
is denoted by the concept. It enables all investigators to see the same thing and to understand
what it is that is being studied. Thus, concepts that are useful in building theory have a special
characteristic: they strive to communicate a uniform meaning to all those who use them.
However, since concepts are frequently expressed with the words of everyday language, it is
difficult to avoid words that connote varied meanings—and hence point to different
phenomena—for varying groups of scientists. It is for this reason that many concepts in science
are expressed in technical or more neutral languages, such as the symbols of mathematics. In
sociology, expression of concepts in such special languages is sometimes not only impossible
but also undesirable. Hence the verbal symbols used to develop a concept must be defined as
precisely as possible so that they point to the same phenomenon for all investigators. Although
perfect consensus may never be attained with conventional language, a body of theory rests on
the premise that scholars will do their best to define concepts unambiguously. The concepts of
theory reveal a special characteristic: abstractness. Some concepts pertain to concrete
phenomena at specific times and locations. Other, more abstract, concepts point to phenomena
that are not related to concrete times or locations.
For example, in the context of small-group research, concrete concepts would refer to
the persistent interactions of particular individuals, whereas an abstract conceptualization of
such phenomena would refer to those general properties of face-to-face groups that are not tied
to particular individuals interacting at a specified time and location. Whereas abstract concepts
are not tied to a specific context, concrete concepts are. Although it is essential that some of
the concepts of theory transcend specific times and places, it is equally critical that there be
procedures for making these abstract concepts relevant to observable situations and
occurrences. The utility of an abstract concept can be demonstrated only when the concept is
brought to analyse some specific empirical problem encountered by investigators; otherwise,
concepts remain detached from the very processes they are supposed to help investigators

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understand. Some argue for very formal procedures for attaching concepts to empirical events.
Those of this view believe that abstract concepts should be accompanied by a series of
statements known as operational definitions, which are sets of procedural instructions telling
investigators how to go about discerning phenomena in the real world that are denoted by an
abstract concept. Others argue, however, that the nature of our concepts in sociology precludes
such formalistic exercises. At best, concepts can be only devices that must change with the
changes in society, and so we can only intuitively and provisionally apply abstract concepts to
the actual analysis.
2. Variables
Once the measurement system has been specified by the operational definition, different values
of the concept can be observed. The concept can now be referred to as a variable, since it can
respond to differences in the “real world” by taking on varying values, as specified in the
operational definition. When used to build theory, two general types of concepts can be
distinguished: (1) those that simply label phenomena and (2) those that refer to phenomena that
differ in degree. Concepts that merely label phenomena would include such common terms like
group, social class etc. Concepts that denote properties as size, weight, density, velocity etc.
refer to differences in degree among phenomena. Some concepts of scientific theory should
denote the variable features of the world. To understand events it is necessary to analyse how
variation in one phenomenon is related to variation in another.
3 &4. Statements and Formats
To be useful, the concepts of theory must be connected to one another. Such connections among
concepts constitute theoretical statements. These statements specify the way in which events
denoted by concepts are interrelated, and at the same time, they provide an interpretation of
how and why events should be connected. When these theoretical statements are grouped
together, they constitute a theoretical format. Concepts are constructed from definitions;
theoretical statements link concepts together; and statements are organized into five basic types
of formats.
There are five basic approaches in sociological theory for generating theoretical
statements and formats: (1) metatheoretical schemes, (2) analytical schemes, (3) discursive
schemes, (4) propositional schemes, and (5) modeling schemes.
1. Meta-theoretical schemes
Meta-theoretical schemes deal with the basic issues that a theory must address. In many
sociological circles, meta-theory is considered an essential prerequisite to adequate theory
building. The philosophical debates like idealism versus materialism, induction versus
deduction, causation versus association, subjectivism versus objectivism, and so on are re-
evoked and analyzed with respect to social reality.
2. Analytical Scheme
Analytical Scheme is a classification scheme that denotes the key properties, and interrelations
among these properties, in the social universe. There are many different varieties of analytical
schemes, but they share an emphasis on classifying basic properties of the social world.
Explanation of an empirical event comes whenever a place in the classificatory scheme can be
found for an empirical event. There are two basic types of analytical schemes: (1) naturalistic
schemes, which try to develop a tightly woven system of categories that is presumed to capture
the way in which the invariant properties of the universe are ordered and (2) sensitizing
schemes, which are more loosely assembled congeries of concepts intended only to sensitize
and orient researchers and theorists to certain critical processes.

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3. Discursive Schemes
Discursive Schemes are typically easier to understand than those that are more formal, but the
weakness is that the variables and forces highlighted and the dynamic relations among them
are vague and imprecise. Even with a certain vagueness in language, it is still possible to
recognise the basic theoretical argument and convert it into a more formal format like an
analytical model or propositions scheme.
4. Propositional Scheme
Propositional Scheme is a theoretical statement that specifies the connection between two or
more variables. It tells us how variation in one concept is accounted for by variation in another.
Propositional Schemes vary perhaps the most of all theoretical approaches. They vary primarily
along two dimensions: (1) the level of abstraction and (2) the way propositions are organized
into formats. Some are highly abstract and contain concepts that do not denote any particular
case but all cases of a type. By using these two dimensions, several different types of
propositional schemes can be isolated: (a) axiomatic formats, (b) formal formats, and (c)
empirical formats.
Axiomatic Formats
An axiomatic organization of theoretical statements involves a set of concepts some of which
are concepts are highly abstract; others, more concrete. Second, there is always a set of
existence statements that describe those types and classes of situations in which the concepts
and the propositions that incorporate them apply. Third, propositional statements are stated in
a hierarchical order. At the top of the hierarchy are axioms, or highly abstract statements, from
which all other theoretical statements are logically derived. The axioms should be consistent
with one another, although they do not have to be logically interrelated. The axioms should be
highly abstract; they should state relationships among abstract concepts. These relationships
should be law-like in that the more concrete theorems derived from them have not been
disproved by empirical investigation.
Formal Formats
Formal theories are loose versions of axiomatic schemes. The idea is to develop highly abstract
propositions that are used to explain some empirical event. Some highly abstract propositions
are seen as higher-order laws, and the goal of explanation is to visualize empirical events as
instances of this covering law. Deductions from the laws are made, but they are much looser,
rarely conforming to the strict rules of axiomatic theory. Moreover, there is recognition that
extraneous variables cannot always be excluded, and so the propositions have a condition that
if other forces do not impinge, then the relationship among concepts in the proposition should
hold true.
Empirical Formats
Empirical Formats consist of generalizations from specific events, in particular empirical
contexts. They are too tied to empirical contexts, times, and places. In fact, they are
generalizations that are in need of a theory to explain them. There are other kinds of empirical
generalizations also. These are often termed middle-range theories, because they are more
abstract than a research finding and because their empirical content pertains to variables that
are also found in other domains of social reality.
5. Analytical Modeling Scheme
Analytical Modeling Scheme is a diagrammatic representation of social events. The
diagrammatic elements of any model include: (1) concepts that denote and highlight certain

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features of the universe; (2) the arrangement of these concepts in visual space so as to reflect
the ordering of events in the universe; and (3) symbols that mark the connections among
concepts, such as lines, arrows, vectors, and so on. The elements of a model may be weighted
in some way, or they may be sequentially organized to express events over time, or they may
represent complex patterns of relations and other potential ways in which properties of the
universe affect one another. In sociology, most diagrammatic models are constructed to
emphasize the causal connections among properties of the universe. That is, they are designed
to show how changes in the values of one set of variables are related to changes in the values
of other variables. Sociologists generally construct two different types of models, which can
be termed analytical models and causal models. Analytical models are more abstract: they
highlight more generic properties of the universe, and they portray a complex set of connections
among variables. In contrast, causal models are more empirically grounded. They provide a
more detailed interpretation of an empirical generalization.
Ideology versus Social Theory

Example Ideology versus Social Theory

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References
Neumann, L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Seven Edition. Pearson.

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Lesson 06
THEORY AND RESEARCH-II
TOPIC 006
Topic 006: Theory and Research
Aspects of Theory
Now that you know the parts of social theory, you can consider its other forms. Social theory
can be baffling because it has many aspects. To simplify matters, we can divide them into five
major ones:
1. Direction of theorizing. Either deductive or inductive
2. Level of analysis. Either micro, macro, or meso
3. Theoretical focus. Either substantive or formal theory
4. Form of explanation. Either causal, structural, or interpretative
5. Range of a theory. Either an empirical generalization, a middle-range theory, or a
framework
1. Direction of Theorizing
In an ideal sense, you can approach the building and testing of theory from two directions:
1) Begin with abstract thinking and then logically connect the ideas in theory to concrete
evidence (2) Begin with specific observations of empirical evidence and then generalize from
the evidence to build toward increasingly abstract ideas. In practice, most researchers are
flexible and tend use both directions, perhaps at different points in a study.

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Inductive theory
Inductive theory is an approach to research that starts with the observation and the end result
of the research is theory.
Deductive theory
Deductive theory is an approach to research that starts with the proposition of hypothesis and
the end result of the research is Confirmation/rejection.
Abduction
The third method of reasoning, abduction, is defined as "a syllogism in which the
major premise is evident but the minor premise and therefore the conclusion only
probable." Basically, it involves forming a conclusion from the information that is
known.
A familiar example of abduction is a detective's identification of a criminal by piecing
together evidence at a crime scene. In an everyday scenario, you may be puzzled by a
half-eaten sandwich on the kitchen counter. Abduction will lead you to the best
explanation. Your reasoning might be that your teenage son made the sandwich and
then saw that he was late for work. In a rush, he put the sandwich on the counter and
left.
2. Level of analysis.
Micro-level theory Social theory
Micro-level theory Social theory focusing on the micro level of social life that occurs over
short durations (e.g., face-to-face interactions and encounters among individuals or small
groups).
Macro-level theory Social theory
Macro-level theory Social theory focusing on the macro level of social life (e.g., social
institutions, major sectors of society, entire societies, or world regions) and processes that occur
over long durations (many years, multiple decades, or a century or longer).
Meso-level theory Social theory
Meso-level theory Social theory focusing on the relations, processes, and structures at a
midlevel of social life (e.g., organizations, movements, and communities) and events operating
over moderate durations (many months, several years, or a decade).
3. Theoretical focus
Substantive theory
Substantive theory focuses on a particular content or topic area in social reality, such as family
relations, delinquent behavior, or racial-ethnic relations. We might have a theory that focuses
on economic development as with Mahoney’s (2003) study of Spanish America or a theory
that focuses on how social inequalities are reproduced in everyday face-to-face interactions as
with Williams’ (2006) study of toy stores.
Formal theory
Formal theory focuses on general processes or structures that operate across multiple topic
areas, such as forming a social identity, engaging in conflict, or exercising power. It is more
general and abstract. A formal theory about access to resources and holding onto power and
authority might apply to several areas. It might explain how wealthy business owners use their

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access to valued resources in advanced capitalist societies to maintain economic and social
power, how government elites used resource control to try to hold onto power during the
transition from communism to a post community world, and how colonial elites in a rigid
system of resource control held onto local power in the nineteenth century in a way that stalled
later national development. In all three situations, a similar social-economic dynamic operated:
Powerful elite groups used their ownership and control over valued resources to maintain a
position of power and resist challenges to their authority.
4. Form of explanation.
1. Causal explanation
A type of theoretical explanation about why events occur and how things work expressed in
terms of causes and effects or as one factor producing certain results.
Negative relationship
An association between two concepts or measures so that as one increases, the other decreases,
or when one is present, the other is absent.
Positive relationship
An association between two concepts or measures so that as one increases, the other also
increases, or when one is present, the other is also present.
2. Structural explanation
A type of theoretical explanation about why events occur and how things work expressed by
outlining an overall structure and emphasizing locations, interdependences, distances, or
relations among positions in that structure.
3. Interpretative explanation
A type of theoretical explanation about why events occur and how things work expressed in
terms of the socially constructed meanings and subjective worldviews.
5.Range of Theorizing
Theoretical statements also vary by range. At one extreme is the empirical generalization, a
narrow statement that relies on concrete concepts and fits into a substantive theory; it is a low-
level descriptive statement about a relationship believed to operate empirically. It generalizes
beyond a specific case or set of observations but not by very much. For example, people who
marry when they are very young (under age 21) are more likely to divorce than those who
marry when they are older (over age 31). We might wish to qualify the generalization by
specifying historical, cultural, or other conditions that make a divorce more or less likely. If
empirical generalization includes an explanation, it is simple and concrete, not a full social
theory. For example, people who marry when they are younger are more likely to divorce
because they are less mature.
Middle-range theory Social theory
Middle-range theory Social theory that falls between general frameworks and empirical
generalization, that has limited abstraction/range, and that is in the form of empirically
verifiable statements capable of being connected to observable phenomena
Empirical generalization
A narrow, quasi-theoretical statement that expresses empirical patterns or describes empirical
regularities using concepts that are not very abstract.

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Theoretical framework
A very general theoretical system with assumptions, concepts, and specific social theories.
Role of Theory
1. Theory as orientation
A major function of a theoretical system is that it narrows the range of facts to be studied. Any
phenomenon or object may be studied in many different ways. A football, for example, can be
investigated within an economic framework, as we ascertain the patterns of demand and supply
relating to this play object. It may also be the object of chemical research, for it is made of
organic chemicals. It has a mass and may be studied as physical object undergoing different
stresses and attaining certain velocities under various conditions. It may also be seen as the
center of many sociologically interesting activities; play, communication, group organization,
etc. Each science and each specialization within a broader field abstracts from reality, keeping
its attention upon a few aspects of given phenomena rather than on all aspects. The broad
orientation of each field then focuses upon limited range of things while ignoring or making
assumptions about others.
2. Theory as a conceptualization and classification
Every science is organized by a structure of concepts, which refer to major processes and
objects to be studied. It is the relationship between these concepts which are stated in “the facts
of science.” Such terms make up the vocabulary that the scientist uses. If knowledge is to be
organized, there must be some system imposed upon the facts which are observable. As a
consequence, a major task in any science is the development of development of classification,
a structure of concepts, and an increasingly precise set of definitions for these terms.
3. Theory in summarizing role
A further task which theory performs is to summarize concisely what is already known about
the object of study. These summaries may be divided into two simple categories: (1) empirical
generalizations, and (2) systems of relationships between propositions. Although the scientist
may think of his field as a complex structure of relationships, most of his daily work is
concerned with prior task: the simple addition of data, expressed in empirical generalizations.
The demographer may tabulate births and deaths during a given period in order to ascertain the
crude rate of reproduction. These facts are useful and are summarized in simple or complex
theoretical relationships. As body of summarizing statements develops, it is possible to see
relationships between the statements. Theorizing on a still larger scale, some may attempt to
integrate the major empirical generalizations of an era. It is through systems of propositions
that many of our common statements must be interpreted. Facts are seen within a framework
rather than in an isolated fashion.
4. Theory predicts facts
If theory summarizes facts and states a general uniformity beyond the immediate observation,
it also becomes a prediction of facts. This prediction has several facets. The most obvious is
the extrapolation from the known to the unknown. For example, we may observe that in every
known case the introduction of Western technology has led to a sharp drop in the death rate
and a relatively minor drop in the birth rate of a given nation, at least during the initial stages.
Thus we predict that if Western technology is introduced into a native culture, we shall find
this process again taking place. Correspondingly we predict that in a region where Western
technology has already been introduced, we shall find that this process has occurred.

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5. Theory points gaps in knowledge

Since theory summarizes the known facts and predicts facts which have not been observed, it
must also point to areas which have not yet been explored. Theory also points to gaps of a more
basic kind. While these gaps are being filled, changes in the conceptual scheme usually occur.
An example from criminology may be taken. Although a substantial body of knowledge had
been built up concerning criminal behavior and it causes. A body of theory dealing with
causation was oriented almost exclusively to the crimes committed by the lower classes. Very
little attention has been paid to the crimes committed by the middle class or, more Research
Methods specifically, to the crimes labeled as “white collar” and which grow out of the usual
activities of businessmen. Such a gap would not be visible if our facts were not systematized
and organized. As a consequence, we may say that theory does suggest where our knowledge
is deficient.
Role of Facts (Research)
Theory and fact are in constant interaction. Developments in one may lead to developments in
the other. Theory, implicit or explicit, is basic to knowledge and even perception. Theory is not
merely a passive element. It plays an active role in the uncovering of facts. We should expect
that “fact” has an equally significant part to play in the development of theory. Science actually
depends upon a continuous stimulation of fact by theory and of theory by fact.
1. Facts initiate theory
Many of the human interest stories in the history of science describe how a striking fact,
sometimes stumbled upon, led to important theories. This is what the public thinks of as a
“discovery.” Examples may be taken from many sciences: accidental finding that the
penicillium fungus inhibits bacterial growth; many errors in reading, speaking, or seeing are
not accidental but have deep and systematic causes. Many of these stories take an added drama
in the retelling, but they express a fundamental fact in the growth of science, that an apparently
simple observation may lead to significant theory.
2. Facts lead to the rejection and reformulation of existing theory
Facts do not completely determine theory, since many possible theories can be developed to
take account of a specific set of observation. Nevertheless, facts are the more stubborn of the
two. Any theory must adjust to facts and is rejected or reformulated if they cannot be fitted into
its structure. Since research is continuing activity, rejection and reformulation are likely to be
going on simultaneously. Observations are gradually accumulated which seem to cast doubt
upon existing theory. While new tests are being planned, new formulations of theory are
developed which might fit these new facts.
3. Facts redefine and clarify theory. Usually the scientist has investigated his/her problem
for a long time prior to actual field or laboratory test and is not surprised by his/her results. It
is rare that he/she finds a fact that simply does not fit prior theory. New facts that fit the theory
will always redefine the theory, for they state in detail what the theory states in very general
terms. They clarify that theory, for they throw further light upon its concepts.
Theory and Research: the Dynamic Duo
Theory and research are interrelated; the dichotomy between theory and research is an artificial.
The value of theory and its necessity for conducting good research should be clear. Researchers
who proceed without theory rarely conduct top-quality research and frequently find themselves
in confusion. Researchers weave together knowledge from different studies into more abstract

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theory. Likewise, who proceed without linking theory to research or anchoring it to empirical
reality are in jeopardy of floating off into incomprehensible speculation and conjecture.
References
Neumann, L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Seven Edition. Pearson.

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Lesson 07
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Topic 007: Theoretical Framework in Quantitative Research
Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study.
The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the research
problem under study exists. A very general theoretical system with assumptions, concepts, and
specific social theories. Theoretical frameworks are at the widest range and the opposite
extreme from empirical generalizations. A theoretical framework is more than a formal or
substantive theory and includes many specific formal and substantive theories that may share
basic assumptions and general concepts in common. Sociology has several major frameworks.
They are orientations or sweeping ways to see and think about the social world. They provide
assumptions, concepts, and forms of explanation. For example, each framework may have its
own theory of the family, of crime, or of social change. Some frameworks (e.g., symbolic
interactionism) are more oriented toward the micro level of analysis whereas others (e.g.,
conflict) are stronger at the macro level. Specific studies rarely test or contrast entire
frameworks. More often, studies seek evidence for one part of a theory within one framework
(e.g., one proposition from a conflict theory of crime).
Example
Kalmijn’s Levels of Theory, illustrates the ranges of theory with Kalmijn’s study of changing
marriage partner selection. Each framework is associated with an overall approach to doing
research.

The Components of the Theoretical Framework

A good theoretical framework identifies and labels the important variables in the situation that
are relevant to the problem identified. It logically describes the interconnections among these
variables. The relationships among the independent variables, the dependent variable(s), and if

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applicable, the moderating and intervening variables are elaborated. The elaboration of the
variables in the theoretical framework addresses the issues of why or how we expect certain
relationships to exist, and the nature and direction of the relationships among the variables of
interest. At the end, the whole discussion can be portrayed in a schematic diagram.
Purpose of Formulating the Theoretical Framework
• It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the study
• It can provide him with a general framework for data analysis
• It is essential in preparing a research proposal using descriptive and experimental methods.
Major Theoretical Frameworks
The following table briefly describes the key concepts of assumption of the four major
theoretical frameworks of sociology

Basic Feature of Theoretical Framework

There are six basic features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework. These
features are:
1. Make an inventory of variables: For developing a framework it appears essential to
identify the factors relevant to the problem under study. These factors are the empirical realities
which can be named at some abstract level called concepts. The concepts taking more than one
value are the variables. In other words the researcher makes an inventory of relevant variables.
The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labeled in the
discussion.

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2. Specify the direction of relationship: If the nature and direction of relationship can be
theorized on the basis of the findings of previous research, then there should be an indication
in the discussion as to whether the relationship should be positive or negative. 3. Give a clear
explanation of why we should expect the proposed relationships to exist. There should be clear
explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist. The arguments could be drawn
from the previous research findings. The discussions should state how two or more variables
are related to one another. This should be done for the important relationships that are theorized
to exist among the variables. It is essential to theorize logical relationship between different
variables.
4. Make an inventory of propositions: Stipulation of logical relationship between any two
variables means the formulation of a proposition. If such relationships have been proposed
between different variables, it will result in the formulation of a number of propositions. Let
us call such a collection of propositions as an inventory of propositions. Each proposition is
backed up by strong theoretical argumentation.
5. Arrange these propositions in a sequential order: One proposition generates the next
proposition, which generates the next following proposition, which in turn generates the next
following proposition, and so on. This is an axiomatic way of the derivation of propositions.
Resultantly it will provide us a sequentially arranged set of propositions which are interlinked
and interlocked with each other. Theory, if you remember, is an interrelated set of propositions.
Therefore, the present interrelated set of propositions relevant to a particular problem is in fact
a theoretical framework explaining the pathways of logical relationships between different
variables.
6. Schematic diagram of the theoretical model be given: A schematic diagram of the
theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the
theorized relationships. Example: Research Question: Why middle class families decline in
their size?
Examples of Theoretical Framework

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Importance of Theory
A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing
theory/theories that are used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must
demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your
research paper and that will relate it to the broader fields of knowledge in the class you are
taking.
The theoretical framework is not something that is found readily available in the literature. You
must review course readings and pertinent research literature for theories and analytic models
that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should
depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power. The theoretical
framework strengthens the study in the following ways. An explicit statement of theoretical
assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically. To act in more informed and
effective ways.
The Theoretical Framework Strengthens the Study in the Following Ways.
 An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them
critically.
 The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a
relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
 Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions
of why and how. It permits you to move from simply describing a phenomenon observed
to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
 Having a theory helps you to identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical
framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest. It alerts you
to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
 By virtue of its application nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely
because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges of a
phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we
may use that knowledge and understanding.
Placement of a theory in quantitative research:
 In the introduction,
 In the review of literature.
 After hypothesis or research questions as a rationale.
 Separate section of the study (ideal so that researcher can clearly identify the theory vis- à-
vis the study)

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Writing a Quantitative Theory Perspectives

Using these ideas, the following presents a model for writing a quantitative theoretical
perspective section into a research plan. Assume that the task is to identify a theory that
explains the relationship between independent and dependent variables.
1. Look in the discipline-based literature for a theory.
If the unit of analysis for variables is an individual, look in the psychology literature; to study
groups or organizations, look in the sociological literature. If the project examines individuals
and groups, consider the social psychology literature. Of course, theories from other disciplines
may be useful, too (e.g., to study an economic issue, the theory may be found in economics).
2. Examine also prior studies that address the topic or a closely related topic.
What theories did the authors use? Limit the number of theories and try to identify one
overarching theory that explains the central hypothesis or major research question.
3. Bridges the independent and dependent variables: Why would the independent
variable(s) influence the dependent variables?
4. Script out the theory section. Follow these lead sentences:
“The theory that I will use is____ (name of theory). It was developed by ____ (identify the
origin, source or developer of the theory), and it was used to study ___ (identify the topics
where one finds the theory being applied). This theory indicates that ___ (id the propositions
of hypotheses in the theory). As applied to my study, this theory holds that I would expect my
independent variable/s ___ (state independent variables) to influence or explain the dependent
variable/s (state dependent variables) because ___ (provide a rationale based on the logic of
the theory).
References
Creswell, J. W. & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and
Mixed Methods Approaches. SAGE Publications.
Neumann, L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Seven Edition. Pearson.

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Lesson 08
CONCEPTUALIZATION AND OPERATIONALIZATION
Topic 008: Conceptualization and Operationalization
Concepts
Concepts are constructs; they represent the agreed-on meanings we assign to terms. Our
concepts don’t meanings we assign to terms. Our concepts don’t exist in the real world, so they
cannot be measured exist in the real world, so they cannot be measured directly, but we can
measure the things our concepts directly, but we can measure the things our concepts
summarize.
Example
The concept “feminism” does not exist in the real world. But one can measure whether
somebody talks a real world. But one can measure whether somebody talks a lot about men
and women being lot about men and women being equal, goes to the rallies equal, goes to the
rallies about the equality of men and women, and/or gives about the equality of men and
women, and/or gives speeches about the equality of men and women. From the speeches about
the equality of men and women. From the measurement of these behavior, one can construct a
measurement of these behavior, one can construct a measurement for “feminism.”

Conceptualization
Conceptualization is the process of specifying what we mean when we use particular terms. It
is the reverse process of when we use particular terms. It is the reverse process of conception.
Example
When we see the concept “feminism”, we make a list of of phenomena representing the
concept. The list could include the three items listed on the previous slide. Items listed on the
previous slide. This list can be somewhat different individual by individual. But people t people

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usually agree on the basic things. Usually agree on the basic things. In research,
conceptualization produces an agreed upon in research, conceptualization produces an agreed
upon meaning for a concept for the purposes of research. Different meaning for a concept for
the purposes of research. Different researchers may conceptualize a researchers may
conceptualize a concept slightly differently. Concept slightly differently. Conceptualization
describes the indicators we'll use to measure Conceptualization describes the indicators we'll
use to measure the concept and the different aspects of the concept.
Example of Conceptual Framework

What are Nominal and Operational Definitions?

Nominal Definition - assigned to a term without a claim assigned to a term without a claim
that the definition represents a "real" entity.
Operational Definitions - Specifies how a Specifies how a concept will be measured.
What are dimensions and indicators?
Complicated concepts have dimensions and indicators. Dimensions are specific aspects of a
concept. Indicators are groups by dimensions. The end product of conceptualization is the
specification of a set of indicators of what we have in mind, indicating the presence or absence
of the mind, indicating the presence or absence of the concept. The Interchangeability of
Indicators. If several different indicators all represent the same concept, then all of them will
behave the same way that the concept would behave.

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Operationalization
Operationalization is the development of specific research procedures that will result in
empirical observations representing the concepts.
Example of Operational Framework

Operationalization issues – Range of variation, variation between extremes, and

dimensions
Range of variation
The limits of your attributes Range of variation: the limits of your attributes
Examples: age, income.
Variations between the Extremes
How many attributes to have between the extremes.
Example: age, income, marital status.
More-precise measurement is usually better than less- precise measurement.
Rule of thumb: Whenever you are not sure how much detail you want to get in a measurement,
get too much rather than too little.

