NUCLEIC ACID

Prof. Anthony Sio, RMT | Biochemistry Lecture ​ ​​ ``​ ​ PPT - BOOK `(STOKER) BASED

●​ One of the properties of the cell is being able to The difference between their structure lies at the second
produce exact replicas without external / carbon.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

environmental factors. The details they need for 2 deoxyribose has no oxygen attached to carbon 2
replication are within them hence the name, “deoxy” meaning “no oxygen”
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
●​ The molecule within the cell that are responsible for DNA & RNA differs in pentose sugar attached to them:
that is nucleic acid -​ DNA - 2 deoxyribose
NUCLEIC ACID -​ RNA - ribose
↳​ A polymer in which the monomer units are
nucleotides. NITROGENOUS BASE
↳​ There are two types of nucleic acids: ●​ There are 5 nitrogen containing heterocyclic base

1.​ DNA in a nucleic acid

2.​ RNA ●​ It can either be a pyrimidine or purine

Their difference lies at their structure and sugar attached PYRIMIDINE PURINE
Thymine Adenine
DNA
Cytosine Guanine
↳​ Storage and transfer of genetic information
Uracil
↳​ Passed from existing cells to new cells during cell
division (mitosis and meiosis) MNEMONICS:

RNA PURE As Gold - PURE (purine) A (adenine) G (guanine)

↳​ Occurs in all parts of cell CUT the PIES - C (cytosine) U (uracil) T (thymine) PIE (py)
↳​ Functions primary in synthesis of proteins, the
PYRIMIDINE
molecules that carry out essential cellular
-​ A monocyclic base with a
functions (pertaining to proteins)
6-membered ring
NUCLEOTIDES -​ Heterocyclic aromatic organic
↳​ 3 subunit molecule in which a pentose sugar is
compounds
bonded to both a phosphate group and a
-​ Contain a single
nitrogen containing heterocyclic base.
carbon-nitrogen ring and 2
➢​ Nucleotide is
nitrogen atom (1st unit and 3rd unit)
basically
-​ Low melting and boiling point
composed of:
-​ Catabolism (when broken down into smaller
➢​ Pentose
pieces) produces beta amino acid, CO2 and
sugar
Ammonia
➢​ Phosphate
group
PURINE
➢​ Nitrogenous -​ A bicyclic base with fused
base five and six membered rings
-​ Contain 2 carbon-nitrogen
↳​ More complex monomer than monosaccharide
rings with 4 nitrogen atoms
and amino acids (because it has 3 subunits.
(1st, 3rd, 7th, 9th units)
Without one of it, it won't be considered as
-​ High melting and boiling point
nucleotide)
-​ Catabolism (when broken down into smaller
PENTOSE SUGAR
pieces) produces uric acid
↳​ A sugar unit that can either be ribose or
2’-deoxyribose Both are bases. They contain amine functional groups
(either secondary or tertiary)
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Secondary - nitrogen with 2 random attachment and a

hydrogen atom

Tertiary - no hydrogen atoms attached (all are R)

SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 1
 PYRIMIDINE GROUPS NUCLEOTIDE FORMATION
THYMINE 1.​ Condensation, with formation of a water
➢​ 5-methyl-2,4-dioxo derivative molecule, occurs at two locations:
a.​ between sugar and base
b.​ between sugar and phosphate
2.​ The base is always attached at the C1 position of
the sugar.
➢​ a.​ For purine bases, attachment is
CYTOSINE through N9
➢​ 4-amino-2-oxo derivative b.​ For pyrimidine bases, N1 is involved.
3.​ The C1 carbon atom of the ribose unit is always in
a b-configuration and the bond connecting the
sugar and base is a b-N-glycosidic linkage
4.​ The phosphate group is attached to the sugar at
the C5 position through a phosphate-ester linkage
➢​ 5.​ Nucleotide differs in their base present
URACIL
➢​ 2,4-dioxo derivative