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Dimensions: most variables only measure on Dimensions: most variables only measure on
dimension of a concept.

References
Neumann, L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Seven Edition. Pearson.

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Lesson 09
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS
Topic 009: Research Questions & Hypothesis
Introduction
In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and hypotheses, and
sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study.
Quantitative research questions
Quantitative research questions inquire about the relationships among variables that the
investigator seeks to know. They are frequently used in social science research and especially
in survey studies.
Example
Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question describing outcomes of score
for a variable:
What is the frequency and variation of scores on _________ (name the variable) for _________
(participants) in the study?
Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question focused on examining the
relationship among variables:
Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent
variable) and _________ (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of _________
(control variable)?
Quantitative hypotheses
Quantitative hypotheses are predictions the researcher makes about the expected outcomes of
relationships among variables. They are numeric estimates of population values based on data
collected from samples. Testing of hypotheses employs statistical procedures in which the
investigator draws inferences about the population from a study sample. Hypotheses are used
often in experiments in which investigators compare groups. Advisers sometimes recommend
their use in a formal research project, such as a dissertation or thesis, as a means of stating the
direction a study will take.
Example
Alternatively, a script for a quantitative null hypothesis might be as follows:
There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and experimental groups on
the independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable).
Research Objectives
Research Objectives indicate the goals or objectives for a study. They often appear in proposals
for funding, but tend to be used with less frequency in social and health science research.
Because of this, the focus here will be on research questions and hypotheses.
Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses
Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses include the
following.
 The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic
approaches. The researcher may compare groups on an independent variable to see its
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impact on a dependent variable (this would be an experiment or group comparisons).

Alternatively, the investigator may relate one or more independent variables to one or more
dependent variables (this would be a survey that correlates variables). Third, the researcher
may describe responses to the independent, mediating, or dependent variables (this would
be a descriptive study). Most quantitative research falls into one or more of these three
categories.
 The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a theory and the
specification of research questions or hypotheses that logically follow from the relationship
among variables in the theory.
 The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately and not measured
on the same concept. This procedure reinforces the cause-and-effect logic of quantitative
research.
 To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses—not both—unless
the hypotheses build on the research questions. Choose the form based on tradition,
recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research indicates
a prediction about outcomes.
 If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: (a) null and (b) alternative. A null hypothesis
represents the traditional approach: It makes a prediction that in the general population, no
relationship or no significant difference exists between groups on a variable. The wording
is, “There is no difference (or relationship)” between the groups.
Types of Hypotheses
1. Descriptive Hypothesis
Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable thereby it is also called as univariate
hypothesis. Descriptive hypotheses typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of
some variable. The first hypothesis contains only one variable. It only shows the distribution
of the level of commitment among the officers of the organization which is higher than average.
Such a hypothesis is an example of a Descriptive Hypothesis. Researchers usually use research
questions rather than descriptive hypothesis. For example a question can be: What is the level
of commitment of the officers in your organization?
2. Relational Hypothesis
These are the propositions that describe a relationship between two variables. The relationship
could be non-directional or directional, positive or negative, causal or simply co-relational.
While stating the relationship between the two variables, if the terms of positive, negative,
more than, or less than are used then such hypotheses are directional because the direction of
the relationship between the variables (positive/negative) has been indicated. These hypotheses
are relational as well as directional.
Directional Hypothesis
The directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the relationship has been
specified.
Non-directional Hypothesis
Non-directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the association has not been
specified. The relationship may be very strong but whether it is positive or negative has not
been postulated.

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Co-relational Hypotheses:
Co-relational hypotheses state merely that the variables occur together in some specified
manner without implying that one causes the other. Such weak claims are often made when we
believe that there are more basic causal forces that affect both variables. For example: Level
of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency. Here
we do not make any claim that one variable causes the other to change. That will be possible
only if we have control on all other factors that could influence our dependent variable.
Explanatory (causal) Hypotheses
Explanatory (causal) hypotheses imply the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes or
leads to a change in the other variable. This brings in the notions of independent and the
dependent variables. Cause means to “help make happen.” So the independent variable may
not be the sole reason for the existence of, or change in the dependent variable. The researcher
may have to identify the other possible causes, and control their effect in case the causal effect
of independent variable has to be determined on the dependent variable. This may be possible
in an experimental design of research.
3. Null Hypothesis
It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the researcher. Researchers treat evidence
that supports a hypothesis differently from the evidence that opposes it. They give negative
evidence more importance than to the positive one. It is because the negative evidence tarnishes
the hypothesis. It shows that the predictions made by the hypothesis are wrong. The null
hypothesis simply states that there is no relationship between the variables or the relationship
between the variables is “zero.” That is how symbolically null hypothesis is denoted as “H0”.
For example:
H0 = There is no relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of efficiency.
Or H0 = The relationship between level of job commitment and the level of efficiency is zero.
Or The two variables are independent of each other. It does not take into consideration the
direction of association (i.e. H0 is non directional), which may be a second step in testing the
hypothesis. First we look whether or not there is an association then we go for the direction of
association and the strength of association. Experts recommend that we test our hypothesis
indirectly by testing the null hypothesis. In case we have any credibility in our Research
Methods hypothesis then the research data should reject the null hypothesis. Rejection of the
null hypothesis leads to the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis.
4. Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative (to the null) hypothesis simply states that there is a relationship between the
variables under study. In our example it could be: there is a relationship between the level of
job commitment and the level of efficiency. Not only there is an association between the two
variables under study but also the relationship is perfect which is indicated by the number “1”.
Thereby the alternative hypothesis is symbolically denoted as “H1”. It can be written like this:
H1: There is a relationship between the level of job commitment of the officers and their level
of efficiency.
5. Research Hypothesis
Research hypothesis is the actual hypothesis formulated by the researcher which may also
suggest the nature of relationship i.e. the direction of relationship. In our example it could be:
Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.

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The Role of the Hypothesis In research

A hypothesis serves several important functions:
1. It guides the direction of the study: Quite frequently one comes across a situation when the
researcher tries to collect all possible information on which he could lay his hands on. Later on
he may find that only part of it he could utilize. Hence there was an unnecessary use of
resources on trivial concerns. In such a situation, hypothesis limits what shall be studied and
what shall not be. 2. It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not: Who shall be
studied (married couples), in what context they shall be studied (their consumer decision
making), and what shall be studied (their individual perceptions of their roles).
3. It suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most appropriate. It is depending
upon the type of hypothesis a decision is made about the relative appropriateness of different
research designs for the study under consideration. The design could be a survey design,
experimental design, content analysis, case study, participation observation study, and/or Focus
Group Discussions.
4. It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of the findings.
Types of Research Question in Quantitative Research
There are two types of research question in quantitative research.
Descriptive Research Question (describing something)
Inferential Research Question (drawing inferences from a sample to a population)
These questions include both independent and dependent variables. Descriptive questions for
each independent and dependent variable and important intervening or moderating variables
are specified in the following table. Inferential questions that relate variables or compare
groups follow these descriptive questions.

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References
Creswell, J. W. & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and
Mixed Methods Approaches. SAGE Publications.
Neumann, L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Seven Edition. Pearson.

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Lesson 10
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Topic 010: Quantitative Research Design
Introduction
It is a thorough outline of how a study is going to take place. It will generally consist of how
data is to be collected, what tools will be used, how the tools will be used and the intended
means for analyzing collected data.
Definition
It is the determination and statement of the general research approach or approach followed for
the specific task. It is the heart of planning. If the design sticks to the research objective, it will
guarantee that the client’s needs will be served. – David J Luck and Ronald S Rubin
According to Green and Tull, “It is the specification of techniques and processes for obtaining
the information required. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project which
states what data is to be gathered from which source by what processes.”
Characteristics of Research Designs
There are different characteristics of research design.
Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data
you expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free from bias and neutral.
Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple individuals
and consider those who agree with the derived results.
Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar results
every time. Your design should indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard
of results. You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your design is reliable.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring
tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the
research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be conducted on any part
of a population with similar accuracy.

Components of Research Designs

The five basic components of research design components apply to all types of qualitative,
quantitative research, whether in the physical or social sciences.
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1. Research study’s questions: This first component suggests the type of the question-in
terms of “who,” “what,” “where,” “how,” and “why”-provides an crucial clue concerning
the most relevant research method to be used. Use three stages: In the first, make use of the
literature to narrow your interest to a key topic or two. In the 2nd, take a look at closely-
even dissect-a few key studies on your topic of interest. Identify the questions in those few
studies and whether they conclude with new questions for future research. In the last phase,
examine another group of scientific studies on the same topic. They might provide support
for your potential questions or even suggest means of sharpening them.
2. Study propositions: Each proposition directs focus on something which needs to be
examined within the scope of study. Only if you are forced to state some propositions will
you move in the right direction. For example, you may think that businesses collaborate as
they gain mutual benefits. This proposition, apart from highlighting a crucial theoretical
issue (that other incentives for collaboration don’t exist or are unimportant), also starts to
tell you where you can search for related proof (to define and determine the extent of certain
advantages to each business).

Figure: Key Components

3. Unit of analysis: It is associated with the fundamental problem of defining what the “case”
is-a problem which has affected many researchers at the beginning of case studies. Take
example of clinical patients. In this situation, an individual is being studied, and the
individual is the key unit of analysis. Information regarding the appropriate individual will
be collected, and several such individuals could be part of a multiple-case study. You would
need study questions and propositions to help find out the appropriate information to be
collected relating to this individual or individuals. Without such questions and propositions,
you could be lured to cover “everything” with regards to the individual(s), which is not
possible.
4. Linking data to propositions: Methods of linking data to propositions are pattern
matching, explanation building, time-series analysis, logic models, and cross-case
synthesis. The actual analyses will demand that you merge or compute your study data as
a direct reflection of your initial study propositions.

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5. Interpreting a study’s findings: A statistical analysis determines if the results of the study
support the hypothesis. A number of statistical tests, for example T-tests (that determine if
two groups are statistically distinct from one another), Chi-square tests (where data are
compared to an anticipated outcome) and one-way analysis of variance (provides for the
comparison of multiple groups), are carried out according to the type of data, number and
types of variables and data categories. Statistical analysis offer some explicit criteria for
interpretations. For example, by convention, social science views a p level of less than .05
to indicate that observed differences were “statistically important.” On the other hand,
much case study analysis is not going to depend on the use of statistics and so focuses on
other methods of thinking about such criteria.
Types of Research Designs

A researcher must have knowledge of various types of research designs to choose which type
of research design should be applied for the research. There are different types of research
designs which are explained below.

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1. Descriptive Design
Descriptive design includes phenomena being researched and characteristics of population. To
describe internal validity does not require characteristics of population. It used for statistics of
data, average and frequencies.
Advantage
• Amount of data gathered by this research and which can be used for future references.
• It gives overviews of study which is helpful to determines variables used for study.
• Limitation of study can use for development or as a useful tools.
Disadvantage
• To disapprove hypothesis, outcome of descriptive design cannot be used.
• Study depends on measurement and instrumentation for observation.
• Using observational method outcome can be collected.
2. Experimental Design
The casual relationship where particular cause leads to same effect, cause will proceed to effect
so degree of associate is major. The procedure is main which controls all factors of experiment.
Experimental design uses more measurements and more groups for longer periods of time.
Advantage
• Placebo effects can be determined from treatment effects.
• From single study high level of evidence can be collected.
• It determines cause of something to take place.
Disadvantage
• Because of technical or ethical reasons few types of proceeds cannot be performed.
• It might not fit into real time.
• If procedure uses special equipment and facilities, experiments can be costly.
3. Correlational Design
Correlational research is used to establish a relationship between two close entities and to
determine how one impacts the other. For this, a researcher needs at least two separate groups.
This type of research will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its
analysis to observe the different patterns. Correlational research sometimes considered a type
of descriptive research as no variables are manipulated in the study. Cause and effect are not
the basis of this type of observational research. Examples of Correlational research include the
relationships between the types of activities of mathematics classrooms and the achievement
of students, the relationship between diet and anxiety.
4. Casual-Comparative Research
Casual-Comparative research is employed to conclude the cause-effect equation between two
or more variables, where one variable depends on the opposite experimental variable. An
independent variable is not manipulated by the experimenter, and the effects of the independent
variable is on the dependent variable are measured. This sort of analysis is not restricted to the
applied mathematics of two variables but extends to analyzing different variables and groups.
Casual-Comparative research is a method that works on the process of comparison. Once

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analysis and conclusions are made, deciding about the causes should be done fastidiously, as
other different variables, each far-famed and unknown, might still have an effect on the result.
Examples of this type of research include the effect of preschool attendance on social maturity
at the end of the first grade, the impact of drugs on a teenager
Longitudinal Design
This research design makes multiple observation, repetitive study and experiments. This
involved same group of people for study over period of time. The variable are identify and
cause are found which made variable have caused change in their behavior. This also called
panel research design.
Advantage
• Data can be collected from particular phenomenon.
• Various variable established causal relationship.
• Pattern of change can be tracked.
Disadvantage
• Method is changed over time, but researcher assumes that present trend may remain same
for future also.
5. Cross-Sectional Design
The research design calculated among study participants at some time. Research variable data
analyze from sample population which is collected from given point of time. It has selection
based on differences rather than selection, dependence based on existing variations; no time
dimension so distinguishing features can be analyzed.
Advantage
• Study used for large number of subjects.
• Grouping not selected, randomly based on population grouping is done.
• At a point in time provides characteristics of result.
• Results performed on population are more reliable.
• Use large number of subject involves.
Disadvantage
• Very difficult to find same interest phenomena or subjects.
• Outcome does not provide any historical occurrence because of time-bound procedures.
• Different outcome from different time-frame.
• Cause and effect relationship cannot be determined from this research.
6. Action Research Design
In this exploratory and understanding of problem is developed to follow characteristic based
path to made strategies of intervention. Various forms are collected to follow new intervention
strategies until problem strategies established. This path is cyclic; provide initializing,
hypothesizing and specifying problem to make interventions and assessments.
Advantage
• Because of cooperative and adaptive nature it can be used in community or world situation.

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• It mainly focuses on solution driven and practical besides than theories.

• It increases change of learning from experiences also viewed as cyclic.
• Outcome is related to practice.
• Researcher has nothing to hide and controlled information.
Disadvantage
• It is responsibility of researcher to enhance change so difficult to perform conventional
studies.
• Test result may be bias one due to over- involvement of researcher.
• Documentation is really difficult because of no standard format.
• It is cyclic in nature so action research is difficult to conduct.
7. Causal Design
They relates with understanding of phenomenon with statements "If A, then B". According to
assumptions and norms one can made certain changes in this kind of research. The explanation
of test by hypothesis seeks by majority of scientists like dependent variable, independent
variable, variation in one phenomenon, variation in other phenomenon.
Advantage
• Chances of replicate are more.
• Study has systematic subject selection and has internal validation.
• It helps the word better understanding by providing link between variables and eliminates
possibilities.
Disadvantage
• Two different events seem to be related and cannot be casual.
• Causality only inferred but because variable superfluous and perplexing variable exist so
difficult to determine conclusion about relationship.
• It is not easy to predict which variable is cause and which is effect.
References
Pawar, N. (2020, December).Type of Research and Type Research Design. Research
Methodology (An Overview) (pp.46-57). Publisher: KD Publications.

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Lesson 11
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Topic 011: Descriptive Research Designs
Descriptive research
Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or
phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions. A
descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or
more variables. Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or manipulate
any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.
Characteristics of Descriptive Research
Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts
to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a
popular market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic
segment’s nature.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any
way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the
variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where
different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
4. The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and
analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also
help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.
When to use a descriptive research design
Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify
characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories. It is useful when not much is known yet
about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to
understand how, when and where it happens. Descriptive research can be used to investigate
the background of a research problem and get the required information needed to carry out
further research. It is used in multiple ways by different organizations, and especially when
getting the required information about their target audience.
 Define subject characteristics:
It is used to determine the characteristics of the subjects, including their traits, behaviour,
opinion, etc. This information may be gathered with the use of surveys, which are shared with
the respondents who in this case, are the research subjects.
For example, a survey evaluating the number of hours millennials in a community spends on
the internet weekly, will help a service provider make informed business decisions regarding
the market potential of the community.
 Measure Data Trends
It helps to measure the changes in data over some time through statistical methods. Consider
the case of individuals who want to invest in stock markets, so they evaluate the changes in
prices of the available stocks to make a decision investment decision.

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Brokerage companies are however the ones who carry out the descriptive research process,
while individuals can view the data trends and make decisions.
 Comparison
Descriptive research is also used to compare how different demographics respond to certain
variables. For example, an organization may study how people with different income levels
react to the launch of a new Apple phone.
This kind of research may take a survey that will help determine which group of individuals
are purchasing the new Apple phone. Do the low-income earners also purchase the phone, or
only the high-income earners do?
Further research using another technique will explain why low-income earners are purchasing
the phone even though they can barely afford it. This will help inform strategies that will lure
other low-income earners and increase company sales.
 Validate existing conditions
When you are not sure about the validity of an existing condition, you can use descriptive
research to ascertain the underlying patterns of the research object. This is because descriptive
research methods make an in-depth analysis of each variable before making conclusions.
 Conducted Overtime
Descriptive research is conducted over some time to ascertain the changes observed at each
point in time. The higher the number of times it is conducted, the more authentic the conclusion
will be.
Descriptive research question examples
 How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
 Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
 What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European
wildcats and domestic cats?
 What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
 How prevalent is disease A in population B?
Descriptive research methods
Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research, though qualitative
research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully
developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable.
Surveys
Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for
frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:
 Describing the demographics of a country or region
 Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
 Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services

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Observations
Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on
the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social
and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.
Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the
natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses, models or theories, it’s necessary
to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.
Case studies
A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person,
group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns
across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a
narrowly defined subject.
Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or
interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about
a research problem.
Applications of descriptive research with examples
A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before
getting into any survey, though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite
following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to
use descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some
ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:
 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw
concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits,
and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent, their
attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For example, understanding from millenials the
hours per week they spend on browsing the internet. All this information helps the
organization researching to make informed business decisions.
 Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive
research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches different
demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear.
If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what
clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel that customers don’t
like.
 Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand
how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For example, an apparel brand
creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study
also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location, etc. This
consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the
population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing fixes or even
create a new product line to cater to high growth potential groups.
 Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain
the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive
research method and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative
observation, researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-depth analysis.

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Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a
population.
 Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different periods to
ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows any number of variables to be
evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw
trends.
Advantages of Descriptive Research
Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:
 Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods like
observational method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three, all
primary data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of information. This can
be used for future research or even developing a hypothesis of your research object.
 Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic
understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the
respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is
collected.
 Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research,
the data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research

Respondents may either decide not to respond to questions or give incorrect responses if they
feel the questions are too confidential. When researchers use observational methods,
respondents may also decide to behave in a particular manner because they feel they are being
watched.

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 The researcher may decide to influence the result of the research due to personal opinion
or bias towards a particular subject. For example, a stockbroker who also has a business
of his own may try to lure investors into investing in his own company by manipulating
results.
 A case-study or sample taken from a large population is not representative of the whole
population.
 The scope of descriptive research is limited to the what of research, with no information
on why thereby limiting the scope of the research.

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Lesson 12
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Topic 012: Correlational Research Design
Correlational Research
Correlational research is a type of research method that involves observing two variables in
order to establish a statistically corresponding relationship between them. The aim of
correlational research is to identify variables that have some sort of relationship do the extent
that a change in one creates some change in the other. This type of research is descriptive,
unlike experimental research that relies entirely on scientific methodology and hypothesis. For
example, correlational research may reveal the statistical relationship between high-income
earners and relocation; that is, the more people earn, the more likely they are to relocate or not.
Correlation Research Design
A correlational research design investigates relationships between variables without the
researcher controlling or manipulating any of them. A correlation reflects the strength and/or
direction of the relationship between two (or more) variables. The direction of a correlation can
be either positive or negative.
Positive correlation Both variables change in the As height increases, weight also increases
same direction
Negative correlation The variables change in As coffee consumption increases, tiredness decrease
opposite directions
Zero correlation There is no relationship Coffee consumption is not correlated with heigh
between the variables

Types of Correlational Research?

Essentially, there are three types of correlational research which are positive correlational
research, negative correlational research, and no correlational research. Each of these types is
defined by peculiar characteristics.
 Positive Correlational Research
Positive correlational research is a research method involving 2 variables that are statistically
corresponding where an increase or decrease in 1 variable creates a like change in the other.
An example is when an increase in workers' remuneration results in an increase in the prices
of goods and services and vice versa.
 Negative Correlational Research
Negative correlational research is a research method involving 2 variables that are statistically
opposite where an increase in one of the variables creates an alternate effect or decrease in the
other variable. An example of a negative correlation is if the rise in goods and services causes
a decrease in demand and vice versa.
 Zero Correlational Research
Zero correlational research is a type of correlational research that involves 2 variables that are
not necessarily statistically connected. In this case, a change in one of the variables may not
trigger a corresponding or alternate change in the other variable.

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Zero correlational research caters for variables with vague statistical relationships. For
example, wealth and patience can be variables under zero correlational research because they
are statistically independent.
Sporadic change patterns that occur in variables with zero correlational are usually by chance
and not as a result of corresponding or alternate mutual inclusiveness.
Correlational research can also be classified based on data collection methods. Based on these,
there are 3 types of correlational research: Naturalistic observation research, survey research
and archival research.

When to use correlational research

Correlational research is ideal for gathering data quickly from natural settings. That helps you
generalize your findings to real-life situations in an externally valid way.
There are a few situations where correlational research is an appropriate choice.
To investigate non-causal relationships
You want to find out if there is an association between two variables, but you don’t expect to
find a causal relationship between them.
Correlational research can provide insights into complex real-world relationships, helping
researchers develop theories and make predictions.
Example: You want to know if there is any correlation between the number of children people
have and which political party they vote for. You don’t think having more children causes
people to vote differently — it’s more likely that both are influenced by other variables such
as age, religion, ideology and socioeconomic status. But a strong correlation could be useful
for making predictions about voting patterns.
To explore causal relationships between variables
You think there is a causal relationship between two variables, but it is impractical, unethical,
or too costly to conduct experimental research that manipulates one of the variables.

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Correlational research can provide initial indications or additional support for theories about
causal relationships.
Example: You want to investigate whether greenhouse gas emissions cause global warming.
It is not practically possible to do an experiment that controls global emissions over time, but
through observation and analysis you can show a strong correlation that supports the theory.
To test new measurement tools
You have developed a new instrument for measuring your variable, and you need to test
its reliability or validity. Correlational research can be used to assess whether a tool consistently
or accurately captures the concept it aims to measure.
Example: You develop a new scale to measure loneliness in young children based on anecdotal
evidence during lockdowns. To validate this scale, you need to test whether it’s actually
measuring loneliness. You collect data on loneliness using three different measures, including
the new scale, and test the degrees of correlations between the different measurements. Finding
high correlations means that your scale is valid.
How to collect correlational data
There are many different methods you can use in correlational research. In the social and
behavioral sciences, the most common data collection methods for this type of research include
surveys, observations, and secondary data. It’s important to carefully choose and plan your
methods to ensure the reliability and validity of your results. You should carefully select a
representative sample so that your data reflects the population you’re interested in without bias.
Surveys
In survey research, you can use questionnaires to measure your variables of interest. You can
conduct surveys online, by mail, by phone, or in person. Surveys are a quick, flexible way to
collect standardized data from many participants, but it’s important to ensure that your
questions are worded in an unbiased way and capture relevant insights.
Example: To find out if there is a relationship between vegetarianism and income, you send
out a questionnaire about diet to a sample of people from different income brackets. You
statistically analyze the responses to determine whether vegetarians generally have higher
incomes.
Naturalistic observation
This is a type of field research where you gather data about a behavior or phenomenon in its
natural environment. This method often involves recording, counting, describing, and
categorizing actions and events. Naturalistic observation can include both qualitative and
quantitative elements, but to assess correlation, you collect data that can be analyzed
quantitatively (e.g. frequencies, durations, scales, and amounts). Naturalistic observation lets
you easily generalize your results to real world contexts, and you can study experiences that
aren’t replicable in lab settings. But data analysis can be time-consuming and unpredictable,
and researcher bias may skew the interpretations.
Example: To find out if there is a correlation between gender and class participation, you
observe college seminars, note the frequency and duration of students’ contributions, and
categorize them based on gender. You statistically analyze the data to determine whether men
are more likely to speak up in class than women.

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Secondary data
Instead of collecting original data, you can also use data that has already been collected for a
different purpose, such as official records, polls, or previous studies. Using secondary data is
inexpensive and fast, because data collection is complete. However, the data may be unreliable,
incomplete or not entirely relevant, and you have no control over the reliability or validity of
the data collection procedures.
Example: To find out if working hours are related to mental health, you use official national
statistics and scientific studies from several different countries to combine data on average
working hours and rates of mental illness. You statistically analyze the data to see if countries
that work fewer hours have better mental health outcomes.
Examples of Correlational Research
Correlational research examples are numerous and highlight several instances where a
correlational study may be carried out in order to determine the statistical behavioral trend with
regards to the variables under consideration. Here are three case examples of correlational
research.
 You want to know if wealthy people are less likely to be patient. From your experience,
you believe that wealthy people are impatient. However, you want to establish a statistical
pattern that proves or disproves your belief. In this case, you can carry out correlational
research to identify a trend that links both variables.
 You want to know if there's a correlation between how much people earn and the number
of children that they have. You do not believe that people with more spending power have
more children than people with less spending power. You think that how much people earn
hardly determines the number of children that they have. Yet, carrying out correlational
research on both variables could reveal any correlational relationship that exists between
them.
 You believe that domestic violence causes a brain hemorrhage. You cannot carry out an
experiment as it would be unethical to deliberately subject people to domestic violence.
However, you can carry out correlational research to find out if victims of domestic violence
suffer brain hemorrhage more than non-victims.
How to analyze correlational data
After collecting data, you can statistically analyze the relationship between variables using
correlation or regression analyses, or both. You can also visualize the relationships between
variables with a scatterplot. Different types of correlation coefficients and regression analyses
are appropriate for your data based on their levels of measurement and distributions.
Correlation analysis
Using a correlation analysis, you can summarize the relationship between variables into
a correlation coefficient: a single number that describes the strength and direction of the
relationship between variables. With this number, you’ll quantify the degree of the relationship
between variables. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, also known as
Pearson’s r, is commonly used for assessing a linear relationship between two quantitative
variables. Correlation coefficients are usually found for two variables at a time, but you can
use a multiple correlation coefficient for three or more variables.

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Regression analysis
With a regression analysis, you can predict how much a change in one variable will be
associated with a change in the other variable. The result is a regression equation that
describes the line on a graph of your variables. You can use this equation to predict the value
of one variable based on the given value(s) of the other variable(s). It’s best to perform a
regression analysis after testing for a correlation between your variables.
Correlation and causation
It’s important to remember that correlation does not imply causation. Just because you find a
correlation between two things doesn’t mean you can conclude one of them causes the other
for a few reasons.
Directionality problem
If two variables are correlated, it could be because one of them is a cause and the other is an
effect. But the correlational research design doesn’t allow you to infer which is which. To err
on the side of caution, researchers don’t conclude causality from correlational studies.
Example
You find a positive correlation between vitamin D levels and depression: people with low
vitamin D levels are more likely to have depression. But you can’t be certain about whether
having low vitamin D levels causes depression, or whether having depression causes reduced
intakes of vitamin D through lifestyle or appetite changes. Therefore, you can only conclude
that there is a relationship between these two variables.
Third variable problem
A confounding variable is a third variable that influences other variables to make them seem
causally related even though they are not. Instead, there are separate causal links between the
confounder and each variable. In correlational research, there’s limited or no researcher control
over extraneous variables. Even if you statistically control for some potential confounders,
there may still be other hidden variables that disguise the relationship between your study
variables.
Example
You find a strong positive correlation between working hours and work-related stress: people
with lower working hours report lower levels of work-related stress. However, this doesn’t
prove that lower working hours causes a reduction in stress.
There are many other variables that may influence both variables, such as average income,
working conditions, and job insecurity. You might statistically control for these variables, but
you can’t say for certain that lower working hours reduce stress because other variables may
complicate the relationship. Although a correlational study can’t demonstrate causation on its
own, it can help you develop a causal hypothesis that’s tested in controlled experiments.

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Lesson 13
CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Topic 013: Cross-sectional and longitudinal Research Designs
Cross-sectional Research Design
A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which you collect data from many
different individuals at a single point in time. In cross-sectional research, you
observe variables without influencing them. Cross-sectional study is defined as an
observational study where data is collected as a whole to study a population at a single point in
time to examine the relationship between variables of interest.
1. In an observational study, a researcher records information about the participants without
changing anything or manipulating the natural environment in which they exist.
2. The most important feature of a cross-sectional study is that it can compare
different samples at one given point in time. For example, a researcher wants to understand
the relationship between joggers and level of cholesterol, he/she might want to choose two
age groups of daily joggers, one group is below 30 but more than 20 and the other, above 30
but below 40 and compare these to cholesterol levels amongst non-joggers in the same age
categories.
3. The researcher at this point in time can create subsets for gender, but cannot consider past
cholesterol levels as this would be outside the given parameters for cross-sectional studies.
4. Cross-sectional studies allow the study of many variables at a given time. Researchers can
look at age, gender, income etc in relation to jogging and cholesterol at a very little or no
additional cost involved.
5. However, there is one downside to cross-sectional study, this type of study is not able to
provide a definitive relation between cause and effect relation (a cause and effect relationship
is one where one action (cause) makes another event happen (effect), for example, without
an alarm, you might oversleep.)
6. This is majorly because cross-sectional study offers a snapshot of a single moment in time,
this study doesn’t consider what happens before or after. Therefore in this example stated
above it is difficult to know if the daily joggers had low cholesterol levels before taking up
jogging or if the activity helped them to reduce cholesterol levels that were previously high.
7. Researchers in economics, psychology, medicine, epidemiology, and the other social sciences all
make use of cross-sectional studies in their work. For example, epidemiologists who are interested
in the current prevalence of a disease in a certain subset of the population might use a cross-sectional
design to gather and analyze the relevant data.
When to use a cross-sectional design
When you want to examine the prevalence of some outcome at a certain moment in time, a cross-
sectional study is the best choice.
Example: You want to know how many families with children in Lahore City are currently low-
income so you can estimate how much money is required to fund a free lunch program in public
schools. Because all you need to know is the current number of low-income families, a cross-
sectional study should provide you with all the data you require. Sometimes a cross-sectional
study is the best choice for practical reasons – for instance, if you only have the time or money
to collect cross-sectional data, or if the only data you can find to answer your research question
was gathered at a single point in time. As cross-sectional studies are cheaper and less time-

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consuming than many other types of study, they allow you to easily collect data that can be used
as a basis for further research.
Descriptive vs analytical studies
Cross-sectional studies can be used for both analytical and descriptive purposes:
 An analytical study tries to answer how or why a certain outcome might occur.
 A descriptive study only summarizes said outcome using descriptive statistics.
 Example: You are studying child obesity. A descriptive study might look at the prevalence
of obesity in children, while an analytical study might examine exercise and food habits in
addition to obesity levels to explain why some children are much more likely to be obese
than others.
How to perform a cross-sectional study
To implement a cross-sectional study, you can rely on data assembled by another source or
collect your own. Governments often make cross-sectional datasets freely available online.
Prominent examples include the censuses of several countries like the US or France, which
survey a cross-sectional snapshot of the country’s residents on important measures.
International organisations like the World Health Organization or the World Bank also provide
access to cross-sectional datasets on their websites. However, these datasets are often
aggregated to a regional level, which may prevent the investigation of certain research
questions. You will also be restricted to whichever variables the original researchers decided
to study. If you want to choose the variables in your study and analyze your data on an
individual level, you can collect your own data using research methods such as surveys. It’s
important to carefully design your questions and choose your sample.
Advantages of cross-sectional studies
Like any research design, cross-sectional studies have various benefits and drawbacks.
 Because you only collect data at a single point in time, cross-sectional studies are relatively
cheap and less time-consuming than other types of research.
 Cross-sectional studies allow you to collect data from a large pool of subjects and compare
differences between groups.
 Cross-sectional studies capture a specific moment in time. National censuses, for instance,
provide a snapshot of conditions in that country at that time.
Disadvantages of cross-sectional studies
 It is difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships using cross-sectional studies, since
they only represent a one-time measurement of both the alleged cause and effect.
 Since cross-sectional studies only study a single moment in time, they cannot be used to
analyze behavior over a period of time or establish long-term trends.
 The timing of the cross-sectional snapshot may be unrepresentative of behavior of the group
as a whole. For instance, imagine you are looking at the impact of psychotherapy on an
illness like depression. If the depressed individuals in your sample began therapy shortly
before the data collection, then it might appear that therapy causes depression even if it is
effective in the long term.
Longitudinal Research Design
In a longitudinal study, researchers repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any changes that
might occur over a period of time. Longitudinal studies are a type of correlational research in which

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researchers observe and collect data on a number of variables without trying to influence those variables.
While they are most commonly used in medicine, economics, and epidemiology, longitudinal studies can
also be found in the other social or medical sciences. Longitudinal study, like the cross-sectional
study, is also an observational study, in which data is gathered from the same sample repeatedly
over an extended period of time. Longitudinal study can last from a few years to even decades
depending on what kind of information needs to be obtained.
1. The benefit of conducting longitudinal study is that researchers can make notes of the
changes, make observations and detect any changes in the characteristics of their
participants. One of the important aspects here is that longitudinal study extends beyond a
single frame in time. As a result, they can establish a proper sequence of the events occurred.
2. Continuing with the example, in longitudinal study a researcher wishes to look at the changes
in cholesterol level in women above the age of 30 but below 40 years who have jogged
regularly over the last 10 years. In longitudinal study setup, it would be possible to account
for cholesterol levels at the start of the jogging regime, therefore longitudinal studies are
more likely to suggest a cause-and-effect relationship.
3. Overall, research should drive the design, however, sometimes as the research progresses it
helps determine which of the design is more appropriate. Cross-sectional studies can be done
more quickly as compared to longitudinal studies. That’s why a researcher may start off with
cross-sectional study and if needed follow it up with longitudinal studies.
How long is a longitudinal study?
No set amount of time is required for a longitudinal study, so long as the participants are
repeatedly observed. They can range from as short as a few weeks to as long as several decades.
However, they usually last at least a year, oftentimes several.
One of the longest longitudinal studies, the Harvard Study of Adult Development, has been
collecting data on the physical and mental health of a group of Boston men for over 80 years!
How to perform a longitudinal study
If you want to implement a longitudinal study, you have two choices: collecting your own data
or using data already gathered by somebody else.
Using data from other sources
Many governments or research centers carry out longitudinal studies and make the data freely
available to the general public. For example, anyone can access data from the 1970 British
Cohort Study, which has followed the lives of 17,000 Brits since their births in a single week in
1970, through the UK Data Service website. These statistics are generally very trustworthy and
allow you to investigate changes over a long period of time. However, they are more restrictive
than data you collect yourself. To preserve the anonymity of the participants, the data collected
is often aggregated so that it can only be analyzed on a regional level. You will also be restricted
to whichever variables the original researchers decided to investigate. If you choose to go this
route, you should carefully examine the source of the dataset as well as what data is available to
you.
Collecting your own data
If you choose to collect your own data, the way you go about it will be determined by the type
of longitudinal study you choose to perform. You can choose to conduct a retrospective or a
prospective study.
 In a retrospective study, you collect data on events that have already happened.

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 In a prospective study, you choose a group of subjects and follow them over time, collecting
data in real time.
Retrospective studies are generally less expensive and take less time than prospective studies,
but are more prone to measurement error. Example: In a retrospective study, you might look at
past medical records of patients to see whether those who developed this cancer had previously
smoked. In a prospective study, you might follow a group of both smokers and non-smokers
over time to see if they develop cancer later on.
Advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal studies
Like any other research design, longitudinal studies have their tradeoffs: they provide a unique
set of benefits, but also come with some downsides.
Advantages
1. Longitudinal studies allow researchers to follow their subjects in real time. This means you
can better establish the real sequence of events, allowing you insight into cause-and-effect
relationships. Example: A cross-sectional study on the impact of police on crime might
find that more police are associated with greater crime and wrongly conclude that police
cause crime when it is the other way around. However, a longitudinal study would be able
to observe the rise or fall in crime some time after increasing the number of police in an
area.
2. Longitudinal studies also allow repeated observations of the same individual over time.
This means any changes in the outcome variable cannot be attributed to differences between
individuals. Example: You decide to study how a particular weight-training program
affects athletic performance. If you choose a longitudinal study, the impact of natural talent
on performance should be eliminated, since that would not change over the study period.
3. Prospective longitudinal studies eliminate the risk of recall bias, or the inability to correctly
recall past events. Example: You are studying the effect of low-carb diets on weight loss.
If you asked your subjects to remember how many carbs or how much they weighed at any
point in time in the past, they might have difficulty doing so. In a longitudinal study, you
can keep track of these variables in real time.
Disadvantages
1. Longitudinal studies are time-consuming and often more expensive than other types of
studies, so they require significant commitment and resources to be effective. Since
longitudinal studies repeatedly observe subjects over a period of time, any potential insights
from the study can take a while to be discovered. Example: In the study examining the
links between smoking and stomach cancer, you have to wait several years to see any results
since the negative effects of smoking accumulate over decades.
2. Attrition, which occurs when participants drop out of a study, is common in longitudinal
studies and may result in invalid conclusions. Example: In your study on the impact of low-
carb diets on weight loss, participants who are not seeing much success might feel more
discouraged and thus more likely to drop out. The diet might therefore appear to be more
successful than it actually is!
Differences between Cross-Sectional Study and Longitudinal Study
Cross-sectional and longitudinal study both are types of observational study, where the
participants are observed in their natural environment. There are no alteration or changes in the
environment in which the participants exist.

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Despite this marked similarity, there are distinctive differences between both these forms of
study. Let us analyze the differences between cross-sectional study and longitudinal study.

Conclusion
It is true, study design greatly depends on the nature of research questions. Whenever a
researcher decides to collect data by deploying surveys to his/her participants, what matters the
most are the survey questions that are placed tactfully, so as to gather meaningful insights.
In other words, to know what kind of information a study should be able to collect is the first
step in determining how to carry out the rest of the study. What steps need to be included and
what can be given a pass.
Continuing from the example above, a researcher wants to establish a relation between the
variables, “jogging” and “cholesterol” in this case, one of the first things that a researcher
would need to establish in this kind of study is, to tell the most about the relationship. A few
questions to ask would be, whether to compare cholesterol levels among different populations
of joggers, non-joggers at the same point in time? Or to measure cholesterol levels in a single
population of daily joggers over an extended period of time? The first approach typically
requires a cross-sectional study and the second approach requires a longitudinal study.

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Lesson 14
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Topic 014: Experimental Research Design
Experimental Research Design
Experimental research is the most familiar type of research design for individuals in the
physical sciences and a host of other fields. This is mainly because experimental research is a
classical scientific experiment, similar to those performed in high school science classes.
Imagine taking 2 samples of the same plant and exposing one of them to sunlight, while the
other is kept away from sunlight. Let the plant exposed to sunlight be called sample A, while
the latter is called sample B. If after the duration of the research, we find out that sample A
grows and sample B dies, even though they are both regularly wetted and given the same
treatment. Therefore, we can conclude that sunlight will aid growth in all similar plants.
The Types of Experimental Research Design
The types of experimental research design are determined by the way the researcher assigns
subjects to different conditions and groups. They are of 3 types, namely; pre-experimental,
quasi-experimental, and true experimental research.
1. Pre-experimental Research Design
In pre-experimental research design, either a group or various dependent groups are observed
for the effect of the application of an independent variable which is presumed to cause change.
It is the simplest form of experimental research design and is treated with no control group.
Although very practical, experimental research is lacking in several areas of the true-
experimental criteria. The pre-experimental research design is further divided into three types
 One-shot Case Study Research Design
In this type of experimental study, only one dependent group or variable is considered. The
study is carried out after some treatment which was presumed to cause change, making it a
posttest study.
 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design:
This research design combines both posttest and pretest study by carrying out a test on a single
group before the treatment is administered and after the treatment is administered. With the
former being administered at the beginning of treatment and later at the end.
 Static-group Comparison:
In a static-group comparison study, 2 or more groups are placed under observation, where only
one of the groups is subjected to some treatment while the other groups are held static. All the
groups are post-tested, and the observed differences between the groups are assumed to be a
result of the treatment.
2. Quasi-experimental Research Design
The word "quasi" means partial, half, or pseudo. Therefore, the quasi-experimental research
bearing a resemblance to the true experimental research, but not the same. In quasi-
experiments, the participants are not randomly assigned, and as such, they are used in settings
where randomization is difficult or impossible.

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This is very common in educational research, where administrators are unwilling to allow the
random selection of students for experimental samples.
Some examples of quasi-experimental research design include; the time series, no equivalent
control group design, and the counterbalanced design.
3. True Experimental Research Design
The true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to approve or disprove a
hypothesis. It is the most accurate type of experimental design and may be carried out with or
without a pretest on at least 2 randomly assigned dependent subjects.
The true experimental research design must contain a control group, a variable that can be
manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution must be random. The classification of true
experimental design include:
 The posttest-only Control Group Design: In this design, subjects are randomly selected
and assigned to the 2 groups (control and experimental), and only the experimental group
is treated. After close observation, both groups are post-tested, and a conclusion is drawn
from the difference between these groups.
 The pretest-posttest Control Group Design: For this control group design, subjects are
randomly assigned to the 2 groups, both are presented, but only the experimental group is
treated. After close observation, both groups are post-tested to measure the degree of
change in each group.
 Solomon four-group Design: This is the combination of the pretest-only and the pretest-
posttest control groups. In this case, the randomly selected subjects are placed into 4
groups.
The first two of these groups are tested using the posttest-only method, while the other two are
tested using the pretest-posttest method.
Examples of Experimental Research
Experimental research examples are different, depending on the type of experimental research
design that is being considered. The most basic example of experimental research is laboratory
experiments, which may differ in nature depending on the subject of research.
Administering Exams after the End of Semester
During the semester, students in a class are lectured on particular courses and an exam is
administered at the end of the semester. In this case, the students are the subjects or dependent
variables while the lectures are the independent variables treated on the subjects.
Only one group of carefully selected subjects are considered in this research, making it a pre-
experimental research design example. We will also notice that tests are only carried out at the
end of the semester, and not at the beginning. Further making it easy for us to conclude that it
is a one-shot case study research.
Employee Skill Evaluation
Before employing a job seeker, organizations conduct tests that are used to screen out less
qualified candidates from the pool of qualified applicants. This way, organizations can
determine an employee's skill set at the point of employment. In the course of employment,
organizations also carry out employee training to improve employee productivity and generally
grow the organization. Further evaluation is carried out at the end of each training to test the
impact of the training on employee skills, and test for improvement. Here, the subject is the

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employee, while the treatment is the training conducted. This is a pretest-posttest control group
experimental research example.
Conclusion
Experimental research designs are often considered to be the standard in research designs. This
is partly due to the common misconception that research is equivalent to scientific
experiments—a component of experimental research design. In this research design, one or
more subjects or dependent variables are randomly assigned to different treatments (i.e.
independent variables manipulated by the researcher) and the results are observed to conclude.
One of the uniqueness of experimental research is in its ability to control the effect of
extraneous variables. Experimental research is suitable for research whose goal is to examine
cause-effect relationships, e.g. explanatory research. It can be conducted in the laboratory or
field settings, depending on the aim of the research that is being carried out.

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Lesson 15
ACTION RESEARCH DESIGN
Topic 015: Action Research Design
Action Research
Action research can be defined as “an approach in which the action researcher and a client
collaborate in the diagnosis of the problem and in the development of a solution based on the
diagnosis”. In other words, one of the main characteristic traits of action research relates to
collaboration between researcher and member of organisation in order to solve organizational
problems. Action study assumes social world to be constantly changing, both, researcher and
research being one part of that change.
Action Research Design
Action research design is an educational research involving collecting information regarding
current educational programs and outcomes, analyzing the information, developing a plan
to improve it, collecting changes after a new plan is implemented, and developing
conclusions regarding the improvements. The main purpose of action research is to improve
educational programs within schools.
Types of Action Researchers
Generally, action researches can be divided into three categories: positivist, interpretive and
critical.
1. Positivist approach to action research, also known as ‘classical action research’
perceives research as a social experiment. Accordingly, action research is accepted as a
method to test hypotheses in a real world environment.
2. Interpretive action research, also known as ‘contemporary action research’ perceives
business reality as socially constructed and focuses on specifications of local and
organisational factors when conducting the action research.
3. Critical action research is a specific type of action research that adopts critical approach
towards business processes and aims for improvements.
Types of Action Research Design
The four main types of action research design are individual research, collaborative research,
school-wide research and district-wide research.
4. Individual Research
Individual action research is research conducted by one teacher or staff member. This type
of research is conducted to analyze a specific task. A teacher may wonder if implementing
group activities within an English class will help improve learning. The teacher alone
performs research by implementing a group activity for a certain length of time. After the
action is performed, the teacher analyzes the results, implements changes, or discards the
program if not found to be helpful.
5. Collaborative Research
Collaborative research involves a group of people researching a specified topic. With
collaborative research, more than one person is involved in the implementation of the new
program. Typically, a group of students, larger than just one class, are tested, and the results
are analyzed. Many times collaborative research involves both teachers and the principal of

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the school. This type of research offers the collaboration of many people working jointly on
one subject. The joint collaboration often offers more benefits than an individual action
research approach.
6. School-Wide Research
Action research programs are generally created from a problem found within an entire school.
When a program is researched for an entire school, it is called school-wide action research.
For this type of action research, a school may have concerns about a school-wide problem.
This can be lack of parental involvement or research to increase students' performance in a
certain subject. The entire staff works together through this research to study the problem,
implement changes, and correct the problem or increase performance.
7. District-Wide Research
District-wide research is used for an entire school district. This type of action research is
usually more community-based than the other types. This type may also be used to address
organizational problems within the entire district. For district-wide research, staff from each
school in the district, collaborates in correcting the problem or finding ways to improve the
situation.
Features of Action Research
The following features of action research need to be taken into account when considering its
suitability for any given study:
 It is applied in order to improve specific practices. Action research is based on action,
evaluation and critical analysis of practices based on collected data in order to introduce
improvements in relevant practices.
 This type of research is facilitated by participation and collaboration of number of
individuals with a common purpose
 Such a research focuses on specific situations and their context
Advantages of Action Research
 High level of practical relevance of the business research;
 Can be used with quantitative, as well as, qualitative data;
 Possibility to gain in-depth knowledge about the problem.
Disadvantages of Action Research
 Difficulties in distinguishing between action and research and ensure the application of
both;
 Delays in completion of action research due to a wide range of reasons are not rare
occurrences
 Lack of repeatability and rigour
It is important to make a clear distinction between action research and consulting. Specifically,
action research is greater than consulting in a way that action research includes both action and
research, whereas business activities of consulting are limited action without the research.
Action Research Spiral
Action study is a participatory study consisting of spiral of following self-reflective cycles:
1. Planning in order to initiate change

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2. Implementing the change (acting) and observing the process of implementation and
consequences
3. Reflecting on processes of change and re-planning
4. Acting and observing
5. Reflecting

Action Research Spiral

Kemmis and McTaggart (2000) do acknowledge that individual stages specified in Action
Research Spiral model may overlap, and initial plan developed for the research may become
obselete in short duration of time due to a range of factors. The main advantage of Action
Research Spiral model relates to the opportunity of analysing the phenomenon in a greater
depth each time, consequently resulting in grater level of understanding of the problem.
Disadvantages of Action Research Spiral model include its assumption each process takes
long time to be completed which may not always be the case.

References
Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011) “Business Research Methods” 3rd edition, Oxford University
Press
Collis, J. & Hussey, R. (2003) “Business Research. A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and
Graduate Students” 2nd edition, Palgrave Macmillan.

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Lesson 16
MIXED METHOD RESEARCH
Topic 016: Mixed Method Research
Introduction
The term “mixed methods” refers to an emergent methodology of research that advances the
systematic integration, or “mixing,” of quantitative and qualitative data within a single
investigation or sustained program of inquiry. The basic premise of this methodology is that
such integration permits a more complete and synergistic utilization of data than do separate
quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis.
Definition
Mixed methods research is a procedure for collecting, analyzing and “mixing” both quantitative
and qualitative methods in a single study or a series of studies to understand a research problem.
-Creswell & Plano Clark(2011).
Aim of Mixed Method Research
The purpose of this form of research is that both qualitative and quantitative research, in
combination, provide a better understanding of a research problem or issue than either research
approach alone.
Use of Mixed Method Research in Different fields
Mixed methods research originated in the social sciences and has recently expanded into the
health and medical sciences including fields such as nursing, family medicine, social work,
mental health, pharmacy, allied health, and others. In the last decade, its procedures have been
developed and refined to suit a wide variety of research questions (Creswell and Plano Clark,
2011).
Characteristics of Mixed Method Research
The core characteristics of a well-designed mixed methods study in research include the
following:
1. Collecting and analyzing both quantitative (closed-ended) and qualitative (open-ended)
data.
2. Using rigorous procedures in collecting and analyzing data appropriate to each method’s
tradition, such as ensuring the appropriate sample size for quantitative and qualitative
analysis.
3. Integrating the data during data collection, analysis, or discussion.
4. Using procedures that implement qualitative and quantitative components either
concurrently or sequentially, with the same sample or with different samples.
5. Framing the procedures within philosophical/theoretical models of research, such as within
a social constructionist model that seeks to understand multiple perspectives on a single
issue—for example, what patients, caregivers, clinicians, and practice staff would
characterize as “high quality treatment” .
Mix Method Research Questions
A strong mixed methods study should contain the qualitative question, the quantitative question
or hypothesis, and a mixed methods question. This configuration is necessary because mixed
methods does not rely exclusively on either qualitative or quantitative research but on both
forms of inquiry.

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Mixed methods research question examples

 To what extent does the frequency of traffic accidents (quantitative) reflect cyclist
perceptions of road safety (qualitative) in Amsterdam?
 How do student perceptions of their school environment (qualitative) relate to differences
in test scores (quantitative)?
 How do interviews about job satisfaction at Company X (qualitative) help explain year-
over-year sales performance and other KPIs (quantitative)?
 How can voter and non-voter beliefs about democracy (qualitative) help explain election
turnout patterns (quantitative) in Town X?
 How do average hospital salary measurements over time (quantitative) help to explain
nurse testimonials about job satisfaction (qualitative)?
Checklist for Mixed Method Research Design

When to use mixed methods research

Mixed methods research may be the right choice if your research process suggests that
quantitative or qualitative data alone will not sufficiently answer your research question. There
are several common reasons for using mixed methods research:
 Generalizability: Qualitative research usually has a smaller sample size, and thus is
not generalizable. In mixed methods research, this comparative weakness is mitigated by
the comparative strength of “large N,” externally valid quantitative research.
 Contextualization: Mixing methods allows you to put findings in context and add richer
detail to your conclusions. Using qualitative data to illustrate quantitative findings can
help “put meat on the bones” of your analysis.
 Credibility: Using different methods to collect data on the same subject can make your
results more credible. If the qualitative and quantitative data converge, this strengthens
the validity of your conclusions. This process is called triangulation.
As you formulate your research question, try to directly address how qualitative and
quantitative methods will be combined in your study. If your research question can be
sufficiently answered via standalone quantitative or qualitative analysis, a mixed methods
approach may not be the right fit.

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Research example: You want to research cycling safety in high-traffic areas of Amsterdam.
If you’re interested in the frequency of accidents and where they occur, this could be a
straightforward quantitative analysis. If you’re interested in the nature of complaints submitted
by cyclists, or their perceptions about cycling in particular areas, then a qualitative approach
may fit best. But mixed methods might be a good choice if you want to meaningfully integrate
both of these questions in one research study. For example, you could use a mixed methods
design to investigate whether areas perceived as dangerous have high accident rates, or to
explore why specific areas are more dangerous for cyclists than others. Keep in mind that mixed
methods research doesn’t just mean collecting both types of data; you need to carefully
consider the relationship between the two and how you’ll integrate them into coherent
conclusions. Mixed methods can be very challenging to put into practice, so it’s a less common
choice than standalone qualitative or qualitative research.
Mixed methods research designs
There are different types of mixed methods research designs. The differences between them
relate to the aim of the research, the timing of the data collection, and the importance given to
each data type.
As you design your mixed methods study, also keep in mind:
 Your research approach (inductive vs deductive)
 Your research questions
 What kind of data is already available for you to use
 What kind of data you’re able to collect yourself.
The four major mixed methods designs are identified below and compared in terms of their
purposes, strengths and weaknesses. Examples of each design are also described.
1. Convergent parallel
In a convergent parallel design, you collect quantitative and qualitative data at the same time
and analyze them separately. After both analyses are complete, compare your results to draw
overall conclusions. In this design only one data collection phase is used, during which
quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis are conducted separately yet
concurrently. The findings are integrated during the interpretation phase of the study. Usually,
equal priority is given to both types of research.
When to use it?
 To develop a more complete understanding of a topic or phenomenon.
 To cross-validate or corroborate findings.
Strengths
 Provides well-validated and substantiated findings.
 Compared to sequential designs, data collection takes less time.
Weaknesses
 Requires great effort and expertise to adequately use two separate methods at the same
time.
 It can be difficult to compare the results of two analysis using data of different forms.