➢​

PURINE GROUPS
ADENINE
➢​ 6-amino derivative of purine

NOMENCLATURE
➢​ 1.​ All of the names end in 5’-monophosphate, which
GUANINE signifies the presence of a phosphate group
➢​ 2-amino-6-oxo derivative or purine attached to the C5 of ribose or deoxyribose
2.​ Preceding the monophosphate ending is the
name of the base present in a modified form.
a.​ The suffix -osine is used with purine
bases
➢​ b.​ The suffix -idine with pyrimidine bases
3.​ The prefix deoxy- at the start of the name signifies
DNA RNA
that the sugar present is deoxyribose, when no
Adenine Adenine
Guanine Guanine prefix is present, the sugar is ribose
Cytosine Cytosine a.​ We can abbreviate by simply putting
Thymine Uracil “d” as deoxy
EXAMPLE:
PHOSPHATE GROUP
●​ dAMP = deoxyadenosine 5’-monophosphate
↳​ Derived from phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
●​ dTMP = deoxythymidine 5’-monophosphate
↳​ Under cellular pH conditions, the phosphoric acid
●​ UMP = uridine 5’-monophosphate
loses two of its hydrogen atoms to give a
hydrogen phosphate ion KEEP IN MIND THE APOSTROPHE AND DASH AT THE
2- 5’-MONOPHOSPHATE
○​ Forming HPO4
SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 2
 RIBONUCLEIC ACID
●​ A nucleotide polymer in which each of the
monomers contains ribose, a phosphate group
and one of the heterocyclic bases adenine,
cytosine, guanine and uracil

PRIMARY NUCLEIC ACID STRUCTURE

●​ The sequence in which nucleotides are linked
together in a nucleic acid
1.​ Each nonterminal phosphate group of the
sugar-phosphate backbone is bonded to two

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID sugar molecules through a 3’,5’-phosphodiester

●​ A nucleotide polymer in which each of the linkage.

monomers contains deoxyribose, a phosphate 2.​ A nucleotide chain has directionality. One end of

group and one of the heterocyclic bases the nucleotide chain, the 5’ end, normally carries

adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine a free phosphate group attached to the 5’
carbon atom. The other end of the nucleotide
chain, the 3’ end, normally has a free hydroxyl
group attached to the 3’ carbon atom.
3.​ Each nonterminal phosphate group in the
backbone of a nucleic acid carries a -1 charge.
The parent phosphoric acid molecule from which
the phosphate was derived originally has three
-OH groups (absence of OH groups in phosphoric
NUCLEIC ACID BACKBONE acid is the reason why nucleic acid has acidic
-​ Alternating sugar-phosphate chain in a properties
nucleic acid structure
-​ The sequence of this base side chain
distinguish the various DNA and RNA from
each other
-​ DNA: deoxyribose-phosphate
-​ RNA: ribose - phosphate

THE BACKBONE IS CONSTANT THROUGH THE ENTIRE

NUCLEIC ACID STRUCTURE
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SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 3
 NUCLEIC ACID VS PROTEIN STRUCTURE THE TWO STRANDS OF DNA IN A DOUBLE HELIX ARE NOT
IDENTICAL, THEY ARE COMPLEMENTARY. Meaning,
whenever the other strand has A, the other strand has T.
vice versa.

The important ramification of these complementary

relations is knowing that the base sequence of one strand
of DNA will enable us to predict the base sequence of the
other strand.
DOUBLE HELIX
●​ Involves two polynucleotide strands coiled around Example: one strand is 5’-C-G-A-A-T-C-C-T-A-3’
The other strand will be 3’-G-C-T-T-A-G-G-A-T-5’
each other in a manner somewhat like a spiral
staircase THE HYDROGEN BOND LINKING THE BASES ARE FOR
●​ The bases (side chains) of each backbone extend STABILITY ALTHOUGH HYDROGEN BONDS ARE WEAK LINKS
inward toward the bases of the other strand. The (There are a lot of hydrogen bonds present in a sequence.
two strands are connected by hydrogen bonds Collectively, they become stronger.)
between their bases.
BASE-STACKING INTERACTIONS
●​ Additionally, the two strands of the double helix
↳​ Gives stability to DNA
are antiparallel - that is, they run in opposite
↳​ Stacking interactions involving a given base and
direction, and the other is oriented in the 3’- to 5’
the parallel bases directly above it and below it
direction
also contribute to the stabilization of the DNA
double helix
↳​ Purine and pyrimidine bases are hydrophobic in
nature so their stacking interactions are the
associated with hydrophobic molecules like
London forces

STABILITY OF NUCLEIC ACID:

1.​ Hydrogen bonding
2.​ Base stacking interactions
3.​ Hydrophobic interactions

The amount of the bases (GACT) present in DNA are the TAKE NOTE:

key to determine the general 3D structure of a DNA (for DNA, we often use “DNA molecule”)

molecule

EXAMPLE: the amount of adenine has to match the

amount of thymine. THEY ARE ALWAYS EQUAL

The relative amount of these base pairs vary depending

on a creature in which the DNA is obtained. EVERY DNA
IS UNIQUE

HYDROGEN BOND LINKS THE TWO BASES

BASE PAIRING
↳​ Only pairs involving one small base and one large
base correctly fit within the helix interior
○​ A-T
○​ G-C
COMPLEMENTARY BASES
-​ Pairs of bases in a nucleic acid structure that
can hydrogen bond to each other.
TAKE NOTE: A can attach to C. as well as G to T but the
hydrogen bonds are favoring the attachment of A-T / G-C

SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 4
 DNA REPLICATION DNA REPLICATION STEP BY STEP
●​ Everytime a cell divides, it produces exact copies STEP 1:
of its parent cell The enzyme DNA helicase causes the two strands of
●​ Process by which new DNA molecules are DNA to unwind, producing two template strands.
generated STEP 2:
●​ The biochemical process by which DNA molecules Free nucleotides pair with their complementary base
produce exact duplicates of themselves on the template strands by means of hydrogen bonds
Base pairing is the key in understanding DNA Replication STEP 3:
During replication, the double bond breaks, each of the DNA polymerase joins the newly attached
strands will act as a template for a new strand. nucleotides to create one continuous strand in the
In one DNA, we get 2 templates forming 2 daughter cells. 5'-to-3' direction.

DNA HELICASE STEP 4:

-​ Aids in the unwinding of the DNA double helix The other strand is formed in short segments (Okazaki
fragments) in the 3'-to-5' direction. The segments are
Help break the hydrogen bond present in base pairing
then joined together by DNA ligase
When strands are broken, we now have free nucleotides
(FIGURE 2 AT THE END)
and they are free to bind to another bases

Take note that the pairing occurs ONE AT A TIME.. HISTONE

Once the DNA within a cell has been replicated, it
DNA POLYMERASE
interacts with specific proteins in the cell called histones
-​ Verifies that the base pairing is correct and
to form structural units that provide the most stable DNA
catalyze the formation of a new
arrangement for the long DNA molecules forming
phosphodiester linkage
chromosomes
Checks if the bases binded or binding is compatible.

DNA LIGASE CHROMOSOMES

●​ An individual DNA molecule bound to a group of
-​ Completes the formation of the strand by
proteins
connecting the Okazaki fragments
Chromosomes are histone-DNA complexes
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
●​
●​ The enzyme DNA polymerase can operate on a
●​ Chromosomes are made up of 15% by mass DNA
forming DNA daughter strand only in the 5'-to-3
and 85% by mass protein (histone)
direction. Because the two strands of parent DNA
●​ Occur in matched (homologous) pairs.
run in opposite directions, only one strand can
(homologous means they have the same structure)
grow continuously in the 5’to3’ direction.
●​ The 46 chromosomes of a human cell constitute
OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS
23 homologous pairs.
-​ Discovered by Reiji Okazaki
○​ Mosquito - 6
-​ Short segments formed
○​ Frog - 26
NICKS
○​ Dog - 78
-​ The breaks or gaps in the daughter strand
○​ Turkey - 82
●​ One member of each homologous pair is derived
●​ Unwinding usually occurs at several interior
from a chromosome inherited from the father, and
locations simultaneously and that DNA locations;
the other is a copy of one of the chromosomes
that is, it proceeds in both replication is
inherited from the mother.
bidirectional for these directions from the
unwinding sites TAKE NOTE:
●​ The result of this multiple-site replication process is Homologous chromosomes have similar but not identical
formation of "bubbles" of newly synthesized DNA. DNA sequences. They could be similar in trait, but

The bubbles grow larger and eventually coalesce, different in form.