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 It may be unclear how to resolve discrepancies that arise while comparing the results.
 Given that data collection is conducted concurrently, results of one method (e.g., interview)
cannot be integrated in the other method (e.g., survey).
Example 1: The researcher uses a survey to assess people’s self-reported food safety practices
and also observes those practices in their natural environment. By comparing the two types of
data, the researcher can see if there is a match between what people think they are doing and
what they are actually doing in terms of food safety practices.
Example 2: In your research on cycling safety in Amsterdam, you undertake both sides of your
research simultaneously:
 On the qualitative side, you analyze cyclist complaints via the city’s database and on
social media to find out which areas are perceived as dangerous and why.
 On the quantitative side, you analyze accident reports in the city’s database to find out
how frequently accidents occur in different areas of the city.
When you finish your data collection and analysis, you then compare results and tie your
findings together.
2. Embedded Research Design
In an embedded design, you collect and analyze both types of data at the same time, but within
a larger quantitative or qualitative design. One type of data is secondary to the other. This is a
good approach to take if you have limited time or resources. You can use an embedded design
to strengthen or supplement your conclusions from the primary type of research design. In this
design only one data collection phase is used, during which a predominant method (quantitative
or qualitative) nests or embeds the other less priority method (qualitative or quantitative,
respectively). This nesting may mean that the embedded method addresses a different question
than the dominant method or seeks information from different levels. The data collected from
the two methods are mixed during the analysis phase of the project.
When to use it?
 To gain broader and in-depth perspectives on a topic.
 To offset possible weaknesses inherent to the predominant method.
Strengths:
 Two types of data are collected simultaneously, reducing time and resources (e.g., number
of participants).
 Provides a study with the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative data.
Weaknesses:
 The data needs to be transformed in some way so that both types of data can be integrated
during the analysis, which can be difficult.
 Inequality between different methods may result in unequal evidence within the study,
which can be a disadvantage when interpreting the results.
Example 1: The researcher collects data to assess people’s knowledge and risk perceptions
about genetically modified food by using a survey instrument that mixes qualitative (open-
ended) and quantitative (closed-ended) questions, and both forms of data are integrated and
analysed.

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Example 2: As part of a quantitative study testing whether the number of cyclist complaints
about an area correlates with the number of accidents, you could “embed” a series of qualitative
interviews with cyclists who submitted complaints to further strengthen your argument. The
bulk of your research remains quantitative.
Explanatory sequential
In an explanatory sequential design, your quantitative data collection and analysis occurs first,
followed by qualitative data collection and analysis. You should use this design if you think
your qualitative data will explain and contextualize your quantitative findings. This design
involves the collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by the collection and analysis
of qualitative data. The priority is given to the quantitative data, and the findings are integrated
during the interpretation phase of the study.
When to use it?
 To help explain, interpret or contextualize quantitative findings.
 To examine in more detail unexpected results from a quantitative study.
Strengths:
 Easy to implement because the steps fall into clear separate stages.
 The design is easy to describe and the results easy to report.
Weaknesses:
 Requires a substantial length of time to complete all data collection given the two separate
phases.
Example 1:The researcher collects data about people’s risk and benefit perceptions of red meat
using a survey and follows up with interviews with a few individuals who participated in the
survey to learn in more detail about their survey responses (e.g., to understand the thought
process of people with low risk perceptions).
Example 2: You analyze the accident statistics first and draw preliminary conclusions about
which areas are most dangerous. Based on these findings, you conduct interviews with cyclists
in high-accident areas and analyze complaints qualitatively. You can utilize the qualitative data
to explain why accidents occur on specific roads, and take a deep dive into particular problem
areas.
Exploratory sequential
In an exploratory sequential design, qualitative data collection and analysis occurs first,
followed by quantitative data collection and analysis. You can use this design to
first explore initial questions and develop hypotheses. Then you can use the quantitative data
to test or confirm your qualitative findings. In this design, qualitative data collection and
analysis is followed by quantitative data collection and analysis. The priority is given to the
qualitative aspect of the study, and the findings are integrated during the interpretation phase
of the study.
When to use it?
 To explore a phenomenon and to expand on qualitative findings.
 To test elements of an emergent theory resulting from the qualitative research.

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 To generalize qualitative findings to different samples in order to determine the distribution

of a phenomenon within a chosen population.
 To develop and test a new instrument
Strengths:
 Easy to implement because the steps fall into clear, separate stages.
 The design is easy to describe and the results easy to report.
Weaknesses:
 Requires a substantial length of time to complete all data collection given the two separate
phases.
 It may be difficult to build from the qualitative analysis to the subsequent data collection.
Example 1: The researcher explores people's beliefs and knowledge regarding nutritional
information by starting with in-store interviews and then uses an analysis of the information to
develop a survey instrument that is administered later to a sample from a population.
Example 2: You first interview cyclists to develop an initial understanding of problem areas,
and draw preliminary conclusions. Then you analyze accident statistics to test whether cyclist
perceptions line up with where accidents occur.
Types of mixed methods research designs
When deciding what type of mixed methods design to use, it is important to take into account
the overall purpose of the research (e.g., exploration or generalization), the specific research
questions, and the strengths and weaknesses of each design.
Once a mixed methods research design has been selected, one has to decide which specific
research methods and instruments/measures should be incorporated/mixed in the research
program. This decision should be determined by the overall purpose of the research (e.g.,
exploration, explanation, theory-building, theory-testing, and generalization), the specific
research questions, and the advantages and disadvantages of each research method.
Advantages of Mixed Method Research
Using a mixed methods study has several advantages, which we discuss below.
Compares quantitative and qualitative data. Mixed methods are especially useful in
understanding contradictions between quantitative results and qualitative findings.
Reflects participants’ point of view. Mixed methods give a voice to study participants and
ensure that study findings are grounded in participants’ experiences.
Fosters scholarly interaction. Such studies add breadth to multidisciplinary team research by
encouraging the interaction of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods scholars.
Provides methodological flexibility. Mixed methods have great flexibility and are adaptable
to many study designs, such as observational studies and randomized trials, to elucidate more
information than can be obtained in only quantitative research.
Collects rich, comprehensive data. Mixed methods also mirror the way individuals naturally
collect information—by integrating quantitative and qualitative data. For example, sports
stories frequently integrate quantitative data (scores or number of errors) with qualitative data
(descriptions and images of highlights) to provide a more complete story than either method
would alone.

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Disadvantages of Mixed Method Research

Mixed methods studies are challenging to implement, especially when they are used to evaluate
complex interventions such as a PCMH model. Below we discuss several challenges.
Increases the complexity of evaluations. Mixed methods studies are complex to plan and
conduct. They require careful planning to describe all aspects of research, including the study
sample for qualitative and quantitative portions (identical, embedded, or parallel); timing (the
sequence of qualitative and quantitative portions); and the plan for integrating data. Integrating
qualitative and quantitative data during analysis is often a challenging phase for many
researchers.
Relies on a multidisciplinary team of researchers. Conducting high-quality mixed methods
studies requires a multidisciplinary team of researchers who, in the service of the larger study,
must be open to methods that may not be their area of expertise. Finding qualitative experts
who are also comfortable discussing quantitative analyses and vice versa can be challenging in
many environments. Given that each method must adhere to its own standards for rigor,
ensuring appropriate quality of each component of a mixed methods study can be difficult. For
example, quantitative analyses require much larger sample sizes to obtain statistical
significance than do qualitative analyses, which require meeting goals of saturation (not
uncovering new information from conducting more interviews) and relevance. Embedded
samples, in which a qualitative subsample is embedded within a larger quantitative sample, can
be useful in cases of inadequate statistical power.
Requires increased resources. Finally, mixed methods studies are labor intensive and require
greater resources and time than those needed to conduct a single method study.

References
Creswell, J. W. & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and
Mixed Methods Approaches. SAGE Publications.

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Lesson 17
SAMPLING IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Topic 017: Sampling in Quantitative Research
Sampling
Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make
statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population.
Types of sampling
Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. Let’s take a closer look at these two methods of sampling.
1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets
a selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members
have an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.
2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members
for research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process.
This makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be
included in a sample.

Sampling in Quantitative Research

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being
selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are
representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid
choice. There are four main types of probability sample.

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1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.
Example 1: You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of Company X.
You assign a number to every employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a
random number generator to select 100 numbers.
Example 2: In an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team
building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this
case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
Example 1: All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10
numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th
person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100
people. If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in
the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by
team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might
skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.
Example 2: A researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population
of 5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every
10th individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup

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is properly represented in the sample. To use this sampling method, you divide the population
into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age range,
income bracket, job role). Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate
how many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic
sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
Example 1: The Company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to
ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population
into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80
women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.
Example 2: A researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different
annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg
– less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing
this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different income
groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to
create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.
Proportionate versus Disproportionate If the number of sampling units drawn from each
stratum is in proportion to the relative population size of the stratum, the sample is
proportionate stratified sampling. Sometime, however, a disproportionate stratified sample will
be selected to ensure an adequate number of sampling units in every stratum. In a
disproportionate, sample size for each stratum is not allocated in proportion to the population
size, but is dictated by analytical considerations.
4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup
should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from
each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.If it is practically possible, you might
include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you
can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This
is called multistage sampling. This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed
populations, but there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial
differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really
representative of the whole population.
Example 1: The Company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same
number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to
collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
Example 2: if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants
living in the Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California,
Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be
more effective as the results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration
data.
Double Sampling
This plan is adopted when further information is needed from a subset of the group from which
some information has already been collected for the same study. A sampling design where
initially a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest, and
later a sub-sample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail, is called
double sampling.

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Uses of probability sampling

There are multiple uses of probability sampling:
 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample
derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly
depicts the understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to
higher quality data collection as the sample appropriately represents the population.
 Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have
adequate representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For
example, if Square would like to understand the people that could make their point-of-sale
devices, a survey conducted from a sample of people across the US from different industries
and socio-economic backgrounds helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create
an accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.
What is the Appropriate Sample Design?
A researcher who must make a decision concerning the most appropriate sample design for a
specific project will identify a number of sampling criteria and evaluate the relative importance
of each criterion before selecting a sample design. The most common criteria are:
Degree of Accuracy
Selecting a representative sample is, of course, important to all researchers. However, the error
may vary from project to project, especially when cost saving or another benefit may be a trade-
off for reduction in accuracy.
Resources
The costs associated with the different sampling techniques vary tremendously. If the
researcher’s financial and human resources are restricted, this limitation of resources will
eliminate certain methods. For a graduate student working on a master’s thesis, conducting a
national survey is almost always out of the question because of limited resources. Managers
usually weigh the cost of research versus the value of information often will opt to save money
by using non-probability sampling design rather than make the decision to conduct no research
at all.
Advance Knowledge of the Population
Advance knowledge of population characteristics, such as the availability of lists of population
members, is an important criterion. A lack of adequate list may automatically rule out any type
of probability sampling.

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National versus Local Project

Geographic proximity of population elements will influence sample design. When population
elements are unequally distributed geographically, a cluster sampling may become more
attractive.
Need for Statistical Analysis
The need for statistical projections based on the sample is often a criterion. Non-probability
sampling techniques do not allow researcher to use statistical analysis to project the data
beyond the sample.

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Lesson 18
SAMPLING FRAME, SAMPLING SIZE, ERROR
Topic 018: Sampling Frame, Sampling Size, Error
Introduction
A sample is a subset, or some part, of a larger whole. A larger whole could be anything out
which sample is taken. That „whole‟ could be a bucket of water, a bag of sugar, a group of
organizations, a group of students, a group of customers, or a group mid-level managers in an
organization. A complete group of entities sharing some common set of characteristics is
population. In other words, the totality out of which sample is drawn is referred to as
population.
Why we draw a sample?
1. Saves Cost, Labor, and Time
Applied research projects usually have budget and time constraints. Since sample can save
financial cost as well as time, therefore, to go for sample study is pragmatic. Of course, a
researcher investigating a population with an extremely small number of population elements
may elect to conduct a study on the total population rather than a sample because cost, labor,
and time constraints are relatively insignificant. Although sample study cuts costs, reduces
labor requirements, and gathers vital information quickly, yet there could be other reasons.
2. Quality Management/supervision
Professional fieldworkers are a scarce commodity. In a large study rather than employing less
qualified staff it may be advisable to do a sample study and employ highly qualified
professional fieldworkers. It can certainly affect the quality of the study. At the same time it
may be easier to manage a small group and produce quality information. Supervision, record
keeping, training, and so forth would all be more difficult in a very large study.
3. Accurate and Reliable Results
Another major reason for sampling is that samples, if properly selected, are sufficiently
accurate in most of the cases. If the elements of a population are quite similar, only a small
sample is necessary to accurately portray the characteristics of interest. Most of us have had
blood samples taken from the finger, the arm, or another part of body. The assumption is that
blood is sufficiently similar throughout the body, the characteristics of the blood can be
determined on the basis of sample. When the elements of population are highly homogenous,
samples are highly representative of the population. Under these circumstances almost any
sample is as good as another. Samples may be more accurate than census. In a census study of
large population there is a greater likelihood of non-sampling errors. In a survey mistakes may
occur that are unrelated to the selection of people in the study. For example, a response may be
coded incorrectly, or the keyboard operator might make data entry error. Interviewer mistakes,
tabulation errors, and other non-sampling errors may increase during census because of the
increased volume of work. In sample increased accuracy is possible because the fieldwork and
tabulation of the data can be closely supervised than would be possible in a census. In field
survey, a small, well trained, closely supervised group may do a more careful and accurate job
of collecting information than a large group of nonprofessional interviewers trying to contact
everyone.

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4. Sampling may be the Only Way

Many research projects, especially those in quality control testing, require the destruction of
the items being tested. If the manufacturer of firecrackers wished to find out whether each
product met a specific production standard, there would be no product left after testing.
Similarly, consider the case of electric bulbs. In testing the life of bulbs, if we were to burn
every bulb produced, there would be none left to sell. This is destructive sampling.
5. Determine the Period of Study
Interviewing every element of a large population without sampling requires lot of time, may
be a year or more. In such a long period study, even the seasonal variation may influence the
response pattern of the respondents. For example, if the study was aimed at measuring the level
of unemployment in a given large city, the unemployment rate produced by the survey data
would not refer to the city as of the beginning of interviewing or as of the end. Researcher may
be forced to attribute the unemployment to some hypothetical date, representing to the midpoint
of the study period. Hence it will be difficult to determine the exact timing to which the data
of the study pertains.
Sampling Terminology
There are a number of technical terms used in books on research and statistics which need
explanation. Some of the important terms are:
Element
An element is that unit about which information is collected and which provides the basis of
analysis. Typically, in survey research, elements are people or certain types of people. It is that
unit about which information is collected and that provides the basis of analysis. It can be a
person, groups, families, organizations, corporations, communities, and so forth.
Population
A population is the theoretically specified aggregation of study elements. It is translating the
abstract concept into workable concept. For example, let us look at the study of “college
students.” Theoretically who are the college students? They might include students registered
in government colleges and/or private colleges, students of intermediate classes and/or
graduate classes, students of professional colleges and/or non-professional colleges, and many
other variations. In this way the pool of all available elements is population.
Target Population
Out of the conceptual variations what exactly the researcher wants to focus on. This may also
be called a target population. Target population is the complete group of specific population
elements relevant to the research project. Target population may also be called survey
population i.e. that aggregation of elements from which the survey sample is actually selected.
At the outset of the sampling process, it is vitally important to carefully define the target
population so that the proper source from which the data is to be collected can be identified. In
our example of „college students” finally we may decide to study the college students from
government institutions located in Lahore, who are studying social sciences, who are aged 19
years of age, and hailing from rural areas.
Sampling Frame
In actual practice the sample will be drawn from a list of population elements that is often
different from the target population that has been defined. A sampling frame is the list of
elements from which the sample may be drawn. A simple example could be listing of all college

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students meeting the criteria of target population and who are enrolled on the specified date. A
sampling frame is also called the working population because it provides the list that can be
worked with operationally. In our example, such a list could be prepared with help of the staff
of the selected colleges.
Sampling Frame Error
A sampling frame error occurs when certain sample elements are excluded or when the entire
population is not accurately represented in the sampling frame. The error that occurs when
certain sample elements are not listed or available and are not represented in the sampling
frame.
Sampling Unit A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in
some stage of sampling. Sampling may be done in single stage or in multiple stages. In a simple,
single-stage sample, the sampling units are the same as the elements. In more complex samples,
however, different levels of sampling units may be employed. For example, a researcher may
select a sample of Mohallahs in a city, and then select a sample of households from the selected
Mohallahs, and finally may select a sample of adults from the selected households. The
sampling units of these three stages of sampling are respectively Mohallah, households, and
adults, of which the last of these are the elements. More specifically, the terms “primary
sampling units,” “secondary sampling units,” and “final sampling units” would be used to
designate the successive stages.
Observation Unit
An observation unit, or unit of data collection, is an element or aggregation of elements from
which the information is collected. Often the unit of analysis and unit of observation are the
same – the individual person – but this need not be the case. Thus the researcher may interview
heads of household (the observation units) to collect information about every member of the
household (the unit of analysis).
Parameter A parameter is the summary description of a given variable in a population. The
mean income of all families in a city and the age distribution of the city‟s population are
parameters. An important part of survey research involves the estimation of population
parameters on the basis of sample observation.
Statistic A statistic is the summary description of a given variable in a survey sample. Thus
the mean income computed from the survey sample and the age distribution of that sample are
statistics. Sample statistics are used to make estimates of the population parameters.
The Cochran formula allows you to calculate an ideal sample size given a desired level
of precision, desired confidence level, and the estimated proportion of the attribute present in
the population. Cochran’s formula is considered especially appropriate in situations with large
populations. A sample of any given size provides more information about a smaller population
than a larger one, so there’s a ‘correction’ through which the number given by Cochran’s
formula can be reduced if the whole population is relatively small.
Sample Size
A sample size is a part of the population chosen for a survey or experiment. For example, you
might take a survey of dog owner’s brand preferences. You won’t want to survey all the
millions of dog owners in the country (either because it’s too expensive or time consuming),
so you take a sample size. That may be several thousand owners. The sample size is
a representation of all dog owner’s brand preferences. If you choose your sample wisely, it
will be a good representation.

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How to Find a Sample Size in Statistics

A sample is a percentage of the total population in statistics. You can use the data from
a sample to make inferences about a population as a whole. For example, the standard
deviation of a sample can be used to approximate the standard deviation of a population.
Finding a sample size can be one of the most challenging tasks in statistics and depends upon
many factors including the size of your original population.
General Tips
Step 1: Conduct a Survey
if you have a small population. A “small” population will depend on your budget and time
constraints. For example, it may take a day to take a census of a student body at a small private
university of 1,000 students but you may not have the time to survey 10,000 students at a large
state university.
Step 2: Use a sample size from a similar study
Chances are, your type of study has already been undertaken by someone else. You’ll need
access to academic databases to search for a study (usually your school or college will have
access). A pitfall: you’ll be relying on someone else correctly calculating the sample size. Any
errors they have made in their calculations will transfer over to your study.
Step 3: Use a table
To find your sample size. If you have a fairly generic study, then there is probably a table for
it. For example, if you have a clinical study, you may be able to use a table published in Machin
et. al’s Sample Size Tables for Clinical Studies, Third Edition.
Step 4: Use a sample size calculator
Various calculators are available online, some simple, some more complex and specialized.
For example, this calculator is for group- or cluster-randomized trials (GRTs).
Step 5: Use a formula.
There are many different formulas you can use, depending on what you know (or don’t know)
about your population. If you know some parameters about your population (like a known
standard deviation), you can use the techniques below. If you don’t know much about your
population, use Slovin’s formula.(n = N/ (1+Ne2)
Sample Size for Known Population
Taro Yamne’s Sample Size Formula

Cochran’s Sample Size Formula

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Sampling Error
A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that
represents the entire population of data. As a result, the results found in the sample do not
represent the results that would be obtained from the entire population. Sampling is an analysis
performed by selecting a number of observations from a larger population. The method of
selection can produce both sampling errors and non-sampling errors.
 A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is not representative of the
whole population.
 Sampling is an analysis performed by selecting a number of observations from a larger
population.
 Even randomized samples will have some degree of sampling error because a sample is
only an approximation of the population from which it is drawn.
 The prevalence of sampling errors can be reduced by increasing the sample size.
 Random sampling is an additional way to minimize the occurrence of sampling errors.
 In general, sampling errors can be placed into four categories: population-specific error,
selection error, sample frame error, or non-response error.
 Population from which it is drawn.
Types of Sampling Errors
There are different categories of sampling errors.
1. Population-Specific Error
A population-specific error occurs when a researcher doesn't understand who to survey.
2. Selection Error
Selection error occurs when the survey is self-selected, or when only those participants who
are interested in the survey respond to the questions. Researchers can attempt to overcome
selection error by finding ways to encourage participation.
3. Sample Frame Error
A sample frame error occurs when a sample is selected from the wrong population data.

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4. Non-response Error
A non-response error occurs when a useful response is not obtained from the surveys because
researchers were unable to contact potential respondents (or potential respondents refused to
respond).
Examples of Sampling Errors
Assume that XYZ Company provides a subscription-based service that allows consumers to
pay a monthly fee to stream videos and other types of programming via an Internet connection.
 The firm wants to survey homeowners who watch at least 10 hours of programming via the
Internet per week and that pay for an existing video streaming service. XYZ wants to
determine what percentage of the population is interested in a lower-priced subscription
service. If XYZ does not think carefully about the sampling process, several types of
sampling errors may occur.
 A population specification error would occur if XYZ Company does not understand the
specific types of consumers who should be included in the sample. For example, if XYZ
creates a population of people between the ages of 15 and 25 years old, many of those
consumers do not make the purchasing decision about a video streaming service because
they do not work full-time. On the other hand, if XYZ put together a sample of working
adults who make purchase decisions, the consumers in this group may not watch 10 hours
of video programming each week.
 Selection error also causes distortions in the results of a sample. A common example is a
survey that only relies on a small portion of people who immediately respond. If XYZ
makes an effort to follow up with consumers who don’t initially respond, the results of the
survey may change. Furthermore, if XYZ excludes consumers who don’t respond right
away, the sample results may not reflect the preferences of the entire population.
Sampling Error vs. Non-sampling Error
There are different types of errors that can occur when gathering statistical data. Sampling
errors are the seemingly random differences between the characteristics of a sample population
and those of the general population. Sampling errors arise because sample sizes are inevitably
limited. (It is impossible to sample an entire population in a survey or a census.) A sampling
error can result even when no mistakes of any kind are made; sampling errors occur because
no sample will ever perfectly match the data in the universe from which the sample is taken.
Company XYZ will also want to avoid non-sampling errors. Non-sampling errors are errors
that result during data collection and cause the data to differ from the true values. Non-sampling
errors are caused by human error, such as a mistake made in the survey process. If one group
of consumers only watches five hours of video programming a week and is included in the
survey, that decision is a non-sampling error. Asking questions that are biased is another type
of error.
Why Is Sampling Error Important?
Being aware of the presence of sampling errors is important because it can be an indicator of
the level of confidence that can be placed in the results. Sampling error is also important in the
context of a discussion about how much research results can vary.
How Do You Find a Sampling Error?
In survey research, sampling errors occur because all samples are representative samples: a
smaller group that stands in for the whole of your research population. It's impossible to survey

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the entire group of people you'd like to reach. It’s not usually possible to quantify the degree
of sampling error in a study since it's impossible to collect the relevant data from the entire
population you are studying. This is why researchers collect representative samples (and
representative samples are the reason why there are sampling errors).
What Is Sampling Error and Sampling?
Sampling errors are statistical errors that arise when a sample does not represent the whole
population. In statistics, sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data
from in your research.

The sampling error formula is used to calculate the overall sampling error in statistical analysis.
The sampling error is calculated by dividing the standard deviation of the population by the
square root of the size of the sample, and then multiplying the resultant with the Z score value,
which is based on the confidence interval.

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Lesson 19
METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Topic 019: Methods of Quantitative Research
Introduction
Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical,
mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and
surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques.
Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across
groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

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Strengths of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative researchers try to recognize and isolate specific variables contained within
the study framework, seek correlation, relationships and causality, and attempt to control
the environment in which the data is collected to avoid the risk of var iables, other than
the one being studied, accounting for the relationships identified. Among the specific
strengths of using quantitative methods to study social science research problems:
 Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the
generalization of the results.
 Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative methods
are designed to provide summaries of data that support generalizations about the
phenomenon under study. In order to accomplish this, quantitative research usually
involves few variables and many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to ensure
validity and reliability.
 Applying well established standards means that the research can be replicated, and
then analyzed and compared with similar studies.
 You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across
categories and over time.

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 Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects and
using accepted computational techniques.
Limitations of Using Quantitative Methods
Quantitative methods presume to have an objective approach to studying research
problems, where data is controlled and measured, to address the accumulation of facts,
and to determine the causes of behavior. As a consequence, the results of quantitative
research may be statistically significant but are often humanly insignificant. Some
specific limitations associated with using quantitative methods to study research problems
in the social sciences include:
 Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual
detail.
 Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of discovery.
 The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to "structural bias" and
false representation, where the data actually reflects the view of the researcher instead
of the participating subject.
 Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation.
 Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset.
 Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed
narrative and generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception.
 The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level
of control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be
in place in the real world thus yielding "laboratory results" as opposed to "real world
results".
 Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and,
in some cases, might just be the closest match to the preconceived hypothesis.

References
Babbie, Earl R. (2010).The Practice of Social Research. 12th ed. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Cengage, Muijs, Daniel. Doing Quantitative Research in Education
with SPSS. 2nd edition. London: SAGE Publications.