giving rise to two complete daughter DNAs

Separation can happen SIMULTANEOUSLY

SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 5
 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS mRNA
●​ Synthesis of proteins are under the condition or ↳​ MESSENGER RNA
direction of DNA molecules ↳​ RNA that carries instructions for protein synthesis
●​ 2 phases: (genetic information) to the sites of protein
○​ Transcription synthesis. (ribosome)
○​ Translation ↳​ Molecular mass varies with the length of the
protein whose synthesis it will direct
snRNA
↳​ SMALL NUCLEAR RNA
As you can see, RNA is the product of DNA transcription ↳​ RNA that facilitates the conversion of
and the starting material for DNA translation heterogeneous nuclear RNA to messenger RNA.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID ↳​ 100 - 200 nucleotides
●​ Has a vital role for protein synthesis as they are ↳​ Present in post-transcription process to convert
involved in both processes. hnRNA to mRNA
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RNA AND DNA rRNA
1.​ The sugar unit in the backbone of RNA is ribose; it is ↳​ RIBOSOMAL RNA
deoxyribose in DNA. ↳​ RNA that combines with other specific proteins to
2.​ The base thymine found in DNA is replaced by uracil form ribosomes, the physical sites for protein
in RNA. In RNA, uracil pairs with (forms hydrogen synthesis
bonds with) adenine. ↳​ Have molecular masses on the order of 3 millim
3.​ RNA is a single-stranded molecule; DNA is amu
double-stranded (double helix). Thus RNA, unlike ↳​ rRNA present in ribosomes has NO
DNA, does not contain equal amounts of specific INFORMATIONAL FUNCTION
bases. tRNA
4.​ RNA molecules are much smaller than DNA ↳​ TRANSFER RNA
molecules, ranging from 75 nucleotides to a few ↳​ RNA that delivers amino acids to the sites for
thousand nucleotides protein synthesis
↳​ Smallest of the RNAs (75 - 90 nucleotides)

Absence of any of these RNA, will also limit producing

proteins

NUCLEUS
●​ The process of DNA transcription occurs in the
nucleus as does the processing of hnRNA to mRNA
●​ mRNA formed in the nucleus travels to the
TAKE NOTE: cytoplasm where translation (protein synthesis)
Single stranded nature of RNA does not prevent portions occurs.
of an RNA molecule from folding back upon itself and
forming double - helical regions

A hairpin loop is produced when single-stranded RNA

doubles back on itself and complementary base pairing
occurs.

TYPES OF RNA
RNA has five major types, distinguished by their function.
In the cell nucleus, DNA will start to replicate, later on
hnRNA transcription forming hnRNA. In post transcription,
↳​ HETEROGENOUS NUCLEAR RNA presence of snRNA helps convert the hnRNA to mRNA.
↳​ RNA formed directly by DNA transcription mRNA will then travel to cytoplasm where translation
↳​ Post-transcription processing converts the occurs wherein rRNA carries genetic information to
heterogeneous nuclear RNA to messenger RNA. ribosomes. To complete the protein synthesis, we need
amino acids which are delivered by the tRNA.
SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 6
 TRANSCRIPTION stop signal. The newly formed hnRNA molecule and
↳​ The process by which DNA directs the synthesis of the RNA polymerase enzyme are released, and the
hRNA/mRNA molecules that carry the coded DNA then rewinds to reform the original double helix.
information needed for protein synthesis. (FIGURE 3 AT THE END)
↳​ hRNA molecule is initially produced and then is
If our DNA TEMPLATE - 5’-A-T-G-C-C-A-3’
"edited" to yield the desired mRNA molecule hnRNA = 5’- U-G-G-C-A-U- 3’
(snRNA will help). The mRNA molecule so
DNA = 5’ T-A-A-C-C-T 3’
produced then functions as the carrier of the
hnRNA = 5’ A-G-G-U-U-A 3’
information needed to direct protein synthesis.
↳​ The DNA molecule unwinds, under enzyme FORMATION OF mRNA
influence, at the particular location where the ↳​ Formation of mRNA occurs during the
appropriate base sequence is found for the post-transcription process. Here, certain portions
hRNA/mRNA of concern, and the "exposed" base of hnRNA are deleted and certain portions are
sequence is transcribed. retained.

GENE
↳​ The product of transcription (short strands)
↳​ Short segment of a DNA strand so transcribed,
which contains instructions for the formation of a
particular hRNA/mRNA
↳​ A segment of a DNA strand that contains the base
sequence for the production of a specific
EXONS
hRNA/mRNA molecule.
-​ is a gene segment that conveys genetic
GENOME information. Exons are DNA segments that
↳​ Is all of the genetic material (the total DNA)
help express a genetic message.
contained in the chromosomes of an organism INTRONS
TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS STEP BY STEP -​ a gene segment that does not convey (code
STEP 1: for) genetic information. Introns are DNA
A portion of the DNA double helix unwinds, exposing
segments that interrupt a genetic message.
some bases (a gene). The unwinding process is
↳​ Both the exons and the introns of a gene are
governed by the enzyme RNA polymerase rather
transcribed during production of hnRNA. The
than by DNA helicase (replication enzyme).
hnRNA is then "edited," under enzyme direction,
STEP 2:
to remove the introns, and the remaining exons
Free ribonucleotides, one nucleotide at a time, align
are joined together to form a shortened RNA
along one of the exposed strands of DNA bases, the
strand that carries the genetic information of the
template strand, forming new base pairs. In this
transcribed gene.
process, U rather than T aligns with A in the
mRNA
base-pairing process. Because ribonucleotides rather
-​ Transcribed gene. serves as a blueprint for
than deoxyribonucleotides are involved in the base
protein assembly
pairing, ribose, rather than deoxyribose, becomes
SPLICING
incorporated into the new nucleic acid backbone.
●​ The process of removing introns from an hRNA
RNA Polymerase - involved in the linkage of
molecule and joining the remaining exons
ribonucleotides, one by one to the growing hnRNA.
together to form an mRNA molecule.
STEP 3:
snRNA
RNA polymerase is involved in the linkage of
-​ The most recent of the RNA types to be
ribonucleotides, one by one, to the growing hnRNA
discovered.
molecule.
-​ Never found "free" in a cell.
STEP 4:
-​ An sRNA molecule is always found
Transcription ends when the RNA polymerase enzyme
complexed with proteins in particles called
encounters a sequence of bases that is “read” as a
small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles.
SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 7
snRNP CODONS
-​ Also called “snurps” A three-nucleotide sequence in an mRNA molecule that
-​ Is a complex formed from an sRNA molecule codes for a specific amino acid.
and several proteins.
-​ "Snurps" always further collect together into
larger complexes called spliceosomes
SPLICEOSOME
-​ A large assembly of saRNA molecules and
proteins involved in the conversion of nRNA
molecules to mRNA molecule

ALTERNATIVE SPLICING ●​ 61 of the 64 codons formed by various

●​ Is a process by which several different proteins combinations of the bases A, C, G, and U were
that are variations of a basic structural motif can related to specific amino acids.
be produced from a single gene. In alternative ●​ The other 3 combinations were termination
splicing, an hRNA molecule with multiple exons codons ("stop" signals) (UAA, UAG, UGA) for
present is spliced in several different ways. protein synthesis. the assignment of the 64 mRNA
codons to specific amino acids (or stop signals).
●​ Genetic Codes are proposed by Marshall
Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana who were
awarded with 1968 Nobel Prize in chemistry

GENETIC CODE CHARACTERISTICS:

●​ The genetic code is highly degenerate; that is,
●​ We form different kinds of proteins. Different kinds
many amino acids are designated by more than
of mRNA for each protein.
one codon
●​ We form different kind of proteins but one DNA
○​ Sometimes 4, such as Thr, Arg, Pro, Ala,
template
Ser, Leu, Val, and Gly
TRANSCRIPTOME
○​ Only two AA has one codon - Met and
-​ the total number of mRNA molecules for an
Try
organism
●​ There is a pattern to the arrangement of synonyms
-​ All of the mRNA molecules that can be
in the genetic code table
generated from the genetic material in a
●​ The genetic code is almost universal.
genome.
●​ An initiation (starting) codon exists (AUG - Met)
-​ Differs from a genome in that it acknowledges
the biochemical complexity created by splice ANTICODONS AND tRNA
variants obtained from hRNA. ●​ The amino acids used in protein synthesis do not
directly interact with the codons of an mRNA
GENETIC CODE
molecule. Instead, tRNA molecules function as
●​ sequences of three nucleotides in mRNA
intermediaries that deliver amino acids to the
molecules specify the amino acids that go into
mRNA. At least one type of tRNA molecule exists
synthesis of a protein. Such three-nucleotide
for each of the 20 amino acids found in proteins
sequences are called codons.
●​ All tRNA molecules have the same general
●​ 3 base codons / combinations for 20 AA.
shape., A shape produced by the molecule's
BIGGER DIAGRAM AT THE END
folding and twisting into regions of parallel strands
and regions of hairpin loops. (As long as bases are
complementary)

SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 8
●​ The 3' end of the open part of the cloverleaf ACTIVATION OF tRNA
structure is where an amino acid becomes ●​ First, an amino acid interacts with an activator
covalently bonded to the tRNA molecule through molecule to form a highly energetic complex.
an ester bond. Each of the different tRNA (nitrogen-carbon)
molecules is specifically recognized by an ●​ This complex then reacts with the appropriate
aminoacyl tRNA synthetase enzyme. These tRNA molecule to produce an activated tRNA
enzymes also recognize the one kind of amino molecule
acid that "belongs" with the particular tRNA and ○​ Activated tRNA- a tRNA molecule that
facilitates its bonding to the tRNA has an amino acid covalently bonded
●​ The loop opposite the open end of the cloverleaf to it at its 3’ end through an ester
is the site for a sequence of three bases called an linkage
anticodon. An anticodon is a three-nucleotide
sequence on a tRNA molecule that is
complementary to a codon on an mRNA
molecule.

TRANSLATION: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

●​ PROCESS OF MAKING PROTEIN
●​ The process by which mRNA codons are
deciphered and a particular protein molecule is
synthesized.
●​ Substance needed for translation phase INITIATION
○​ mRNA molecules (bringing exons) ●​ Initiation of protein synthesis in human cells begins

○​ tRNA molecules when mRNA

○​ amino acids attaches itself to the

○​ ribosomes surface of a small

○​ number of different enzymes ribosomal subunit

such that its first
RIBOSOME codon, which is
●​ An rRNA-protein complex that serves as the site for always the initiating
the translation phase of protein synthesis. codon AUG,
●​ Ribosome are made up of rRNA complexed with occupies a site called the P site (peptidyl site).
protein

STRUCTURE OF A RIBOSOME
●​ They contain four RNA molecules and about 80 ●​ An activated tRNA
proteins that are packed into two rRNA-protein molecule with anticodon
subunits, one small subunit and one large subunit complementary to the
●​ Each subunit contains approximately 65% rRNA codon AUG attaches
and 35% protein by mass itself, through
●​ A ribosome's active site (rRNA), the location complementary base
where proteins are synthesized by one-at-a time pairing, to the AUG
addition of amino acids to a growing peptide codon
chain, is located in the large ribosomal subunit
●​ The active site is mostly rRNA, with only one of the
ribosome's many protein components being ●​ The resulting complex
present. then interacts with a
TRANSLATION PROCESS large ribosomal subunit
1.​ Activation of tRNA to complete the
2.​ Initiation
formation of an initiation
3.​ Elongation
4.​ Termination complex
5.​ Post-Translational Processing
SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 9
 ELONGATION ●​ This multiple use of mRNA molecules reduces the
●​ Next to the P site in an mRNA-ribosome complex is amount of resources and energy that the cell
a second binding site called the A site expends to synthesize needed protein.
(aminoacyl site). ●​ Such complexes of several ribosomes and mRNA
●​ At this second site the next mRNA codon is are called polyribosomes
exposed, and a tRNA with the appropriate ●​ This is in cases of excessive loss of protein. This is
anticodon binds to it when they create more protein.
PEPTIDYL TRANSFERASE
MUTATION
-​ Aids in the linking of the P site amino acid to
●​ An error in base sequence in a gene that is
the A site amino acid to form a dipeptide
reproduced during DNA replication.
●​ The empty tRNA at the P site now leaves that site
●​ Such errors alter the genetic information that is
and is free to pick up another molecule of its
passed on during transcription.
specific amino acid.
●​ The altered information can cause changes in
●​ With the release of tRNA from the P site, the
amino acid sequence during protein synthesis.
ribosome shifts along the mRNA. This shift puts the
Sometimes, such changes have a profound
newly formed dipeptide at the P site, and the third
effect on an organism
codon of mRNA is now available, at site A, to
●​ An error in strands. Example, not complementary
accept a tRNA molecule whose anticodon
bases are attached. This is continous (domino
complements this codon
effect)
●​ Amino acids will continue to strand until we form a
●​ Sometimes, mutation can have a profound effect
long amino acid chain forming protein
on a organism. It can be seen physically
TRANSLOCATION
MUTAGEN
-​ Is the part of translation in which a ribosome
●​ A substance or agent that causes a change in the
moves down an mRNA molecule three base
structure of a gene can either be a chemical or
positions (one codon) so that a new codon
radiation agent
can occupy the ribosomal A site
-​ The third codon, now at the A site, accepts an MUTAGEN: RADIATION
○​ Ultraviolet light
incoming tRNA with its accompanying amino
○​ X-rays
acid; and then the entire dipeptide at the P
○​ Radioactivity cosmic rays
site is transferred and bonded to the A site
●​ Has the potential to be mutagenic.
amino acid to give a tripeptide
●​ Ultraviolet light from the sun is the radiation that
-​ Polypeptide continues to grow by way of
causes sunburn and can induce changes in the
translocation until all necessary amino acids
DNA of the skin cells.
are in place and bonded to each other.
●​ Sustained exposure to ultraviolet light can lead to
-​ Appearance in the mRNA codon sequence of
serious problems such as skin cancer.
one of the three stop codons (UAA, UAG, or
●​ This is why pregnant women cannot undergo
UGA) terminates the process
-​ No tRNA has an anticodon that can
x-ray. It is dangerous for the fetus.