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Lesson 20
SURVEY RESEARCH
Topic 020: Survey Research
Introduction
A survey is a systematic method for gathering information from (a sample of) entities for the
purposes of constructing quantitative descriptors of the attributes of the larger population of
which the entities are members. Surveys are conducted to gather information that reflects
population’s attitudes, behaviors, opinions and beliefs that cannot be observed directly. The
success of survey research depends on how closely the answers that people give to survey
questions match how people think and act in reality.
Reasons to conduct survey research
The most crucial and integral reason for conducting market research using surveys is that you
can collect answers regarding specific, essential questions. You can ask these questions in
multiple formats as per the target audience and the intent of the survey. Before designing a
study, every organization must figure out the objective of carrying this out so that the study
can be structured, planned, and executed to perfection.
Questions that need to be on your mind while designing a survey are:
 What is the primary aim of conducting the survey?
 How do you plan to utilize the collected survey data?
 What type of decisions you plan to take based on the points mentioned above.
 There are three critical reasons why an organization must conduct survey research.
Understand respondent behavior to get solutions to your queries: If you’ve carefully
curated a survey, the respondents will provide insights about what they like about your
organization as well as suggestions for improvement. To motivate them to respond, you must
be very vocal about how secure their responses will be and how you will utilize the answers.
This will push them to be 100% honest about their feedback, opinions, and comments. Online
surveys or mobile surveys have proved their privacy, and due to this, more and more
respondents feel free to put forth their feedback through these mediums.
Present a medium for discussion: A survey can be the perfect platform for respondents to
provide criticism or applause for an organization. Important topics like product quality or
quality of customer service etc. can be put on the table for discussion. A way you can do it is
by including open-ended questions where the respondents can write their thoughts. This will
make it easy for you to correlate your survey to what you intend to do with your product or
service.
Strategy for never-ending improvements: An organization can establish the target audience's
attributes from the pilot phase of survey research. Researchers can use the criticism and
feedback received from this survey to improve the product/services. Once the company
successfully makes the improvements, it can send out another survey to measure the change in
feedback keeping the pilot phase the benchmark. By doing this activity, the organization can
track what was effectively improved and what still needs improvement.

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Characteristics of Survey
Kraemer (1991) identified three distinguishing characteristics of survey research (p. xiii).
 Survey research is used to quantitatively describe specific aspects of a given population.
These aspects often involve examining the relationships among variables.
 The data required for survey research are collected from people and are, therefore,
subjective.
 Survey research uses a selected portion of the population from which the findings can
later be generalized back to the population.
BASIC SURVEY DESIGNS
Cross-Sectional Surveys: Data are collected at one point in time from a sample selected to
represent a larger population.
Longitudinal Surveys: Data are collected at multiple point in time from a sample selected to
represent a larger population.
Trend: Surveys of sample population at different points in time
Cohort: Study of same population each time data are collected, although samples studied may
be different
Panel: Collection of data at various time points with the same sample of respondents.
Benefits of survey research
In case survey research is used for all the right purposes and is implemented properly, marketers
can benefit by gaining useful, trustworthy data that they can use to better the ROI of the
organization. Other benefits of survey research are:
 Minimum investment: Mobile surveys and online surveys have minimal finance invested
per respondent. Even with the gifts and other incentives provided to the people who
participate in the study, online surveys are extremely economical compared to the paper-
based surveys.
 Versatile sources for response collection: You can conduct surveys via various mediums
like online and mobile surveys. You can further classify them into qualitative mediums like
focus groups, interviews, and quantitative mediums like customer-centric surveys. Due to
the offline survey response collection option, researchers can conduct surveys in remote
areas with limited internet connectivity. This can make data collection and analysis more
convenient and extensive.

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 Reliable for respondents: Surveys are extremely secure as the respondent details and
responses are kept safeguarded. This anonymity makes respondents answer the survey
questions candidly and with absolute honesty. An organization seeking to receive explicit
responses for its survey research must mention that it will be confidential.
Weakness of Survey
 Surveys are generally unsuitable where an understanding of the historical context of
phenomena is required.
 Biases may occur in Survey research, either in the lack of response from intended
participants or in the nature and accuracy of the responses that are received.
 Other sources of error include intentional misreporting of behaviors by respondents to
confound the survey results or to hide inappropriate behavior.
 Respondents may have difficulty assessing their own behavior or have poor recall of the
circumstances surrounding their behavior.
What is Asked in a Survey?
Although the categories overlap, the following can be asked in a survey:
1. Behavior: How frequently do you brush your teeth? Did you vote in the last city election?
When did you last visit a close relative?
2. Attitudes/beliefs/opinions: What type of job do you think the mayor is doing? Do you think
other people say many negative things about you when you are not there? What is the biggest
problem facing the nation these days?
3. Characteristics: Are you married, never married, single, divorced, separated, or widowed?
Do you belong to a union? What is your age?
4. Expectations: Do you plan to buy a new car in the next 12 months? How much schooling
do you think your child will get? Do you think the population in this town will grow, decrease,
or stay the same?
5. Self-classification: Do you consider yourself to be liberal, moderate, or conservative? Into
which social class would you put your family? Would you say you are highly religious or not
religious?
6. Knowledge: Who was elected mayor in the last election? About what percentage of the
people in this city are non-White? Is it legal to own a personal copy of Karl Marx’s Communist
Manifesto in this country?

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Steps in Conducting a Survey

The survey researcher follows a deductive approach. He or she begins with a theoretical or
applied research problem and ends with empirical measurement and data analysis. Once a
researcher decides that survey is an appropriate method, basic steps in a research project can
broadly be divided into six sub-steps.
1. Develop the hypothesis
Decide on type of survey (mail, interview, telephone); write survey questions (decide on
response categories, design lay out). The researcher develops an instrument – a survey
questionnaire or interview schedule – that he or she uses to measure variables. Respondents
read the questions themselves and mark answers on a questionnaire. An interview schedule is
a set of questions read to the respondent by an interviewer, who also records the responses. To
simplify the discussion, we will use only the term questionnaire.
2. Plan how to record data
Pilot test survey instrument. When preparing the questionnaire, the researcher thinks ahead to
how he or she will record and organize data for analysis. The questionnaire is pilot tested on a
small set of respondents similar to those in the final survey.
3. Decide on target population
Get sampling frame; decide on sample size; select the sample.
4. Locate respondents
Conduct interviews; carefully record data. The researcher locates sampled respondents in
person, by telephone, or by mail. Respondents are given information and instructions on
completing the questionnaire or interview.
5. Enter data into computers
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Recheck all data; perform statistical analysis on data.

6. Describe methods and findings in research report
Present findings to others for critique and evaluation.
Tips To Design the Perfect Research Survey
 Set your SMART goals: Before conducting any market research or creating a particular
plan, set your SMART Goals. What is that you want to achieve with the survey? How
will you measure it promptly, and what are the results you are expecting?
 Choose the right questions: Designing a survey can be a tricky task. Asking the right
questions may help you get the answers you are looking for and ease the task of analyzing.
So, always choose those specific questions – relevant to your research.
 Begin your survey with a generalized question: Preferably, start your survey with a
General Question to understand whether the respondent uses the product or not. That also
provides an excellent base and intro for your survey.
 Enhance your survey: Choose the best, most relevant, 15-20 questions. Frame each
question as a different question type, based on the kind of answer you would like to gather
from each. Create a survey using different types of questions such as multiple-choice,
rating scale, open-ended, etc. Look at more survey examples and four measurement scales
every researcher should remember.
 Prepare yes/no questions: You may also want to use yes/no questions to separate people
or branch them into groups of those who “have purchased” and those who “have not yet
purchased” your products or services. Once you separate them, you can ask them different
questions.
 Test all electronic devices: It becomes effortless to distribute your surveys if respondents
can answer them on different electronic devices like mobiles, tablets, etc. Once you have
created your survey, it’s time to TEST. You can also make any corrections if needed at
this stage.
 Distribute your survey: Once your survey is ready, it is time to share and distribute to
the right audience. You can share handouts and share them via email, social media, and
other industry-related offline/online communities.
 Collect and analyze responses: After distributing your survey, it is time to gather all
responses. Make sure you store your results in a particular document or an excel sheet,
with all the necessary categories mentioned, so that you don’t lose your data. Remember,
this is the most crucial stage. Segregate your responses based on demographics,
psychographics, and behavior. This is because, as a researcher, you must know where
your responses are coming from. It will help you to analyze, predict decisions, and help
write the summary report.
 Prepare your summary report: Now, is the time to share your analysis. At this stage,
you should mention all the responses gathered from a survey in a fixed format. Also, the
reader/customer must get clarity about your goal, which you were trying to gain from the
study. Questions such as – whether the product or service has been used/preferred or not.
Do respondents prefer some other product to another? Any recommendations?

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Lesson 21
QUANTITATIVE CONTENT ANALYSIS
Topic 021: Quantitative Content Analysis
Introduction
Content analysis refers to a family of procedures for the systematic, replicable analysis of text.
In essence it involves the classification of parts of a text through the application of a structured,
systematic coding scheme from which conclusions can be drawn about the message content.
By clearly specifying the coding and other procedures content analysis is replicable in the sense
that other researchers could reproduce the study. Content analysis can be carried out
quantitatively but also qualitatively. In this technical supplement we focus on quantitative
content analysis; qualitative content analysis is discussed in the technical supplement on
qualitative approaches to language analysis Content analysis can be applied to all kinds of
written text such as speeches, letters or articles whether digital or in print, as well as text in the
form of pictures, video, film or other visual media.
It can be used to examine both the manifest and the latent content of a text. Manifest content
refers to the visible, countable components of the message. Latent content refers to the
meaning that may lie behind the manifest content. Manifest content in the form of images of
women in advertisements engaged in activities such as domestic work or child care, for
example, might be taken as indicators of gender stereotyping, a latent concept. Both manifest
Content analysis can also be used to investigate both substantive (content) and form (or formal)
features of a text. Substantive features refer to what is being said in the message. Form features
refer to how it is being said (Schreier 2012). A content analysis of advertisements, for instance,
might distinguish between the way in which the benefits of a product are described (substantive
features) and the way in which the advertisement makes use of headings, different font sizes,
the placement of graphics and so on (form features).
Types of Content Analysis
Content analysis can be both quantitative (focused on counting and measuring)
and qualitative (focused on interpreting and understanding). In both types, you categorize or
“code” words, themes, and concepts within the texts and then analyze the results.
1. Quantitative content analysis example
To research the importance of employment issues in political campaigns, you could analyze
campaign speeches for the frequency of terms such as unemployment, jobs, and work and
use statistical analysis to find differences over time or between candidates.
2. Qualitative content analysis example
To gain a more qualitative understanding of employment issues in political campaigns, you
could locate the word unemployment in speeches, identify what other words or phrases appear
next to it (such as economy, inequality or laziness), and analyze the meanings of these
relationships to better understand the intentions and targets of different campaigns
Applications of content analysis
Content analysis provides a structured way of analysing data that are typically open-ended and
relatively unstructured. Two important aims of such analysis for business and management
research are:

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 Description
Here the focus is on describing features of the message content. Jain et al. (2010), for example,
study how the ways in which celebrities were presented in Indian television commercials varied
according to the category of products they were promoting. Descriptive content analysis can
be cross-sectional or longitudinal. An example of the latter is Paek et al.’s (2012) investigation
of the promotion techniques used in cigarette advertising over a fifty-year period.
 Prediction
Here the main aim is to predict the outcome or effect of the messages being analysed. Through
the measurement of relevant features of the message, the researcher seeks to predict audience
or receiver reaction (Neuendorf 2002). A study by Naccarato and Neuendorf (1998), for
example, investigates how different features of print media advertising affected recall,
readership and evaluation in a business-tobusiness context. In that particular study, content
analysis of the advertisements is combined with survey data to allow the researchers to assess
the effect of particular features of the advertising. Content analysis has been applied to a wide
range of social science topics including gender and race, violence, media reporting and political
communication. Insch et al. (1997) suggest its use is less common in organisational research
due to lack of familiarity with the method. Nevertheless it has obvious applications in the
analysis of business communication, particularly marketing. The rise of the analysis techniques
to analyse online communication. Examples include Jose and Lee’s (2007) study of global
corporations’ environmental reporting based on examination of their websites and Gebauer et
al.’s (2008) analysis of online user reviews to identify requirements for mobile technology.
Quantitative Content Analysis
Quantitative content analysis, “the systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of message
characteristics” (Neuendorf, 2002, p. 1)
Key Steps In Quantitative Content Analysis
1. Select the content you will analyze
Based on your research question, choose the texts that you will analyze. You need to decide:
 The medium (e.g. newspapers, speeches or websites) and genre (e.g. opinion pieces,
political campaign speeches, or marketing copy)
 The criteria for inclusion (e.g. newspaper articles that mention a particular event,
speeches by a certain politician, or websites selling a specific type of product)
 The parameters in terms of date range, location, etc.
If there are only a small amount of texts that meet your criteria, you might analyze all of them.
If there is a large volume of texts, you can select a sample.
For Example we select a topic to research media representations of younger and older
politicians, you decide to analyze news articles and opinion pieces in print newspapers between
2017–2019. Because this is a very large volume of content, you choose three major national
newspapers and sample only Monday and Friday editions.
2. Define the units and categories of analysis
Next, you need to determine the level at which you will analyze your chosen texts. This means
defining:
 The unit(s) of meaning that will be coded. For example, are you going to record the
frequency of individual words and phrases, the characteristics of people who produced or

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appear in the texts, the presence and positioning of images, or the treatment of themes and
concepts?
 The set of categories that you will use for coding. Categories can be objective
characteristics (e.g. aged 30-40, lawyer, parent) or more conceptual
(e.g. trustworthy, corrupt, conservative, family oriented).
Your units of analysis are the politicians who appear in each article and the words and phrases
that are used to describe them. Based on your research question, you have to categorize based
on age and the concept of trustworthiness. To get more detailed data, you also code for other
categories such as their political party and the marital status of each politician mentioned.
3. Develop a set of rules for coding
Coding involves organizing the units of meaning into the previously defined categories.
Especially with more conceptual categories, it’s important to clearly define the rules for what
will and won’t be included to ensure that all texts are coded consistently.
Coding rules are especially important if multiple researchers are involved, but even if you’re
coding all of the text by yourself, recording the rules makes your method more transparent and
reliable.
In considering the category “younger politician,” you decide which titles will be coded with
this category (senator, governor, counselor, mayor). With “trustworthy”, you decide which
specific words or phrases related to trustworthiness (e.g. honest and reliable) will be coded in
this category.
4. Code the text according to the rules
You go through each text and record all relevant data in the appropriate categories. This can be
done manually or aided with computer programs, such as QSR NVivo, Atlas.ti and Diction,
which can help speed up the process of counting and categorizing words and phrases.
Following your coding rules, you examine each newspaper article in your sample. You record
the characteristics of each politician mentioned, along with all words and phrases related to
trustworthiness that are used to describe them.
5. Analyze the results and draw conclusions
Once coding is complete, the collected data is examined to find patterns and draw conclusions
in response to your research question. You might use statistical analysis to find correlations or
trends, discuss your interpretations of what the results mean, and make inferences about the
creators, context and audience of the texts.
Let’s say the results reveal that words and phrases related to trustworthiness appeared in the
same sentence as an older politician more frequently than they did in the same sentence as a
younger politician. From these results, you conclude that national newspapers present older
politicians as more trustworthy than younger politicians, and infer that this might have an effect
on readers’ perceptions of younger people in politics.
The following figure outlines the key stages in a quantitative content analysis project.

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Examples

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Lesson 22
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Topic 022: Experimental Research
Experimental Research
Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where one or more independent
variables are manipulated and applied to one or more dependent variables to measure their
effect on the latter. The effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables is usually
observed and recorded over some time, to aid researchers in drawing a reasonable conclusion
regarding the relationship between these 2 variable types. The experimental research method
is widely used in physical and social sciences, psychology, and education. It is based on the
comparison between two or more groups with a straightforward logic, which may, however,
be difficult to execute. Mostly related to a laboratory test procedure, experimental research
designs involve collecting quantitative data and performing statistical analysis on them during
research. Therefore, making it an example of quantitative research method.
Examples of Experimental Research
Experimental research examples are different, depending on the type of experimental research
design that is being considered. The most basic example of experimental research is laboratory
experiments, which may differ in nature depending on the subject of research.
Administering Exams After The End of Semester
During the semester, students in a class are lectured on particular courses and an exam is
administered at the end of the semester. In this case, the students are the subjects or dependent
variables while the lectures are the independent variables treated on the subjects.
Only one group of carefully selected subjects are considered in this research, making it a pre-
experimental research design example. We will also notice that tests are only carried out at the
end of the semester, and not at the beginning. Further making it easy for us to conclude that it
is a one-shot case study research.
Employee Skill Evaluation
Before employing a job seeker, organizations conduct tests that are used to screen out less
qualified candidates from the pool of qualified applicants. This way, organizations can
determine an employee's skill set at the point of employment. In the course of employment,
organizations also carry out employee training to improve employee productivity and generally
grow the organization. Further evaluation is carried out at the end of each training to test the
impact of the training on employee skills, and test for improvement. Here, the subject is the
employee, while the treatment is the training conducted. This is a pretest-posttest control group
experimental research example.
Evaluation of Teaching Method
Let us consider an academic institution that wants to evaluate the teaching method of 2 teachers
to determine which is best. Imagine a case whereby the students assigned to each teacher is
carefully selected probably due to personal request by parents or due to stubbornness and
smartness. This is a no equivalent group design example because the samples are not equal. By
evaluating the effectiveness of each teacher's teaching method this way, we may conclude after
a post-test has been carried out.However, this may be influenced by factors like the natural
sweetness of a student. For example, a very smart student will grab more easily than his or her
peers irrespective of the method of teaching.

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Characteristics of Experimental Research

 Variables
Experimental research contains dependent, independent and extraneous variables. The
dependent variables are the variables being treated or manipulated and are sometimes called
the subject of the research.
The independent variables are the experimental treatment being exerted on the dependent
variables. Extraneous variables, on the other hand, are other factors affecting the experiment
that may also contribute to the change.
 Setting
The setting is where the experiment is carried out. Many experiments are carried out in the
laboratory, where control can be exerted on the extraneous variables, thereby eliminating them.
Other experiments are carried out in a less controllable setting. The choice of setting used in
research depends on the nature of the experiment being carried out.
 Multivariable
Experimental research may include multiple independent variables, e.g. time, skills, test scores,
etc.
Why Use Experimental Research Design?
Experimental research design can be majorly used in physical sciences, social sciences,
education, and psychology. It is used to make predictions and draw conclusions on a subject
matter. Some uses of experimental research design are highlighted below.
 Medicine: Experimental research is used to provide the proper treatment for diseases. In
most cases, rather than directly using patients as the research subject, researchers take a
sample of the bacteria from the patient's body and are treated with the developed
antibacterial
The changes observed during this period are recorded and evaluated to determine its
effectiveness. This process can be carried out using different experimental research methods.
 Education: Asides from science subjects like Chemistry and Physics which involves
teaching students how to perform experimental research, it can also be used in improving
the standard of an academic institution. This includes testing students' knowledge on
different topics, coming up with better teaching methods, and the implementation of other
programs that will aid student learning.
 Human Behavior: Social scientists are the ones who mostly use experimental research to
test human behaviour. For example, consider 2 people randomly chosen to be the subject
of the social interaction research where one person is placed in a room without human
interaction for 1 year. The other person is placed in a room with a few other people,
enjoying human interaction. There will be a difference in their behaviour at the end of the
experiment.
 UI/UX: During the product development phase, one of the major aims of the product team
is to create a great user experience with the product. Therefore, before launching the final
product design, potential are brought in to interact with the product. For example, when
finding it difficult to choose how to position a button or feature on the app interface, a
random sample of product testers are allowed to test the 2 samples and how the button
positioning influences the user interaction is recorded.

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Advantages of Experimental Research

It’s vital to test new ideas or theories. Why put time, effort, and funding into something that
may not work? Experimental research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment
before taking it to market. It also provides the best method to test your theory, thanks to the
following advantages:
 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.
 The subject or industry does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research. Any
industry can implement it for research purposes.
 The results are specific.
 After analyzing the results, you can apply your findings to similar ideas or situations.
 You can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis. Researchers can further analyze this
relationship to determine more in-depth ideas.
 Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The data you collect is a foundation on
which to build more ideas and conduct more research.
Whether you want to know how the public will react to a new product or if a certain food
increases the chance of disease, experimental research is the best place to start.

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Disadvantages of Experimental Research

 It is highly prone to human error due to its dependency on variable control which may not
be properly implemented. These errors could eliminate the validity of the experiment and
the research being conducted.
 Exerting control of extraneous variables may create unrealistic situations. Eliminating
real-life variables will result in inaccurate conclusions. This may also result in researchers
controlling the variables to suit his or her personal preferences.
 It is a time-consuming process. So much time is spent on testing dependent variables and
waiting for the effect of the manipulation of dependent variables to manifest.
 It is expensive.
 It is very risky and may have ethical complications that cannot be ignored. This is
common in medical research, where failed trials may lead to a patient's death or a
deteriorating health condition.
 Experimental research results are not descriptive.
 Response bias can also be supplied by the subject of the conversation.
 Human responses in experimental research can be difficult to measure.
What are the Data Collection Methods in Experimental Research?
Data collection methods in experimental research are the different ways in which data can be
collected for experimental research. They are used in different cases, depending on the type of
research being carried out.
1. Observational Study
This type of study is carried out over a long period. It measures and observes the variables of
interest without changing existing conditions. When researching the effect of social interaction
on human behavior, the subjects who are placed in 2 different environments are observed
throughout the research. No matter the kind of absurd behavior that is exhibited by the subject
during this period, its condition will not be changed. This may be a very risky thing to do in
medical cases because it may lead to death or worse medical conditions.
2. Simulations
This procedure uses mathematical, physical, or computer models to replicate a real-life process
or situation. It is frequently used when the actual situation is too expensive, dangerous, or
impractical to replicate in real life. This method is commonly used in engineering and
operational research for learning purposes and sometimes as a tool to estimate possible
outcomes of real research. Some common situation software are Simulink, MATLAB, and
Simul8. Not all kinds of experimental research can be carried out using simulation as a data
collection tool. It is very impractical for a lot of laboratory-based research that involves
chemical processes.
3. Surveys
A survey is a tool used to gather relevant data about the characteristics of a population and is
one of the most common data collection tools. A survey consists of a group of questions
prepared by the researcher, to be answered by the research subject. Surveys can be shared with
the respondents both physically and electronically. When collecting data through surveys, the
kind of data collected depends on the respondent, and researchers have limited control over it.
Form plus is the best tool for collecting experimental data using surveys. It has relevant features

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that will aid the data collection process and can also be used in other aspects of experimental
research.
Differences between Experimental and Non-Experimental Research
1. In experimental research, the researcher can control and manipulate the environment of the
research, including the predictor variable which can be changed. On the other hand, non-
experimental research cannot be controlled or manipulated by the researcher at will.
This is because it takes place in a real-life setting, where extraneous variables cannot be
eliminated. Therefore, it is more difficult to conclude non-experimental studies, even though
they are much more flexible and allow for a greater range of study fields.
2. The relationship between cause and effect cannot be established in non-experimental
research, while it can be established in experimental research. This may be because many
extraneous variables also influence the changes in the research subject, making it difficult to
point at a particular variable as the cause of a particular change
3. Independent variables are not introduced, withdrawn, or manipulated in non-experimental
designs, but the same may not be said about experimental research.

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Lesson 23
QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS AND SCALING
Topic 023: Quantitative Measurements and Scaling
Introduction
The level of measurement refers to the relationship among the values that are assigned to the
attributes for a variable. A system for organizing information in the measurement of variables
into four levels, from nominal level to ratio level (Neumann, 2014).
How we determined Level of Measurement
The level of measurement is determined by how refined, exact, and precise a construct is in our
assumptions about it. This means that how we conceptualize a construct carries serious
implications. It influences how we can measure the construct and restricts the range of
statistical procedures that we can use after we have gathered data. Often we see a trade-off
between the level of measurement and the ease of measuring. Measuring at a low level is
simpler and easier than it is at a high level; however, a low level of measurement offers us the
least refined information and allows the fewest statistical procedures during data analysis.
Issues of Level of Measurement
We can look at the issue in two ways:
(1) Continuous versus discrete variable
(2) The four levels of measurement.
1) Continuous and Discrete Variables
Variables can be continuous or discrete. Continuous variables contain a large number of
values or attributes that flow along a continuum. We can divide a continuous variable into
many smaller increments; in mathematical theory, the number of increments is infinite.
Examples of continuous variables include temperature, age, income, crime rate, and amount of
schooling. For example, we can measure the amount of your schooling as the years of schooling
you completed. We can subdivide this into the total number of hours you have spent in
classroom instruction and out-of-class assignments or preparation. We could further refine this
into the number of minutes you devoted to acquiring and processing information and
knowledge in school or due to school assignments. We could further refine this into all of the
seconds that your brain was engaged in specific cognitive activities as you were acquiring and
processing information. Discrete variables have a relatively fixed set of separate values or
variable attributes. Instead of a smooth continuum of numerous values, discrete variables
contain a limited number of distinct categories. Examples of discrete variables include gender
(male or female), religion (Protestant, Catholic, Jew, Muslim, atheist), marital status (never
married single, married, divorced or separated, widowed), or academic degrees (high school
diploma, or community college associate, four-year college, master’s or doctoral degrees).
Whether a variable is continuous or discrete affects its level of measurement.
Four Levels of Measurement
Levels of measurement build on the difference between continuous and discrete variables.
Higher level measures are continuous and lower level ones are discrete. The four levels of
measurement categorize its precision. Deciding on the appropriate level of measurement for a
construct is not always easy. It depends on two things: how we understand a construct (its
definition and assumptions), and the type of indicator or measurement procedure. The way we
conceptualize a construct can limit how precisely we can measure it. For example, we might

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reconceptualize some of the variables listed earlier as continuous to be discrete. We can think
of temperature as a continuous variable with thousands of refined distinctions (e.g., degrees
and fractions of degrees). Alternatively, we can think of it more crudely as five discrete
categories (e.g., very hot, hot, cool, cold, very cold). We can think of age as continuous (in
years, months, days, hours, minutes, or seconds) or discrete categories (infancy, childhood,
adolescence, young adulthood, middle age, old age). While we can convert continuous
variables into discrete ones, we cannot go the other way around, that is, convert discrete
variables into continuous ones. For example, we cannot turn sex, religion, and marital status
into continuous variables. We can, however, treat related constructs with slightly different
definitions and assumptions as being continuous (e.g., amount of masculinity or femininity,
degree of religiousness, commitment to a marital relationship). There is a practical reason to
conceptualize and measure at higher levels of measurement: We can collapse higher levels of
measurement to lower levels, but the reverse is not true. There are 4 levels of measurement:
 Nominal: The lowest, least precise level of measurement for which there is a difference
in type only among the categories of a variable. The data can only be categorized
 Ordinal: A level of measurement that identifies a difference among categories of a
variable and allows the categories to be rank ordered as well. The data can be categorized
and ranked
 Interval: A level of measurement that identifies differences among variable attributes,
ranks categories, and measures distance between categories but has no true zero. The data
can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced
 Ratio: The highest, most precise level of measurement; variable attributes can be rank
ordered, the distance between them precisely measured, and there is an absolute zero. The
data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced, and has a natural zero.

Distinguishing among the Four Levels

The four levels from lowest to highest precision are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Each
level provides a different type of information. Nominal-level measurement indicates that a
difference exists among categories (e.g., religion: Protestant, Catholic, Jew, Muslim; racial
heritage: African, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic, other). Ordinal-level measurement indicates a
difference and allows us to rank order the categories (e.g., letter grades: A, B, C, D, F; opinion
measures: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree). Interval-level measurement does

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everything the first two do and allows us to specify the amount of distance between categories
(e.g., Fahrenheit or celsius temperature: 5°, 45°, 90°; IQ scores: 95, 110, 125). Ratio-level
measurement does everything the other levels do, and it has a true zero. This feature makes it
possible to state relationships in terms of proportion or ratios (e.g., money income: $10, $100,
$500; years of formal schooling: 1, 10, 13). In most practical situations, the distinction between
interval and ratio levels makes little difference.

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Why is Level of Measurement Important?

First, knowing the level of measurement helps you decide how to interpret the data from that
variable. When you know that a measure is nominal (like the one just described), then you
know that the numerical values are just short codes for the longer names. Second, knowing the
level of measurement helps you decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on the values
that were assigned. If a measure is nominal, then you know that you would never average the
data values or do a t-test on the data.
Principles of Good Measurement
Three features of good measurement whether we are considering using a single-indicator or a
scale or index (discussed next) to measure a variable are that (1) the attributes or categories of
a variable should be mutually exclusive, (2) they should also be exhaustive, and (3) the
measurement should be unidimensional.
1. Mutually exclusive attributes means that an individual or a case will go into one and only
one variable category. For example, we wish to measure the variable type of religion using the
four attributes Christian, non-Christian, Jewish, and Muslim. Our measure is not mutually
exclusive. Both Islam and Judaism are non-Christian religious faiths. A Jewish person and a
Muslim fit into two categories: (1) the non-Christian and (2) Jewish or Muslim. Another
example without mutually exclusive attributes is to measure the type of city using the three
categories of river port city, state capital, and access to an international airport. A city could be
all three (a river port state capital with an international airport), any combination of the three,
or none of the three. To have mutually exclusive attitudes, we must create categories so that
cases cannot be placed into more than one category.
2. Exhaustive attribute means that every case has a place to go or fits into at least one of a
variable’s categories. Returning to the example of the variable religion, with the four
categorical attributes of Christian, non-Christian, Jewish, and Muslim, say we drop the non-
Christian category to make the attributes mutually exclusive: Christian, Jewish, or Muslim.
These are not exclusive attributes. The Buddhist, Hindu, atheist, and agnostic do not fit
anywhere. We must create attributes to cover every possible situation. For example, Christian,
Jewish, Muslim, or Other attributes for religion would be exclusive and mutually exclusive.
3. Unidimensionality means that a measure fits together or measures one single, coherent
construct. Unidimensionality states that if we combine several specific pieces of information
into a single score or measure, all of the pieces should measure the same thing. We sometimes
use a more advanced technique—factor analysis —to test for the unidimensionality of data.

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We may see an apparent contradiction between the idea of using multiple indicators or a scale
or index to capture diverse parts of a complex construct and the criteria of unidimensionality.
The contraction is apparent only because constructs vary theoretically by level of abstraction.
We may define a complex, abstract construct using multiple subdimensions, each being a part
of the complex construct’s overall content. In contrast, simple, low-level constructs that are
concrete typically have just one dimension. For example, “feminist ideology” is a highly
abstract and complex construct. It includes specific beliefs and attitudes toward social,
economic, political, family, and sexual relations. The ideology’s belief areas are parts of the
single, more abstract and general construct. The parts fit together as a whole. They are mutually
reinforcing and collectively form one set of beliefs about the dignity, strength, and power of
women. To create a unidimensional measure of feminist ideology requires us to conceptualize
it as a unified belief system that might vary from very antifeminist to very profeminist. We can
test the convergence validity of our measure with multiple indicators that tap the construct’s
subparts. If one belief area (e.g., sexual relations) is consistently distinct from all other areas in
empirical tests, then we question its unidimensionality.
Which descriptive statistics can I apply on my data?
Descriptive statistics help you get an idea of the “middle” and “spread” of your data through
measures of central tendency and variability. When measuring the central tendency or
variability of your data set, your level of measurement decides which methods you can use
based on the mathematical operations that are appropriate for each level. The methods you can
apply are cumulative; at higher levels, you can apply all mathematical operations and measures
used at lower levels.

References
Neumann, L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Seven Edition. Pearson.

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Lesson 24
INDEX AND SCALING
Topic 024: Index and Scaling
Introduction
For most purposes, researchers can treat scales and indexes as being interchangeable. Social
researchers do not use a consistent nomenclature to distinguish between them. A scale is a
measure in which a researcher captures the intensity, direction, level, or potency of a variable
construct and arranges responses or observations on a continuum. A scale can use a single
indicator or multiple indicators. Most are at the ordinal level of measurement. An index is a
measure in which a researcher adds or combines several distinct indicators of a construct into
a single score. This composite score is often a simple sum of the multiple indicators. It is used
for content and convergent validity. Indexes are often measured at the interval or ratio level.
Researchers sometimes combine the features of scales and indexes in a single measure. This is
common when a researcher has several indicators that are scales (i.e., that measure intensity or
direction). He or she then adds these indicators together to yield a single score, thereby creating
an index.
Index Construction
You hear about indexes all the time. For example, U.S. newspapers report the Federal Bureau
of Investigation (FBI) crime index and the consumer price index (CPI). The FBI index is the
sum of police reports on seven so-called index crimes (criminal homicide, aggravated assault,
forcible rape, robbery, burglary, larceny of $50 or more, and auto theft). The index began as
part of the Uniform Crime Report in 1930 (see Rosen, 1995). The CPI, which is a measure of
inflation, is created by totaling the cost of buying a list of goods and services (e.g., food, rent,
and utilities) and comparing the total to the cost of buying the same list in the previous period.
The CPI has been used by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics since 1919; wage
increases, union contracts, and social security payments are based on it. An index is a
combination of items into a single numerical score. Various components or subparts of a
construct are each measured and then combined into one measure. There are many types of
indexes. For example, the total number of questions correct on an exam with 25 questions is a
type of index. It is a composite measure in which each question measures a small piece of
knowledge and all questions scored correct or incorrect are totaled to produce a single measure.
Indexes measure the most desirable place to live (based on unemployment, commuting time,
crime rate, recreation opportunities, weather, and so on), the degree of crime (based on
combining the occurrence of different specific crimes), the mental health of a person (based on
the person’s adjustment in various areas of life), and the like. Creating indexes is so easy that
we must be careful to check that every item in an index has face validity and excludes any
without face validity. We want to measure each part of the construct with at least one indicator.
Of course, it is better to measure the parts of a construct with multiple indicators. An example
of an index is a college quality index.
A theoretical definition says that a high-quality college has six distinguishing
characteristics: (1) few students per faculty member, (2) a highly educated faculty, (3) high
number of books in the library, (4) few students dropping out of college, (5) many students
who go on to seek advanced degrees, and (6) faculty members who publish books or scholarly
articles. We score 100 colleges on each item and then add the scores for each to create an index
score of college quality that can be used to compare colleges. We can combine indexes. For
example, to strengthen my college quality index, I add a subindex on teaching quality. The

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index contains eight items: (1) average size of classes, (2) percentage of class time devoted to
discussion, (3) number of different classes each faculty member teaches, (4) availability of
faculty to students outside the classroom, (5) currency and amount of reading assigned, (6)
degree to which assignments promote learning, (7) degree to which faculty get to know each
student, and (8) student ratings of instruction. Similar sub index measures can be created for
other parts of the college quality index. They can be combined into a more global measure of
college quality. This further elaborates the definition of the construct “quality of college.”
Issues in Index Construction
There are three issues involved when we construct an index:
1. Weight of items
2. Missing data
3. The use of rates and standardization
1. Weighting is an important issue in index construction.
Unless otherwise stated, we assume that the items in an index are unweighted. Likewise, unless
we have a good theoretical reason for assigning different weights to items, we use equal
weights. An unweighted index gives each item equal weight. We simply sum the items without
modification, as if each were multiplied by 1 (or –1 for items that are negative). A weighted
index values or weights some items more than others. The size of weights can come from
theoretical assumptions, the theoretical definition, or a statistical technique such as factor
analysis. For example, we can elaborate the theoretical definition of the college quality index.
We decide that the student/faculty ratio and number of faculty with Ph.D.s are twice as
important as the number of books in the library per student or the percentage of students
pursuing advanced degrees. Also, the percentage of freshmen who drop out and the number of
publications per faculty member are three times more important than books in the library or
percentage of students pursuing an advanced degree. This is easier to see when it is expressed
as a formula. The number of students per faculty member and the percentage who drop out
have negative signs because, as they increase, the quality of the college declines. The weighted
and unweighted indexes can produce different results. Consider Old Ivy College, Local
College, and Big University. All have identical unweighted index scores, but the colleges have
different quality scores after weighting. Weighting produces different index scores in this
example, but in most cases, weighted and unweighted indexes yield similar results. Researchers
are concerned with the relationship between variables, and weighted and unweighted indexes
usually give similar results for the relationships between variables.
2. Missing data
Missing data can be a serious problem when constructing an index. Validity and reliability
are threatened whenever data for some cases are missing. There are four ways to attempt
to resolve the problem but none fully solves it. For example, I construct an index of the
degree of societal development in 1985 for 50 nations. The index contains four items: life
expectancy, percentage of homes with indoor plumbing, percentage of population that is
literate, and number of telephones per 100 people. I locate a source of United Nations
statistics for my information. The values for Belgium are 68 + 87 + 97 + 28 and for Turkey
are 55 + 36 + 49 + 3; for Finland, however, I discover that literacy data are unavailable. I
check other sources of information, but none has the data because they were not collected.

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Ways to Deal with Missing Data

1. Eliminate all cases for which any information is missing. If one nation in the discussion
is removed from the study, the index will be reliable for the nations on which information
is available. This is a problem if other nations have missing information. A study of 50
nations may become a study of 20 nations. Also, the cases with missing information may
be similar in some respect (e.g., all are in eastern Europe or in the Third World), which
limits the generalizability of findings.
2. Substitute the average score for cases in which data are present. The average literacy
score from the other nations is substituted. This “solution” keeps Finland in the study but
gives it an incorrect value. For an index with few items or for a case that is not “average,”
this creates serious validity problems.
3. Insert data based on non-quantitative information about the case.
Other information about Finland (e.g., percentage of 13- to 18-year-olds in high school) is
used to make an informed guess about the literacy rate. This “solution” is marginally
acceptable in this situation. It is not as good as measuring Finland’s literacy, and it relies
on an untested assumption—that one can predict the literacy rate from other countries’ high
school attendance rate.
4. Insert a random value
This is unwise for the development index example. It might be acceptable if the index had
a very large number of items and the number of cases was very large. If that were the
situation, however, then eliminating the case is probably a better “solution” that produces
a more reliable measure (Allison, 2001)
Rates and standardization are related ideas
You have heard of crime rates, rates of population growth, or the unemployment rate. Some
indexes and single-indicator measures are expressed as rates. Rates involve standardizing the
value of an item to make comparisons possible. The items in an index frequently need to be
standardized before they can be combined. Standardization means the procedures to adjust
measures statistically to permit making an honest comparison by giving a common basis to
measures of different units.
Scale
A class of quantitative data measures often used in survey research that captures the intensity,
direction, level, or potency of a variable construct along a continuum; most are at the ordinal
level of measurement. Scales also help in the conceptualization and operationalization
processes.
For example, you believe a single ideological dimension underlies people’s judgments about
specific policies (e.g., housing, education, foreign affairs). Scaling can help you determine
whether a single construct—for instance, “conservative/liberal ideology”—underlies the
positions that people take on specific policies.
Scaling measures the intensity, direction, level, or potency of a variable. Graphic rating scales
are an elementary form of scaling. People indicate a rating by checking a point on a line that
runs from one extreme to another. This type of scale is easy to construct and use. It conveys
the idea of a continuum, and assigning numbers helps people think about quantities. Scales
assume that people with the same subjective feeling mark the graphic scale at the same place.
Types of Scales

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There are five types of scales used in research.

1. Likert scale
A scale often used in survey research in which people express attitudes or other responses in
terms of ordinal-level categories (e.g., agree, disagree) that are ranked along a continuum. They
were developed in the 1930s by Rensis Likert to provide an ordinal-level measure of a person’s
attitude. Likert scales are called summated-rating or additive scales because a person’s score
on the scale is computed by summing the number of responses he or she gives. Likert scales
usually ask people to indicate whether they agree or disagree with a statement. As the number
of scale steps is increased from 2 up through 20, the increase in reliability is very rapid at first.
It tends to level off at about 7, and after about 11 steps, there is little gain in reliability from
increasing the number of steps

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2. Thurstone scaling
Measuring in which the researcher gives a group of judges many items and asks them to sort
the items into categories along a continuum and then considers the sorting results to select
items on which the judges agree

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3. Bogardus social distance scale

A scale measuring the social distance between two or more social groups by having members
of one group indicate the limit of their comfort with various types of social interaction or
closeness with members of the other group(s).

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4. Semantic differential
A scale that indirectly measures feelings or thoughts by presenting people a topic or object and
a list of polar opposite adjectives or adverbs and then having them indicate feelings by marking
one of several spaces between the two adjectives or adverbs.

5. Guttman scaling index

A scale that researchers use after data are collected to reveal whether a hierarchical pattern
exists among responses so that people who give responses at a “higher level” also tend to give
“lower level” ones.

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References
Neumann, L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Seven Edition. Pearson.

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Lesson 25
TOOL FOR DATA COLLECTION
Topic 025: Tool for data collection
Introduction
Data collection is a methodical process of gathering and analyzing specific information to
proffer solutions to relevant questions and evaluate the results. It focuses on finding out all
there is to a particular subject matter. Data is collected to be further subjected to hypothesis
testing which seeks to explain a phenomenon. Quantitative data collection is everything about
figures and numbers. Researchers often rely on quantitative data when they intend to quantify
attributes, attitudes, behaviors, and other defined variables with a motive to either back or
oppose the hypothesis of a specific phenomenon by contextualizing the data obtained via
surveying or interviewing the study sample.
What is the need for quantitative data collection?
As a researcher, you do have the option to opt either for data collection online or use traditional
data collection methods via appropriate research. However, you will need computational,
statistical, and mathematical tools to derive results from the collected quantitative data.
Method Data Collection
1. Interviews
Interviewing people is a standard method used for data collection. However, the interviews
conducted to collect quantitative data are more structured, wherein the researchers ask only a
standard set of questionnaires and nothing more than that.
There are three major types of interviews conducted for data collection
 Telephone interviews: For years, telephone interviews ruled the charts of data collection
methods. However, nowadays, there is a significant rise in conducting video interviews using
the internet, Skype, or similar online video calling platforms.
 Face-to-face interviews: It is a proven technique to collect data directly from the
participants. It helps in acquiring quality data as it provides a scope to ask detailed questions
and probing further to collect rich and informative data. Literacy requirements of the
participant are irrelevant as F2F interviews offer ample opportunities to collect non-verbal
data through observation or to explore complex and unknown issues. Although it can be an
expensive and time-consuming method, the response rates for F2F interviews are often
higher.
 Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): It is nothing but a similar setup of the
face-to-face interview where the interviewer carries a desktop or laptop along with him at
the time of interview to upload the data obtained from the interview directly into the
database. CAPI saves a lot of time in updating and processing the data and also makes the
entire process paperless as the interviewer does not carry a bunch of papers and
questionnaires.

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When to use
Quantitative interviews work well when the market researcher is conducting fieldwork to scope
potential respondents. For example, approaching buyers of a certain product at a supermarket.
Advantages
 Higher responsiveness: Potential respondents are more likely to say ‘yes’ to a market
researcher in-person than in other ways, e.g. a phone call.
 Clearer understanding: Interviews allow respondents to seek classification from the
interviewer if they are confused by a question.
 Less downtime: The market researcher can collect data as soon as the interview is
conducted, rather than wait to hear back from the respondent first.
Disadvantages
 Interviewer effect: Having an interviewer present questions to the respondent poses
the risk of influencing the way in which the respondent answers.
 Time consuming: Interviews usually take longer to complete than other methods, such
as surveys.
 Less control: Interviews present more variables, such as tone and pace, which could
affect data quality.
2. Observations
It is a pretty simple and straightforward method of collecting quantitative data. In this method,
researchers collect quantitative data through systematic observations by using techniques like
counting the number of people present at the specific event at a particular time and a particular
venue or number of people attending the event in a designated place. More often, for
quantitative data collection, the researchers have a naturalistic observation approach that needs
keen observation skills and senses for getting the numerical data about the “what” and not about
“why” and ”how.”
Naturalistic observation is used to collect both types of data; qualitative and quantitative.
However, structured observation is more used to collect quantitative rather than qualitative
data.
Structured observation: In this type of observation method, the researcher has to make careful
observations of one or more specific behaviors in a more comprehensive or structured setting

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compared to naturalistic or participant observation. In a structured observation, the researchers,

rather than observing everything, focus only on very specific behaviors of interest. It allows
them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. When the observations require a judgment
on the part of the observers – it is often described as coding, which requires a clearly defining
a set of target behaviors.
Advantages
 Easy to administer.
 There subsists a greater accuracy with results.
 It is a universally accepted practice.
 It diffuses the situation of an unwillingness of respondents to administer a report.
 It is appropriate for certain situations.
Disadvantages
 Some phenomena aren’t open to observation.
 It cannot be relied upon.
 Bias may arise.
 It is expensive to administer.
 Its validity cannot be predicted accurately.
3. Document Review in Quantitative Data Collection
Document review is a process used to collect data after reviewing the existing documents. It is
an efficient and effective way of gathering data as documents are manageable and are the
practical resource to get qualified data from the past. Apart from strengthening and supporting
the research by providing supplementary research data document review has emerged as one
of the beneficial methods to gather quantitative research data.
Three primary document types are being analyzed for collecting supporting quantitative
research data
 Public Records: Under this document review, official, ongoing records of an organization
are analyzed for further research. For example, annual reports policy manuals, student
activities, game activities in the university, etc.
 Personal Documents: In contrast to public documents, this type of document review deals
with individual personal accounts of individuals’ actions, behavior, health, physique, etc.
For example, the height and weight of the students, distance students are traveling to attend
the school, etc.
 Physical Evidence: Physical evidence or physical documents deal with previous
achievements of an individual or of an organization in terms of monetary and scalable
growth.
When to use
Secondary data collection methods are most appropriately used when the market researcher
is exploring a topic which already has extensive information and data available and is looking
for supplementary insights for guidance.
For example, a study on caffeine consumption habits could draw statistics from existing
medical case studies.
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Advantages
 Easier collection: As secondary data is readily available, it is relatively easy to collect
for further analysis.
 More credibility: If collected from reputable sources, secondary data can be trusted as
accurate and of quality.
 Less expensive: Collecting secondary data often costs a lot less than if the same data
were collected primarily.
Disadvantages
 Differing context: Secondary data collected will not necessarily align with the market
researcher’s research questions or objectives.
 Limited availability: The amount and detail of secondary data available for a particular
research topic is varied and not dependable.
 Less control: As secondary data is originally collected externally, there is no control
over the quality of available data on a topic.
4. QUESTIONNAIRES
This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of questions
and prompts to receive a response from individuals it is administered to. Questionnaires are
designed to collect data from a group.
For clarity, it is important to note that a questionnaire isn't a survey, rather it forms a part of it.
A survey is a process of data gathering involving a variety of data collection methods, including
a questionnaire.
On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of questions used. They are; fixed-alternative, scale,
and open-ended. With each of the questions tailored to the nature and scope of the research.
Advantages
 Can be administered in large numbers and is cost-effective.
 It can be used to compare and contrast previous research to measure change.
 Easy to visualize and analyze.
 Questionnaires offer actionable data.
 Respondent identity is protected.
 Questionnaires can cover all areas of a topic.
 Relatively inexpensive.
Disadvantages
 Answers may be dishonest or the respondents lose interest midway.
 Questionnaires can't produce qualitative data.
 Questions might be left unanswered.
 Respondents may have a hidden agenda.
 Not all questions can be analyzed easily.

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Questionnaire
Questionnaire is as an instrument for research, which consists of a list of questions, along with
the choice of answers, printed or typed in a sequence on a form used for acquiring specific
information from the respondents. In general, questionnaires are delivered to the persons
concerned either by post or mail, requesting them to answer the questions and return it.
Informants are expected to read and understand the questions and reply in the space provided
in the questionnaire itself. The questionnaire is prepared in such a way that it translates the
required information into a series of questions, that informants can and will answer.
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
The following are characteristics of good questionnaires:
 It should consist of a well-written list of questions.
 The questionnaire should deal with an important or significant topic to create interest
among respondents.
 It should seek only that data which cannot be obtained from other sources.
 It should be as short as possible but should be comprehensive.
 It should be attractive.
 Directions should be clear and complete.
 It should be represented in good psychological order proceeding from general to more
specific responses.
 Double negatives in questions should be avoided.
 Putting two questions in one question also should be avoided. Every question should
seek to obtain only one specific information.
 It should be designed to collect information which can be used subsequently as data for
analysis.
Format of Questions in Questionnaires
The questions asked can take two forms:
Restricted questions, also called closed-ended, ask the respondent to make choices — yes or
no, check items on a list, or select from multiple choice answers. Restricted questions are easy
to tabulate and compile.
Unrestricted questions are open-ended and allow respondents to share feelings and opinions
that are important to them about the matter at hand. Unrestricted questions are not easy to
tabulate and compile, but they allow respondents to reveal the depth of their emotions. If the
objective is to compile data from all respondents, then sticking with restricted questions that
are easily quantified is better. If degrees of emotions or depth of sentiment is to be studied, then
develop a scale to quantify those feelings.
Uses of Questionnaires
 Questionnaires are a common and inexpensive research tool used by private companies,
government departments, individuals, groups, NGOs etc to get feedback, research, collect
data from consumer, customers or from general public depending on the need.
 Questionnaires are the most important part of primary surveys.

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Types of Questionnaire
 Computer questionnaire
Respondents are asked to answer the questionnaire which is sent by mail. The advantages of
the computer questionnaires include their inexpensive price, time-efficiency, and respondents
do not feel pressured, therefore can answer when they have time, giving more accurate answers.
However, the main shortcoming of the mail questionnaires is that sometimes respondents do
not bother answering them and they can just ignore the questionnaire.
 Telephone questionnaire
Researcher may choose to call potential respondents with the aim of getting them to answer
the questionnaire. The advantage of the telephone questionnaire is that, it can be completed
during the short amount of time. The main disadvantage of the phone questionnaire is that it is
expensive most of the time. Moreover, most people do not feel comfortable to answer many
questions asked through the phone and it is difficult to get sample group to answer
questionnaire over the phone.
 In-house/Personal survey
This type of questionnaire involves the researcher visiting respondents in their houses or
workplaces. The advantage of in-house survey is that more focus towards the questions can be
gained from respondents. However, in-house surveys also have a range of disadvantages which
include being time consuming, more expensive and respondents may not wish to have the
researcher in their houses or workplaces for various reasons.
 Mail Questionnaire
This sort of questionnaires involve the researcher to send the questionnaire list to respondents
through post, often attaching pre-paid envelope. Mail questionnaires have an advantage of
providing more accurate answer, because respondents can answer the questionnaire in their
spare time. The disadvantages associated with mail questionnaires include them being
expensive, time consuming and sometimes they end up in the bin put by respondents.
 Paper Questionnaire
A paper questionnaire is a data collection tool consisting of a series of questions and/or prompts
for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Mostly designed for statistical
analysis of the responses, they can also be used as a form of data collection.

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Steps Involved in Questionnaire Design

1. Identify the scope of your research: Think about what your questionnaire is going to
include before you start designing the look of it. The clarity of the topic is of utmost importance
as this is the primary step in creating the questionnaire. Once you are clear on the purpose of
the questionnaire, you can begin the design process.

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2. Keep it simple: The words or phrases you use while writing the questionnaire must be easy
to understand. If the questions are unclear, the respondents may simply choose any answer and
skew the data you collect.
3. Ask only one question at a time: At times, a researcher may be tempted to add two similar
questions. This might seem like an excellent way to consolidate answers to related issues, but
it can confuse your respondents or lead to inaccurate data. If any of your questions contain the
word “and,” take another look. This question likely has two parts, which can affect the quality
of your data.
4. Be flexible with your options: While designing, the survey creator needs to be flexible in
terms of “option choice” for the respondents. Sometimes the respondents may not necessarily
want to choose from the answer options provided by the survey creator. An “other” option
often helps keep respondents engaged in the survey.
5. The open-ended or closed-ended question is a tough choice: The survey creator might
end up in a situation where they need to make distinct choices between open or close-ended
questions. The question type should be carefully chosen as it defines the tone and importance
of asking the question in the first place.
If the questionnaire requires the respondents to elaborate on their thoughts, an open-ended
question is the best choice. If the surveyor wants a specific response, then close-ended
questions should be their primary choice. The key to asking closed-ended questions is to
generate data that is easy to analyze and spot trends.
6. It is essential to know your audience: A researcher should know their target audience. For
example, if the target audience speaks mostly Spanish, sending the questionnaire in any other
language would lower the response rate and accuracy of data. Something that may seem clear
to you may be confusing to your respondents. Use simple language and terminology that your
respondents will understand, and avoid technical jargon and industry-specific language that
might confuse your respondents.
For efficient market research, researchers need a representative sample collected using one of
the many sampling techniques. It is imperative to plan and define these target respondents
based on the demographics required.
7. Choosing the right tool is essential: QuestionPro is a simple yet advanced survey software
platform that the surveyors can use to create a questionnaire or choose from the already
existing 300+ questionnaire templates.
Always save personal questions for last. Sensitive questions may cause respondents to drop off
before completing. If these questions are at the end, the respondent has had time to become
more comfortable with the interview and are more likely to answer personal or demographic
questions.
Questionnaire Design Issues
1. Length of Survey or Questionnaire
2. Question Order or Sequence
3. Layout and Format
Types of Questions in Questionnaire
1. Sleeper question

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Survey research inquiry about nonexistent people or events to check whether respondents are
being truthful.
2. Contingency question
A two-part survey item in which a respondent’s answer to a first question directs him or her
either to the next questionnaire item or to a more specific and related second question.

3. Open-ended question
A type of survey research inquiry that allows respondents freedom to offer any answer they
wish to the question.
4. Closed-ended question
A type of survey research inquiry in which respondents must choose from a fixed set of
answers.
5. Partially open question
A type of survey research enquiry in which respondents are given a fixed set of answers to
choose from, but the addition an “other” category is offered so that they can specify a different
answer.