base-pair with these stop codons. The MUTAGEN: CHEMICAL

polypeptide is then cleaved from the ●​ Nitrous acid (HNO2)
tRNA through hydrolysis. ●​ A mutagen that causes deamination of
POST TRANSLATION PROCESS heterocyclic nitrogen bases. (breakdown of
●​ Gives the protein the final form it needs to be fully bases) For example, HNO2 can convert cytosine
functional. to uracil
●​ This is where the formed protein will receive its final ●​ Deamination of a cytosine that was part of an
touches for it to function properly. mRNA codon would change the codon; for
EFFICIENCY OF mRNA UTILIZATION example, CGG would become UGG
●​ Many ribosomes can move simultaneously along ●​ Nitrites, nitrates, and nitrosamines—can form
a single mRNA molecule nitrous acid in the body (can be seen in
preservatives and processed foods)
SANTIAGO, C. |BSMT - 2B 10
 VIRUS VACCINE
●​ Very small disease-causing agents that are ●​ Is a preparation containing an inactive or

considered the lowest order of life (THEY ARE weakened form of a virus or bacterium.

SMALL AND CANNOT BE SEEN IN MICROSCOPE) ●​ Antibodies (proteins) produced by the body

●​ A small particle that contains DNA or RNA (but not against these specially modified viruses or

both) surrounded by a coat of protein and that bacteria effectively act against the naturally

cannot reproduce without the aid of a host cell. occurring active forms as well.

●​ Do not possess the nucleotides, enzymes, amino

acids, and other molecules necessary to replicate
their nucleic acid or to synthesize proteins.

TAKE NOTE: THE MAIN PURPOSE OF VIRUS IS TO REPLICATE.

Any living things can be infected.

Virus has no energy to replicate. It gets the energy from

the living cells of its host.

DNA VIRUS
●​ The host cell replicates the viral DNA in a manner
similar to the way it replicates its own DNA. The
newly produced viral DNA then proceeds to make
the proteins needed for the production of protein
coats for additional viruses
○​ Herpes
○​ Smallpox
○​ Hepatitis B,
○​ Adenoviruses
○​ Warts.

When DNA virus enter, it incorporates its DNA to the cell.

Our cell perceves it as its DNA so instead of replicating its
original DNA, it will replicated the DNA virus.

RNA VIRUS
●​ Also called retrovirus
●​ First make viral DNA. This reverse synthesis is
governed by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
The template is the viral RNA rather than DNA. The
viral DNA so produced then produces additional
viral DNA and the proteins necessary for the
protein coats
○​ Polio Virus
○​ Retrovirus
○​ Influenza Virus
○​ Measles
○​ Mumps
○​ Hepatitis E

When they incorporate the cell, the RNA becomes DNA.

They are easy to regenerate and change. That is why flu

shots are required every year because influenza virus
can easily change its structure and regenerate

RNA VIRUS ARE HARD TO TREAT (e: AIDS - targeting t cells)

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