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Neutral Positions, Floaters, and Selective Refusals

Failing to get valid responses from each respondent weakens a survey. Respondents may
answer three ways that yield invalid responses.
1. Swayed opinion
This involves falsely overstating a position as with the social desirability bias, or falsely
understating or withholding a position as with sensitive topics.
2. False positive
This results from selecting an attitude position but lacking any knowledge on an issue and
really having no true opinion or view on it.
3. False negative
Caused when a respondent refuses to answer some questions or withholds an answer when he
or she actually has information or really holds an opinion. The three types of responses overlap.
The first involves an inaccurate direction of a response toward a normative position, the second
substitute’s wild guesses for a serious response, and the last type is the partial and selective
nonresponse to the survey.
Neutral Positions
Survey researchers debate whether they should offer respondents who lack knowledge or have
no position a neutral position and a “no opinion” choice. Some argue against offering a neutral
or middle position and the no opinion option and favor pressuring respondents to give a
response.This perspective holds that respondents engage in satisficing; that is, they pick no
opinion or a neutral response to avoid the cognitive effort of answering. Those with this
position maintain that the least educated respondents may pick a no opinion option when they
actually have one they believe that pressuring respondents for an answer does not lower data
quality. Others argue that it is best to offer a neutral (“no opinion”) choice because people often

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answer questions to please others or not to appear ignorant. Respondents may give opinions on
fictitious issues, objects, and events. By offering a nonattitude (middle or no opinion) choice,
we can identify respondents without an opinion and separate them from respondents who really
have one.
Floaters
Survey questions address the issue of nonattitudes with three types of attitude questions:
standard-format, quasi-filter, and full-filter questions. The standard-format question does not
offer a “don’t know” choice; a respondent must volunteer it. A quasi-filter question offers a
“don’t know” alternative. A full-filter question is a special type of contingency question. It
first asks whether respondents have an opinion, and then asks for the opinion of those who state
that they do have one.
Selective Refusals
In addition to the issue of satisficing, by which respondents pick no or a neutral response to
avoid the effort of answering, some respondents refuse to answer certain questions. This often
is the case involving a sensitive issue. Respondents refuse rather than indicate a socially
inappropriate answer.

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IMPORTANCE OF DATA COLLECTION

There are a bunch of underlying reasons for collecting data, especially for a researcher.
Walking you through them, here are a few reasons;
 Integrity of the Research
A key reason for collecting data, be it through quantitative or qualitative methods is to ensure
that the integrity of the research question is indeed maintained.
 Reduce the likelihood of errors
The correct use of appropriate data collection of methods reduces the likelihood of errors
consistent with the results.
 Decision Making
To minimize the risk of errors in decision-making, it is important that accurate data is collected
so that the researcher doesn't make uninformed decisions.
 Save Cost and Time

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Data collection saves the researcher time and funds that would otherwise be misspent without
a deeper understanding of the topic or subject matter.
 To support a need for a new idea, change, and/or innovation
To prove the need for a change in the norm or the introduction of new information that will be
widely accepted, it is important to collect data as evidence to support these claims.

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Lesson 26
ETHICS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Topic 026: Ethics in Quantitative Research
Introduction
Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationships with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or
suffers adverse consequences from research activities. This objective is usually achieved.
However, unethical activities are pervasive and include violating nondisclosure agreements,
breaking respondent confidentiality, misrepresenting results, deceiving people, invoicing
irregularities, avoiding legal liability, and more.
As discussed earlier, ethical questions are philosophical questions. There is no general
agreement among philosophers about the answers to such questions. However the rights and
obligations of individuals are generally dictated by the norms of society. Societal norms are
codes of behavior adopted by a group; they suggest what a member of a group ought to do
under given circumstances. Nevertheless, with changing situations people continue differing
with each other whereby societal norms may undergo changes. Codes and regulations guide
researchers and sponsors. Review boards and peer groups help researchers examine their
research proposals for ethical dilemmas. Responsible researchers anticipate ethical dilemmas
and attempt to adjust the design, procedures, and protocols during the planning process rather
than treating them as afterthought. Ethical research requires personal integrity from the
researcher, the project manager, and the research sponsor.
Codes of ethic applicable at each stage of the research Goal:
To ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from research activities.
Unethical activities
• Violating nondisclosure agreements.
• Breaking respondent confidentiality.
• Misrepresenting results.
• Deceiving people.
• Invoicing irregularities.
• Avoiding legal liability.
Ethical Issues
• Remain to be issues.
• Local norms suggest what ought to be done under the given circumstances.
• Codes of ethics developed to guide researchers and sponsors.
• Review Boards and peer groups help sorting out ethical dilemmas.
Anticipate ethical dilemmas
• Adjust the design, procedures, and protocols accordingly.
• Research ethics require personal integrity of the researcher, the project manager, and research
sponsor.
Parties in Research

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Mostly three parties:

• The researcher
• The sponsoring client (user)
• The respondent (subject)
• Interaction requires ethical questions.
• Each party expects certain rights and feels certain obligations.
Ethical Treatment of Participants
When ethics are discussed in research design, we often think first about protecting the rights of
the participant, respondent, or subject. Whether data are gathered in an experiment, interview,
observation, or survey, the respondent has many rights to be safeguarded. In general the
research must be designed so that a respondent does not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain,
embarrassment, or loss of privacy. To safeguard against these, the researcher should follow
three guidelines;
1. Explain study benefits.
2. Explain respondent rights and protections.
3. Obtain informed consent.
Benefits
Whenever direct contact is made with a respondent, the researcher should discuss the study‟s
benefits, being careful to neither overstate nor understate the benefits. An interviewer should
begin an introduction with his or her name, the name of the research organization, and a brief
description of the purpose and benefit of the research. This puts the respondent at ease, let them
know to whom they are speaking, and motivates them to answer questions truthfully. In short,
knowing why one is being asked questions improve cooperation through honest disclosure of
purpose. Inducements to participate, financial or otherwise, should not be disproportionate to
the task or presented in a fashion that results in coercion. Sometimes the actual purpose and
benefits of the study or experiment must be concealed from the respondents to avoid
introducing bias. The need for concealing objectives leads directly to the problem of deception.
Ethical Issues in Research
Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationships with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or
suffers adverse consequences from research activities. This objective is usually achieved.
However, unethical activities are pervasive and include violating nondisclosure agreements,
breaking respondent confidentiality, misrepresenting results, deceiving people, invoicing
irregularities, avoiding legal liability, and more.
Deception
Deception occurs when the respondents are told only part of the truth or when the truth is fully
compromised. Some believe this should never occur. Others suggest two reasons for deception:
(1) to prevent biasing the respondents before the survey or experiment and (2) to protect the
confidentiality of a third party (e.g. the sponsor). Deception should not be used in an attempt
to improve response rates. The benefits to be gained by deception should be balanced against
the risks to the respondents. When possible, an experiment or interview should be redesigned
to reduce the reliance on deception. Use of deception is inappropriate unless deceptive
techniques are justified by the study‟s expected scientific, educational, or applied value and

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equally effective alternatives that do not use deception are not feasible. And finally, the
respondents must have given their informed consent before participating in the research.
Informed Consent
Securing informed consent from respondents is a matter of fully disclosing the procedures of
the proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to proceed with the
study. There are exceptions that argue for a signed consent form. When dealing with children,
it is wise to have a parent or other person with legal standing sign a consent form. If there is a
chance the data could harm the respondent or if the researchers offer any limited protection of
confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types of limits should be obtained. For most
business research, oral consent is sufficient. In situations where respondents are intentionally
or accidentally deceived, they should be debriefed once the research is complete.
Debriefing
It involves several activities following the collection of data:
 Explanation of any deception.
 Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose of the study.
 Post study sharing of the results.
 Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.
First, the researcher shares the truth of any deception with the participants and all the reasons
for using deception in the context of the study‟s goals. In cases where severe reactions occur,
follow-up medical or psychological attention should be provided to continue to ensure the
participants remain unharmed by the research. Even when the research does not deceive the
respondents, it is a good practice to offer them follow-up information. This retains the goodwill
of the respondent, providing an incentive to participate in future research projects. For surveys
and interviews, respondents can be offered a brief report of the findings. Usually they would
not ask for additional information. For experiments, all participants should be debriefed in
order to put the experiment in context. Debriefing usually includes a description of the
hypothesis being tested and the purpose of the study. Participants who were not deceived still
benefit from the debriefing session. They will be able to understand why the experiment was
created. The researchers also gain important insight into what the participants thought about
during and after the experiment. To what extent do debriefing and informed consent reduce the
effects of deception? Research suggests that the majority of the respondents do not resent
temporary deception and may have more positive feelings about the value of the research after
debriefing than those who didn‟t participate in the study.
Rights to Privacy
All individuals have right to privacy, and researchers must respect that right. The privacy
guarantee is important not only to retain validity of the research but also to protect respondents.
The confidentiality of the survey answers is an important aspect of the respondents‟ right to
privacy. Once the guarantee of confidentiality is given, protecting that confidentiality is
essential. The researcher protects the confidentiality in several ways;
 Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents.
 Restricting access to respondent identification.
 Revealing respondent information only with written consent.
 Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.

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 Nondisclosure of data subsets. Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means
one has the right to refuse to be interviewed or to refuse to answer any question in an interview.
Potential participants have a right to privacy in their own homes including not admitting
researchers and not answering telephones. To address these rights, ethical researchers do the
following:
 Inform respondents of their right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in the study.
 Obtain permission to interview respondents.
 Schedule field and phone interviews.
 Limit the time required for participation.
 Restrict observation to public behavior only.
The obligation to be truthful:
When a subject willingly agrees to participate, it is generally expected that he or she will
provide truthful answers. Honest cooperation is main obligation of the respondent or the
subject.
Ethics and the Sponsor
There are also ethical considerations to keep in mind when dealing with the research client or
sponsor has the right to receive ethically conducted research.
Confidentiality of Sponsor
Some sponsors wish to undertake research without revealing themselves. They have a right to
several types of confidentiality, including sponsor nondisclosure, purpose nondisclosure, and
findings nondisclosure. Companies have the right to dissociate themselves from sponsorship
of a research project. This type of confidentiality is called sponsorship nondisclosure. Due to
sensitive nature of the management dilemma or the research question, sponsor may hire an
outside consulting or research firm to complete research project. This is often done when a
company is testing a new product idea, to avoid potential consumers from being influenced by
company‟s current image or industry standing.
Purpose nondisclosure involves protecting the purpose of the study or its details. A research
sponsor may be testing a new idea that is not yet patented and may not want the competition to
know its plans. It may be investigating employee complaints and may not want to spark union
activity. Finally, even if a sponsor feels no need to hide its identity or the study‟s purpose, most
sponsors want the research data and findings to be confidential; at least until the management
decision is made. Thus sponsors usually demand and receive findings nondisclosure between
themselves or their researchers and any interested but unapproved parties.
Right to Quality Research
An important ethical consideration is the sponsor‟s right to quality research. This right entails:
 Providing research design appropriate for the research question.
 Maximizing the sponsor‟s value for the resources expended.
 Providing data handling and reporting techniques appropriate for the data collected.
Sponsor’s Ethics
Occasionally, research specialists may be asked by the sponsors to participate in unethical
behavior. Compliance by the researcher would be a breach of ethical standards. Some examples
to be avoided are;

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 Violating respondent confidentiality.

 Changing data or creating false data to meet the desired objective.
 Changing data presentation or interpretations.
 Interpreting data from a biased perspective.
 Omitting sections of data analysis and conclusions.
 Making recommendations beyond the scope of data collected.
Researchers and Team Members
Another ethical responsibility of researchers is their team‟s safety as well as their own. The
responsibility for ethical behavior rests with the researcher who, along with assistants, is
charged with protecting the anonymity of both the sponsor and the respondent.
Safety
It is the researcher‟s responsibility to design a project so the safety of all interviewers,
surveyors, experimenters, or observers is protected. Several factors may be important to
consider in ensuring a researcher‟s right to safety.
Ethical behavior of Assistants
Researchers should require ethical compliance from team members just as sponsors expect
ethical behavior from researcher. Assistants are expected to carry out the sampling plan, to
interview or observe respondents without bias, and to accurately record all necessary data.
Protection of Anonymity
Researchers and assistants should protect the confidentiality of the sponsor‟s information and
anonymity of the respondents. Each researcher handling data should be required to sign a
confidentiality and nondisclosure statement.
Professional Standards
Various standards of ethics exist for the professional researcher. Many corporations,
professional associations, and universities have code of ethics. These codes of ethic have to be
enforced.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They indicate how
well a method, technique or test measures something. Reliability is about the consistency of a
measure, and validity is about the accuracy of a measure. It’s important to consider reliability
and validity when you are creating your research design, planning your methods, and writing
up your results, especially in quantitative research.

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What is reliability?
Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures something. If the same result can be
consistently achieved by using the same methods under the same circumstances, the
measurement is considered reliable. You measure the temperature of a liquid sample several
times under identical conditions. The thermometer displays the same temperature every time,
so the results are reliable. A doctor uses a symptom questionnaire to diagnose a patient with a
long-term medical condition. Several different doctors use the same questionnaire with the
same patient but give different diagnoses. This indicates that the questionnaire has low
reliability as a measure of the condition.
Types of reliability
Different types of reliability can be estimated through various statistical methods.

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What is validity?
Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure. If research
has high validity, that means it produces results that correspond to real properties,
characteristics, and variations in the physical or social world.
High reliability is one indicator that a measurement is valid. If a method is not reliable, it
probably isn’t valid. If the thermometer shows different temperatures each time, even though
you have carefully controlled conditions to ensure the sample’s temperature stays the same, the
thermometer is probably malfunctioning, and therefore its measurements are not valid.
If a symptom questionnaire results in a reliable diagnosis when answered at different times and
with different doctors, this indicates that it has high validity as a measurement of the medical
condition. However, reliability on its own is not enough to ensure validity. Even if a test is
reliable, it may not accurately reflect the real situation. The thermometer that you used to test
the sample gives reliable results. However, the thermometer has not been calibrated properly,
so the result is 2 degrees lower than the true value. Therefore, the measurement is not valid.
A group of participants take a test designed to measure working memory. The results are
reliable, but participants’ scores correlate strongly with their level of reading comprehension.
This indicates that the method might have low validity: the test may be measuring participants’
reading comprehension instead of their working memory.
Types of validity
The validity of a measurement can be estimated based on three main types of evidence. Each
type can be evaluated through expert judgement or statistical methods.

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How are reliability and validity assessed?

Validity is harder to assess than reliability, but it is even more important. To obtain useful
results, the methods you use to collect your data must be valid: the research must be measuring
what it claims to measure. This ensures that your discussion of the data and the conclusions you
draw are also valid. Reliability can be estimated by comparing different versions of the same
measurement. Validity is harder to assess, but it can be estimated by comparing the results to
other relevant data or theory. Methods of estimating reliability and validity are usually split up
into different types.
How to ensure validity and reliability in your research
The reliability and validity of your results depends on creating a strong research design,
choosing appropriate methods and samples, and conducting the research carefully and
consistently.
Ensuring validity
If you use scores or ratings to measure variations in something (such as psychological traits,
levels of ability or physical properties), it’s important that your results reflect the real variations
as accurately as possible. Validity should be considered in the very earliest stages of your
research, when you decide how you will collect your data.
 Choose appropriate methods of measurement
Ensure that your method and measurement technique are high quality and targeted to measure
exactly what you want to know. They should be thoroughly researched and based on existing
knowledge.
For example, to collect data on a personality trait, you could use a
standardized questionnaire that is considered reliable and valid. If you develop your own
questionnaire, it should be based on established theory or findings of previous studies, and the
questions should be carefully and precisely worded.
 Use appropriate sampling methods to select your subjects
To produce valid generalizable results, clearly define the population you are researching (e.g.
people from a specific age range, geographical location, or profession). Ensure that you have
enough participants and that they are representative of the population.
Ensuring reliability
Reliability should be considered throughout the data collection process. When you use a tool
or technique to collect data, it’s important that the results are precise, stable and reproducible.
 Apply your methods consistently
Plan your method carefully to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each
measurement. This is especially important if multiple researchers are involved.
For example, if you are conducting interviews or observations, clearly define how specific
behaviours or responses will be counted, and make sure questions are phrased the same way
each time.
 Standardize the conditions of your research
When you collect your data, keep the circumstances as consistent as possible to reduce the
influence of external factors that might create variation in the results.

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For example, in an experimental setup, make sure all participants are given the same
information and tested under the same conditions.
Where to write about reliability and validity in a thesis
It’s appropriate to discuss reliability and validity in various sections of your thesis or
dissertation. Showing that you have taken them into account in planning your research and
interpreting the results makes your work more credible and trustworthy.

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Lesson 27

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES

Topic 027: Data Analysis and Interpretation Techniques
Introduction
Once the data begins to flow in, attention turns to data analysis. If the project has been done
correctly, the analysis planning is already done. Back at the research design stage or at least by
the completion of the proposal or the pilot test, decisions should have been made about how to
analyze the data. During the analysis stage several interrelated procedures are performed to
summarize and rearrange the data. The goal of most research is to provide information. There
is a difference between raw data and information.
Information
Information refers to a body of facts that are in a format suitable for decision making, whereas
data are simply recorded measures of certain phenomenon. The raw data collected in the field
must be transformed into information that will answer the sponsor‟s (e.g. manager‟s)
questions. The conversion of raw data into information requires that the data be edited and
coded so that the data may be transferred to a computer or other data storage medium. If the
database is large, there are many advantages to utilizing a computer. Assuming a large
database, entering the data into computer follows the coding procedure
Editing
Editing is the process of checking and adjusting the data for omissions, legibility, and
consistency. Editing may be differentiated from coding, which is the assignment of numerical
scales or classifying symbols to previously edited data. The purpose of editing is to ensure the
completeness, consistency, and readability of the data to be transferred to data storage. The
editor‟s task is to check for errors and omissions on the questionnaires or other data collection
forms. The editor may have to reconstruct some data. For instance, a respondent may indicate
weekly income rather than monthly income, as requested on the questionnaire. The editor must
convert the information to monthly data without adding any extraneous information. The editor
“should bring to light all hidden values and extract all possible information from a
questionnaire, while adding nothing extraneous.”
Coding
Coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so the responses can be
grouped into limited number of classes or categories. The classifying of data into limited
categories sacrifices some data detail but is necessary for efficient analysis. Nevertheless, it is
recommended that try to keep the data in raw form so far it is possible. When the data have
been entered into the computer you can always ask the computer to group and regroup the
categories. In case the data have been entered in the compute in grouped form, it will not be
possible to disaggregate it. Although codes are generally considered to be numerical symbols,
they are more broadly defined as the rules for interpreting, classifying, and recording data.
Codes allow data to be processed in a computer. Researchers organize data into fields, records,
and files. A field is a collection of characters (a character is a single number, letter of the
alphabet, or special symbol such as the question mark) that represent a single type of data. A
record is collection of related fields. A file is a collection of related records. File, records, and
fields are stored on magnetic tapes, floppy disks, or hard drives. Researchers use a coding

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procedure and codebook. A coding procedure is a set of rules stating that certain numbers are
assigned to variable attributes.
For example, a researchers codes males as 1 and females as 2. Each category of variable and
missing information needs a code. A codebook is a document (i.e. one or more pages)
describing the coding procedure and the location of data for variables in a format that
computers can use. When you code data, it is very important to create a well-organized, detailed
codebook and make multiple copies of it. If you do not write down the details of the coding
procedure, or if you misplace the codebook, you have lost the key to the data and may have to
recode the data again. Researchers begin thinking about a coding procedure and a codebook
before they collect data. For example a survey researcher pre-codes a questionnaire before
collecting the data. Pre-coding means placing the code categories (e.g. 1 for male, 2 for female)
on the questionnaire. Sometimes to reduce dependence on codebooks, researchers also place
the location in the computer format on the questionnaire. If the researcher does not pre-code,
his or her first step after collecting and editing of data is to create a codebook. He or she also
gives each case an identification number to keep track of the cases. Next, the researcher
transfers the information from each questionnaire into a format that computers can read.
Code Construction
When the question has a fixed-alternative (closed ended) format, the number of categories
requiring codes is determined during the questionnaire design stage. The codes 8 and 9 are
conventionally given to “don‟t know” (DK) and “no answer” (NA) respectively. However,
many computer program fields recognize a blank field or a certain character symbol, such as a
period (.), as indicating a missing value (no answer). There are two basic rules for code
construction. First, the coding categories should be exhaustive – that is, coding categories
should be provided for all subjects or objects or responses. With a categorical variable such as
sex, making categories exhaustive is not a problem. However, when the response represents a
small number of subjects or when the responses might be categorized in a class not typically
found, there may be a problem. Second, the coding categories should also be mutually
exclusive and independent. This means that there should be no overlap between the categories,
to ensure that a subject or response can be placed in only one category. This frequently requires
that an “other” code category be included, so that the categories are all inclusive and mutually
exclusive.
For example, managerial span of control might be coded 1, 2, 3, 4, and “5 or more.” The “5 or
more” category ensures everyone a place in a category. When a questionnaire is highly
structured, pre-coding of the categories typically occurs before the data are collected. In many
cases, such as when researchers are using open-ended response questions, a framework for
classifying responses to questions cannot be established before data collection. This situation
requires some careful thought concerning the determination of categories after editing process
has been completed. This is called post-coding or simply coding. The purpose of coding open-
ended response questions is to reduce the large number of individual responses to a few general
categories of answers that can be assigned numerical scores. Code construction in these
situations necessarily must reflect the judgment of the researcher. A major objective in code-
building process is to accurately transfer the meaning from written answers to numeric codes.
Code Book
A book identifying each variable in a study and its position in the data matrix is known as code
book. The book is used to identify a variable‟s description, code name, and field. Here is a
sample:

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Production Coding

Transferring the data from the questionnaire or data collection form after the data have been
collected is called production coding. Depending upon the nature of the data collection form,
codes may be written directly on the instrument or on a special coding sheet.

Data Entries

Use of scanner sheets for data collection may facilitate the entry of the responses directly
into the computer without manual keying in the data. In studies involving highly structured
paper questionnaires, an Optical scanning system may be used to read material directly to
the computers’ memory into the computers’ memory. Optical scanners process the marked-
sensed questionnaires and store the answers in a file.

Cleaning Data

The final stage in the coding process is the error checking and verification, or “data cleaning”
stage, which is a check to make sure that all codes are legitimate. Accuracy is extremely
important when coding data. Errors made when coding or entering data into a computer
threaten the validity of measures and cause misleading results. A researcher who has perfect
sample, perfect measures, and no errors in gathering data, but who makes errors in the coding
process or in entering data into a computer, can ruin a whole research project.
Types of Analysis
1. Univariate Analysis
Uni means one and variate means variable, so in univariate analysis, there is only one
dependable variable. The objective of univariate analysis is to derive the data, define and
summarize it, and analyze the pattern present in it. In a dataset, it explores each variable
separately. It is possible for two kinds of variables- Categorical and Numerical.
Some patterns that can be easily identified with univariate analysis are Central Tendency
(mean, mode and median), Dispersion (range, variance), Quartiles (interquartile range), and
Standard deviation.

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2. Bivariate Analysis
Bi means two and variate means variable, so here there are two variables. The analysis is related
to cause and the relationship between the two variables. There are three types of bivariate
analysis.
Bivariate Analysis of two Numerical Variables (Numerical-Numerical)
Scatter Plot
A scatter plot represents individual pieces of data using dots. These plots make it easier to see
if two variables are related to each other. The resulting pattern indicates the type (linear or non-
linear) and strength of the relationship between two variables.
Linear Correlation
Linear Correlation represents the strength of a linear relationship between two numerical
variables. If there is no correlation between the two variables, there is no tendency to change
along with the values of the second quantity.
Here, r measures the strength of a linear relationship and is always between -1 and 1 where -1
denotes perfect negative linear correlation and +1 denotes perfect positive linear correlation
and zero denotes no linear correlation.

Bivariate Analysis of two categorical Variables (Categorical-Categorical)

Chi-square Test
The chi-square test is used for determining the association between categorical variables. It is
calculated based on the difference between expected frequencies and the observed frequencies
in one or more categories of the frequency table. A probability of zero indicates a complete
dependency between two categorical variables and a probability of one indicates that two
categorical variables are completely independent.
Here, subscript c indicates the degrees of freedom, O indicates observed value, and E indicates
expected value.

Bivariate Analysis of one numerical and one categorical variable (Numerical-Categorical)

Z-test and t-test
Z and T-tests are important to calculate if the difference between a sample and population is
substantial.
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If the probability of Z is small, the difference between the two averages is more significant.
T-Test

If the sample size is large enough, then we use a Z-test, and for a small sample size, we use a
T-test.
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
The ANOVA test is used to determine whether there is a significant difference among the
averages of more than two groups that are statistically different from each other. This analysis
is appropriate for comparing the averages of a numerical variable for more than two categories
of a categorical variable.

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Multivariate Analysis
Multivariate analysis is required when more than two variables have to be analyzed
simultaneously. It is a tremendously hard task for the human brain to visualize a relationship
among 4 variables in a graph and thus multivariate analysis is used to study more complex sets
of data. Types of Multivariate Analysis include Cluster Analysis, Factor Analysis, Multiple
Regression Analysis, Principal Component Analysis, etc. More than 20 different ways to
perform multivariate analysis exist and which one to choose depends upon the type of data and
the end goal to achieve. The most common ways are:
Cluster Analysis
Cluster Analysis classifies different objects into clusters in a way that the similarity between
two objects from the same group is maximum and minimal otherwise. It is used when rows and
columns of the data table represent the same units and the measure represents distance or
similarity.

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Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

Principal Components Analysis (or PCA) is used for reducing the dimensionality of a data table
with a large number of interrelated measures. Here, the original variables are converted into a
new set of variables, which are known as the “Principal Components” of Principal Component
Analysis.
PCA is used for the dataset that shows multicollinearity. Although least squares estimates are
biased, the distance between variances and their actual value can be really large. So, PCA adds
some bias and reduces standard error for the regression model.

Correspondence Analysis
Correspondence Analysis using the data from a contingency table shows relative relationships
between and among two different groups of variables. A contingency table is a 2D table with
rows and columns as groups of variables.

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Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative data analysis simply means analysing data that is numbers-based – or data that
can be easily “converted” into numbers without losing any meaning. For example, category-
based variables like gender, ethnicity, or native language could all be “converted” into numbers
without losing meaning – for example, English could equal 1, French 2, etc.
What is quantitative analysis used for?
Quantitative analysis is generally used for three purposes.

 Firstly, it’s used to measure differences between groups. For example, the popularity
of different clothing colours or brands.

 Secondly, it’s used to assess relationships between variables. For example, the
relationship between weather temperature and voter turnout.

 And third, it’s used to test hypotheses in a scientifically rigorous way. For example, a
hypothesis about the impact of a certain vaccine.

Branches” of quantitative analysis

Quantitative analysis is powered by statistical analysis methods. There are two main
“branches” of statistical methods that are used – descriptive statistics
and inferential statistics. In your research, you might only use descriptive statistics, or you
might use a mix of both, depending on what you’re trying to figure out. In other words,
depending on your research questions, aims and objectives.

1. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics serve a simple but critically important role in your research –
to describe your data set – hence the name. In other words, they help you understand the details
of your sample. Unlike inferential statistics (which we’ll get to soon), descriptive statistics
don’t aim to make inferences or predictions about the entire population – they’re purely
interested in the details of your specific sample.
When you’re writing up your analysis, descriptive statistics are the first set of stats you’ll cover,
before moving on to inferential statistics. But, that said, depending on your research objectives
and research questions, they may be the only type of statistics you use. We’ll explore that a
little later.
What kind of statistics are usually covered in this section?
Some common statistical tests used in this branch include the following:

 Mean – this is simply the mathematical average of a range of numbers.

 Median – this is the midpoint in a range of numbers when the numbers are arranged in
numerical order. If the data set makes up an odd number, then the median is the number
right in the middle of the set. If the data set makes up an even number, then the median
is the midpoint between the two middle numbers.

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 Mode – this is simply the most commonly occurring number in the data set.

 Standard deviation – this metric indicates how dispersed a range of numbers is. In other
words, how close all the numbers are to the mean (the average).

 In cases where most of the numbers are quite close to the average, the standard
deviation will be relatively low.

 Conversely, in cases where the numbers are scattered all over the place, the
standard deviation will be relatively high.

 Skewness. As the name suggests, skewness indicates how symmetrical a range of

numbers is. In other words, do they tend to cluster into a smooth bell curve shape in the
middle of the graph, or do they skew to the left or right?
Feeling a bit confused? Let’s look at a practical example using a small data set.

On the left-hand side is the data set. This details the bodyweight of a sample of 10 people. On
the right-hand side, we have the descriptive statistics. Let’s take a look at each of them.
First, we can see that the mean weight is 72.4 kilograms. In other words, the average weight
across the sample is 72.4 kilograms. Straightforward.
Next, we can see that the median is very similar to the mean (the average). This suggests that
this data set has a reasonably symmetrical distribution (in other words, a relatively smooth,
centred distribution of weights, clustered towards the centre).

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In terms of the mode, there is no mode in this data set. This is because each number is present
only once and so there cannot be a “most common number”. If there were two people who
were both 65 kilograms, for example, then the mode would be 65.
Next up is the standard deviation. 10.6 indicates that there’s quite a wide spread of numbers.
We can see this quite easily by looking at the numbers themselves, which range from 55 to 90,
which is quite a stretch from the mean of 72.4.
And lastly, the skewness of -0.2 tells us that the data is very slightly negatively skewed. This
makes sense since the mean and the median are slightly different.
As you can see, these descriptive statistics give us some useful insight into the data set. Of
course, this is a very small data set (only 10 records), so we can’t read into these statistics too
much. Also, keep in mind that this is not a list of all possible descriptive statistics – just the
most common ones.
But why do all of these numbers matter?
While these descriptive statistics are all fairly basic, they’re important for a few reasons:

 Firstly, they help you get both a macro and micro-level view of your data. In other
words, they help you understand both the big picture and the finer details.

 Secondly, they help you spot potential errors in the data – for example, if an average
is way higher than you’d expect, or responses to a question are highly varied, this can
act as a warning sign that you need to double-check the data.

 And lastly, these descriptive statistics help inform which inferential statistical
techniques you can use, as those techniques depend on the skewness (in other words,
the symmetry and normality) of the data.
Simply put, descriptive statistics are really important, even though the statistical techniques
used are fairly basic. All too often at Grad Coach, we see students skimming over the
descriptives in their eagerness to get to the more exciting inferential methods, and then landing
up with some very flawed results.
2. Inferential Statistics
As I mentioned, while descriptive statistics are all about the details of your specific data set –
your sample – inferential statistics aim to make inferences about the population. In other
words, you’ll use inferential statistics to make predictions about what you’d expect to find in
the full population.
What kind of predictions, you ask?
There are two common types of predictions that researchers try to make using inferential stats:

 Firstly, predictions about differences between groups – for example, height differences
between children grouped by their favourite meal or gender.

 And secondly, relationships between variables – for example, the relationship between
body weight and the number of hours a week a person does yoga.

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In other words, inferential statistics (when done correctly), allow you to connect the dots
and make predictions about what you expect to see in the real world population, based on
what you observe in your sample data. For this reason, inferential statistics are used
for hypothesis testing – in other words, to test hypotheses that predict changes or differences.
Of course, when you’re working with inferential statistics, the composition of your sample is
really important. In other words, if your sample doesn’t accurately represent the population
you’re researching, then your findings won’t necessarily be very useful.
For example, if your population of interest is a mix of 50% male and 50% female, but your
sample is 80% male, you can’t make inferences about the population based on your sample,
since it’s not representative. This area of statistics is called sampling, but we won’t go down
that rabbit hole here (it’s a deep one!) – we’ll save that for another post.
What statistics are usually used in this branch?
There are many, many different statistical analysis methods within the inferential branch and
it’d be impossible for us to discuss them all here. So we’ll just take a look at some of the most
common inferential statistical methods so that you have a solid starting point.
1. T-Tests. T-tests compare the means (the averages) of two groups of data to assess whether
they’re statistically significantly different. In other words, do they have significantly
different means, standard deviations and skewness. This type of testing is very useful for
understanding just how similar or different two groups of data are. For example, you might
want to compare the mean blood pressure between two groups of people – one that has
taken a new medication and one that hasn’t – to assess whether they are significantly
different.
2. ANOVA, which stands for “analysis of variance”. This test is similar to a T-test in that it
compares the means of various groups, but ANOVA allows you to analyse multiple
groups, not just two groups So it’s basically a t-test on steroids…
3. Correlation analysis. This type of analysis assesses the relationship between two
variables. In other words, if one variable increases, does the other variable also increase,
decrease or stay the same. For example, if the average temperature goes up, do average ice
creams sales increase too? We’d expect some sort of relationship between these two
variables intuitively, but correlation analysis allows us to measure that
relationship scientifically.
4. regression analysis – this is quite similar to correlation in that it assesses the relationship
between variables, but it goes a step further to understand cause and effect between
variables, not just whether they move together. In other words, does the one variable
actually cause the other one to move, or do they just happen to move together naturally
thanks to another force? Just because two variables correlate doesn’t necessarily mean that
one causes the other.
How to Correct Data Analysis Method
How to choose the right analysis method
To choose the right statistical methods, you need to think about two important factors:

1. The type of quantitative data you have (specifically, level of measurement and the
shape of the data). And,

2. Your research questions and hypotheses

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Factor 1 – Data type

The first thing you need to consider is the type of data you’ve collected (or the type of data
you will collect). By data types, I’m referring to the four levels of measurement – namely,
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. If you’re not familiar with this lingo, check out this
post which explains each of the four levels of measurement.

Why does this matter?

Different statistical methods and techniques require different types of data. This is one of the
“assumptions” I mentioned earlier – every method has its assumptions regarding the type of
data. For example, some techniques work with categorical data (for example, yes/no type
questions, or gender or ethnicity), while others work with continuous numerical data (for
example, age, weight or income) – and, of course, some work with multiple data types. If you
try to use a statistical method that doesn’t support the data type you have, your results will be
largely meaningless. So, make sure that you have a clear understanding of what types of data
you’ve collected (or will collect). Once you have this, you can then check which statistical
methods would support your data types here. If you haven’t collected your data yet, you can
work in reverse and look at which statistical method would give you the most useful insights,
and then design your data collection strategy to collect the correct data types. Another
important factor to consider is the shape of your data. Specifically, does it have
a normal distribution (in other words, is it a bell-shaped curve, centred in the middle) or is it
very skewed to the left or the right? Again, different statistical techniques work for different
shapes of data – some are designed for symmetrical data while others are designed for skewed
data.
Factor 2: Your research questions
The next thing you need to consider is your specific research questions, as well as
your hypotheses (if you have some). The nature of your research questions and research
hypotheses will heavily influence which statistical methods and techniques you should use.

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If you’re just interested in understanding the attributes of your sample (as opposed to the entire
population), then descriptive statistics are probably all you need. For example, if you just want
to assess the means (averages) and medians (centre points) of variables in a group of people.
On the other hand, if you aim to
understand differences between groups or relationships between variables and to infer or
predict outcomes in the population, then you’ll likely need both descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics.
So, it’s really important to get very clear about your research aims and research questions, as
well your hypotheses – before you start looking at which statistical techniques to use.
Conclusion

1. Quantitative data analysis is all about analysing number-based data (which includes
categorical and numerical data) using various statistical techniques.

2. The two main branches of statistics are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptives describe your sample, whereas inferentials make predictions about what
you’ll find in the population.

3. Common descriptive statistical methods include mean (average), median,

standard deviation and skewness.

4. Common inferential statistical methods include t-

tests, ANOVA, correlation and regression analysis.

5. To choose the right statistical methods and techniques, you need to consider the type of
data you’re working with, as well as your research questions and hypotheses.

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Lesson 28
CORRELATION
Topic 028: Correlation
Introduction
Correlation first developed by Sir Francis Galton (1822 – 1911) and then reformulated by Karl
Pearson (1857 – 1936). Two variables are said to be correlated if the change in one variable
results in a corresponding change in the other variable. The correlation is a statistical tool which
studies the relationship between two variables. Correlation analysis involves various methods
and techniques used for studying and measuring the extent of the relationship between the two
variables. Correlation is concerned with the measurement of “strength of association between
variables”. The degree of association between two or more variables is termed as correlation.
Correlation analysis helps us to decide the strength of the linear relationship between two
variables. The word correlation is used to decide the degree of association between variables.
If two variables ‘x’ and ‘y’ are so related, the variables in the magnitude of one variable tend
to be accompanied by variations in the magnitude of the other variable, they are said to be
correlated. Thus, correlation is a statistical tool, with the help of which, we can determine
whether or not two or more variables are correlate and if they are correlated, what is the degree
and direction of correlation.
Definition
The correlation is the measure of the extent and the direction of the relationship between two
variables in a bivariate distribution.
Example:
(i) Height and weight of children.
(ii) An increase in the price of the commodity by a decrease in the quantity demanded.
Types of Correlation:
The following are the types of correlation
1. Positive and Negative Correlation
2. Simple, Partial and Multiple Correlation
3. Linear and Non-linear Correlation.
1. Positive and Negative correlation
If both the variables are varying in the same direction i.e. if one variable is increasing and the
other on an average is also increasing or if as one variable is decreasing, the other on an average,
is also decreasing, correlation is said to be positive. If on the other hand, the variable is
increasing, the other is decreasing or vice versa, correlation is said to be negative.
Example 1: a) heights and weights (b) amount of rainfall and yields of crops (c) price and
supply of a commodity (d) income and expenditure on luxury goods (e) blood pressure and age
Example 2: a) price and demand of commodity (b) sales of woolen garments and the day’s
temperature.
2. Simple, Partial and Multiple Correlation
When only two variables are studied, it is a case of simple correlation. In partial and multiple
correlation, three or more variables are studied. In multiple correlation three or more variables
are studied simultaneously. In partial correlation, we have more than two variables, but

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consider only two variables to be influencing each other, the effect of the other variables being
kept constant.
3. Linear and Non-linear Correlation:
If the change in one variable tends to bear a constant ratio to the change in the other variable,
the correlation is said to be linear. Correlation is said to be non- linear if the amount of change
in one variable does nor bear a constant ratio to the amount of change in the other variable.
Methods of Studying Correlation
The following are the methods of determining correlation
1. Scatter diagram method
2. Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

1. Scatter Diagram: This is a graphic method of finding out relationship between the variables.
Given data are plotted on a graph paper in the form of dots i.e. for each pair of x and y values
we put a dot and thus obtain as many points as the number of observations. The greater the
scatter of points over the graph, the lesser the relationship between the variables.

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Interpretation
 If all the points lie in a straight line, there is either perfect positive or perfect negative
correlation.
 If all the points lie on a straight falling from the lower left hand corner to the upper right
hand corner then the correlation is perfect positive.
 Perfect positive if r = + 1.
 If all the points lie on a straight falling from the upper left hand corner to the lower right
hand corner then the correlation is perfect negative.
 Perfect negative if r = -1.
 The nearer the points are to be straight line, the higher degree of correlation.
 The farthest the points from the straight line, the lower degree of correlation.
 If the points are widely scattered and no trend is revealed, the variables may be un-
correlated i.e. r = 0.
2. The Coefficient of Correlation
A scatter diagram give an idea about the type of relationship or association between the
variables under study. It does not tell us about the quantification of the association between the
two. In order to quantify the relationship between the variables a measure called correlation
coefficient developed by Karl Pearson. It is defined as the measure of the degree to which there
is linear association between two intervally scaled variables. Thus, the coefficient of correlation
is a number which indicates to what extent two variables are related, to what extent variations
in one go with the variations in the other.
Interpretation
i. If the covariance is positive, the relationship is positive.
ii. If the covariance is negative, the relationship is negative.
iii. If the covariance is zero, the variables are said to be not correlated.
Hence the covariance measures the strength of linear association between considered numerical
variables. Thus, covariance is an absolute measure of linear association. In order to have
relative measure of relationship it is necessary to compute correlation coefficient.

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Lesson 29
T-TEST AND ANOVA
Topic 029: T-test and ANOVA
Introduction
A t-test is a statistical test that is used to compare the means of two groups. It is often used
in hypothesis testing to determine whether a process or treatment actually has an effect on the
population of interest, or whether two groups are different from one another. You want to know
whether the mean petal length of iris flowers differs according to their species. You find two
different species of irises growing in a garden and measure 25 petals of each species. You can
test the difference between these two groups using a t-test.
 The null hypothesis (H0) is that the true difference between these group means is zero.
 The alternate hypothesis (Ha) is that the true difference is different from zero.
When to use a t-test
A t-test can only be used when comparing the means of two groups (a.k.a. pairwise
comparison). If you want to compare more than two groups, or if you want to do multiple
pairwise comparisons, use an ANOVA test or a post-hoc test.
The t-test is a parametric test of difference, meaning that it makes the same assumptions about
your data as other parametric tests. The t-test assumes your data:
1. are independent
2. are (approximately) normally distributed.
3. have a similar amount of variance within each group being compared (a.k.a. homogeneity
of variance)
If your data do not fit these assumptions, you can try a nonparametric alternative to the t-test,
such as the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test for data with unequal variances.
What type of t-test should I use?
When choosing a t-test, you will need to consider two things: whether the groups being
compared come from a single population or two different populations, and whether you want
to test the difference in a specific direction.
One-sample, two-sample, or paired t-test?
 If the groups come from a single population (e.g. measuring before and after an
experimental treatment), perform a paired t-test.
 If the groups come from two different populations (e.g. two different species, or people
from two separate cities), perform a two-sample t-test (a.k.a. independent t-test).
 If there is one group being compared against a standard value (e.g. comparing the acidity
of a liquid to a neutral pH of 7), perform a one-sample t-test.
One-tailed or two-tailed t-test?
 If you only care whether the two populations are different from one another, perform
a two-tailed t-test.
 If you want to know whether one population mean is greater than or less than the other,
perform a one-tailed t-test.

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In your test of whether petal length differs by species:

 Your observations come from two separate populations (separate species), so you perform
a two-sample t-test.
 You don’t care about the direction of the difference, only whether there is a difference, so
you choose to use a two-tailed t- test.
Performing a t-test
The t-test estimates the true difference between two group means using the ratio of the
difference in group means over the pooled standard error of both groups. You can calculate it
manually using a formula, or use statistical analysis software.
T-test formula
The formula for the two-sample t-test (a.k.a. the Student’s t-test) is shown below.

In this formula, t is the t-value, x1 and x2 are the means of the two groups being compared, s2 is
the pooled standard error of the two groups, and n1 and n2 are the number of observations in
each of the groups.
A larger t-value shows that the difference between group means is greater than the pooled
standard error, indicating a more significant difference between the groups.
You can compare your calculated t-value against the values in a critical value chart to determine
whether your t-value is greater than what would be expected by chance. If so, you can reject
the null hypothesis and conclude that the two groups are in fact different.
T-test function in statistical software
Most statistical software (R, SPSS, etc.) includes a t-test function. This built-in function will
take your raw data and calculate the t-value. It will then compare it to the critical value, and
calculate a p-value. This way you can quickly see whether your groups are statistically
different.
An introduction to ANOVA
A statistical method for testing whether two or more dependent variable means are equal (i.e.,
the probability that any differences in means across several groups are due solely to sampling
error). ANOVA, which stands for Analysis of Variance, is a statistical test used to analyze the
difference between the means of more than two groups.
Variables in ANOVA (Analysis of Variance):
 Dependent variable is metric.
 Independent variable(s) is nominal with two or more levels – also called treatment,
manipulation, or factor.

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Types of ANOVA
 One-way ANOVA: only one independent variable with two or more levels.
 Two-way ANOVA: two independent variables each with two or more levels.
 With ANOVA, a single metric dependent variable is tested as the outcome of a treatment
or manipulation.
 With MANOVA (Multiple Analysis of Variance), two or more metric dependent
variables are tested as the outcome of a treatment(s).
One Way ANOVA
A one-way ANOVA uses one independent variable, while a two-way ANOVA uses two
independent variables. Example: As a crop researcher, you want to test the effect of three
different fertilizer mixtures on crop yield. You can use a one-way ANOVA to find out if there
is a difference in crop yields between the three groups.
When to use a one-way ANOVA
Use a one-way ANOVA when you have collected data about one categorical independent
variable and one quantitative dependent variable. The independent variable should have at least
three levels (i.e. at least three different groups or categories).
ANOVA tells you if the dependent variable changes according to the level of the independent
variable. For example:
 Your independent variable is social media use, and you assign groups to low, medium,
and high levels of social media use to find out if there is a difference in hours of sleep
per night.
 Your independent variable is brand of soda, and you collect data on Coke, Pepsi, Sprite,
and Fanta to find out if there is a difference in the price per 100ml.
 You independent variable is type of fertilizer, and you treat crop fields with
mixtures 1, 2 and 3 to find out if there is a difference in crop yield.
The null hypothesis (H0) of ANOVA is that there is no difference among group means. The
alternate hypothesis (Ha) is that at least one group differs significantly from the overall mean
of the dependent variable.
If you only want to compare two groups, use a t-test instead.
How does an ANOVA test work?
ANOVA determines whether the groups created by the levels of the independent variable are
statistically different by calculating whether the means of the treatment levels are different
from the overall mean of the dependent variable.
If any of the group means is significantly different from the overall mean, then the null
hypothesis is rejected.
ANOVA uses the F-test for statistical significance. This allows for comparison of multiple
means at once, because the error is calculated for the whole set of comparisons rather than for
each individual two-way comparison (which would happen with a t-test).
The F-test compares the variance in each group mean from the overall group variance. If the
variance within groups is smaller than the variance between groups, the F-test will find a higher

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F-value, and therefore a higher likelihood that the difference observed is real and not due to
chance.
Assumptions of ANOVA
The assumptions of the ANOVA test are the same as the general assumptions for any
parametric test:
1. Independence of observations: the data were collected using statistically-valid
methods, and there are no hidden relationships among observations. If your data fail to
meet this assumption because you have a confounding variable that you need to control
for statistically, use an ANOVA with blocking variables.
2. Normally-distributed response variable: The values of the dependent variable follow
a normal distribution.
3. Homogeneity of variance: The variation within each group being compared is similar
for every group. If the variances are different among the groups, then ANOVA probably
isn’t the right fit for the data.
An introduction to the two-way ANOVA
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is a statistical test used to analyze the difference between the
means of more than two groups. A two-way ANOVA is used to estimate how the mean of
a quantitative variable changes according to the levels of two categorical variables. Use a
two-way ANOVA when you want to know how two independent variables, in combination,
affect a dependent variable.
Example: You are researching which type of fertilizer and planting density produces the
greatest crop yield in a field experiment. You assign different plots in a field to a combination
of fertilizer type (1, 2, or 3) and planting density (1=low density, 2=high density), and
measure the final crop yield in bushels per acre at harvest time.
You can use a two-way ANOVA to find out if fertilizer type and planting density have an
effect on average crop yield.
When to use a two-way ANOVA
You can use a two-way ANOVA when you have collected data on a quantitative dependent
variable at multiple levels of two categorical independent variables.
A quantitative variable represents amounts or counts of things. It can be divided to find a
group mean.
Bushels per acre is a quantitative variable because it represents the amount of crop produced.
It can be divided to find the average bushels per acre.
A categorical variable represents types or categories of things. A level is an individual
category within the categorical variable.
Fertilizer types 1, 2, and 3 are levels within the categorical variable fertilizer type. Planting
densities 1 and 2 are levels within the categorical variable planting density.
You should have enough observations in your data set to be able to find the mean of the
quantitative dependent variable at each combination of levels of the independent variables.
Both of your independent variables should be categorical. If one of your independent variables
is categorical and one is quantitative, use an ANCOVA instead.

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How does the ANOVA test work?

ANOVA tests for significance using the F-test for statistical significance. The F-test is a
groupwise comparison test, which means it compares the variance in each group mean to the
overall variance in the dependent variable.
If the variance within groups is smaller than the variance between groups, the F-test will find
a higher F-value, and therefore a higher likelihood that the difference observed is real and not
due to chance.
A two-way ANOVA with interaction tests three null hypotheses at the same time:
 There is no difference in group means at any level of the first independent variable.
 There is no difference in group means at any level of the second independent variable.
 The effect of one independent variable does not depend on the effect of the other
independent variable (a.k.a. no interaction effect).
A two-way ANOVA without interaction (a.k.a. an additive two-way ANOVA) only tests the
first two of these hypotheses.
Two-way ANOVA hypotheses
In our crop yield experiment, we can test three hypotheses using two-way ANOVA:

Assumptions of the two-way ANOVA

To use a two-way ANOVA your data should meet certain assumptions. Two-way ANOVA
makes all of the normal assumptions of a parametric test of difference:
1. Homogeneity of variance (a.k.a. homoscedasticity)
The variation around the mean for each group being compared should be similar among all
groups. If your data don’t meet this assumption, you may be able to use a non-parametric
alternative, like the Kruskal-Wallis test.
2. Independence of observations
Your independent variables should not be dependent on one another (i.e. one should not cause
the other). This is impossible to test with categorical variables – it can only be ensured by
good experimental design.
In addition, your dependent variable should represent unique observations – that is, your
observations should not be grouped within locations or individuals.
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If your data don’t meet this assumption (i.e. if you set up experimental treatments within
blocks), you can include a blocking variable and/or use a repeated-measures ANOVA.
3. Normally-distributed dependent variable
The values of the dependent variable should follow a bell curve. If your data don’t meet this
assumption, you can try a data transformation.
In the crop-yield example, the response variable is normally distributed, and we can check for
homoscedasticity after running the model. The experimental treatments were set up within
blocks in the field, with four blocks each containing every possible combination of fertilizer
type and planting density, so we should include this as a blocking variable in the model.

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Lesson 30
CROSSTAB AND CHI-SQUARE
Topic 030: Crosstab and Chi-square
Introduction
Crosstabulation is a statistical technique used to display a breakdown of the data by these two
variables (that is, it is a table that has displays the frequency of different majors broken down
by gender).
The Pearson chi-square test essentially tells us whether the results of a crosstab are
statistically significant. That is, are the two categorical variables independent (unrelated) of
one another. So basically, the chi square test is a correlation test for categorical variables. So
for our example, the chi-square test will tell us whether there are more female psychology
majors than you would expect by chance (based on total number of males and females and total
number of people in different majors).
When do we use these methods?
 When we have categorical variables
o Do the percentages match up with how we thought they would?
o Are two (or more) categorical variables independent?
 Can do it with continuous variables if you convert them into categories (we won't cover
this), but you typically don't want to do this because you lose a lot of information, and
these tests are not as "powerful" as parametric tests
Crosstabulation
Example
Suppose that you are interested in whether there is a relationship between gender and
educational level (undergraduate vs. graduate students) at ISU (year 2002). That is, are men
and women equally likely to pursue a graduate education relative to an undergraduate
education.
Setup our data in a "cross tabulation" of our two variables. The data are observed frequencies
(fo).

The next step in the crosstabulation procedure is to compute the marginals for the rows and
columns. This simply means add the frequencies across the rows and down the columns.

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So what can we tell from this table?

Overall there are more graduate students than undergraduates, and there are more
female than male students at ISU.
However this doesn't answer our question about whether women are more or less likely
(i.e. that there is a relationship) to pursue graduate school than men. To find this out we
need to do an inferential test, the Chi-square.
Hypothesis Testing with Chi-squared
 We test the null hypothesis that nothing interesting is happening (i.e., there is no
relationship) versus alternative hypothesis that findings are interesting (i.e., there is a
relationship).
 The null hypothesis can only be rejected if there is a .05 or lower probability that our
findings are due to chance
Hypothesis tests determine the extent to which our findings may be due to chance
 A chi-square will be significant if the residuals (the differences between observed
frequencies and expected frequencies) for one level of a variable differ as a function of
another variable.
 The chi-square value does not tell us the nature of the differences

Example
A manufacturer of watches takes a sample of 200 people. Each person is classified by age and
watch type preference (digital vs. analog). The question: is there a relationship between age
and watch preference?
Setup our data in a "cross tabulation" of our two variables. The data are observed frequencies
(fo).

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Step 1: State the hypotheses and select an alpha level

H0: Preference is independent of age
Ha: Preference is related to age
We'll set = 0.05
Step 2:
 Compute your degrees of freedom
df = (#Columns - 1) * (#Rows - 1)
 Go to Chi-square statistic table and find the critical value
For this example, with df = 2, and a = 0.05 the critical chi-squared value is 5.99
Step 3: Collect your data and compute your test statistic
Part 1: Obtain row and column totals, also called the marginals (in blue).

Part 2: Compute the expected frequencies

For people under 30

o prefering digital watches: fe = (100*140)/200 = 70
o prefering analog watches: fe = (80*140)/200 = 56
o undecided watches: fe = (20*140)/200 = 14
For people over 30
o prefering digital watches: fe = (100*60)/200 = 30
o prefering analog watches: fe = (80*60)/200 = 24
o undecided watches: fe = (20*140)/60 = 6
So let's enter the predicted (expected) values (in green) into our crosstabulation.

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Part 3: Compute the Chi-squared statistic

 Find the residuals (fo - fe) for each cell

 Square these differences
 Divide the squared differences by fe
 Sum the results

So then add them up

Step 4: Compare this computed statistic (38.09) against the critical value (5.99) and make a
decision about your hypotheses

 Here we reject the H0 and conclude that there is a relationship between age and watch
preference.

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Important Characteristics of A Chi Square Test

 This test (as a non-parametric test) is based on frequencies and not on the parameters
like mean and standard deviation.
 The test is used for testing the hypothesis and is not useful for estimation.
 This test can also be applied to a complex contingency table with several classes and as
such is a very useful test in research work.
 This test is an important non-parametric test as no rigid assumptions are necessary in
regard to the type of population, no need of parameter values and relatively less
mathematical details are involved.

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