Linear MATHEMATICS

LECTURE NOTES

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LECTURER: MR MAKIWA
TOPIC : VECTORS

 It is a quantity with both magnitude (size) and direction.

TYPES OF VECTORS
POSITION VECTORS
 It is a vector that starts from the origin
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 A
y

O x

DISPLACEMENT VECTORS OR FREE VECTORS

 These are vectors which do not start from origin

2 DIMENSIONAL VECTORS

 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 = (𝑦𝑥 ) in column vector
Given that 𝐴(−1; 7) and 𝐵(9; 4). Express vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 in column form

9 −1 10
a. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ( ) − ( ) = ( )
4 7 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 2
b. |𝐴𝐵 | = √10 + (−3) = √109
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ as 10𝑗̂ − 3𝑗̂
OR we can express 𝐴𝐵

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3 DIMENSIONAL VECTORS

O x

 They can be represented vertically or horizontally

e.g. 𝑎̅ = 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂ find 𝑎̅ in column vector
3 𝑥
𝑎̅ = (−4) , in general, if 𝑎̅ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ then 𝑎̅ = (𝑦)
5 𝑧
EXAMPLES

Express each of the following vectors in column form

a. 2𝑖̂ − 5𝑗̂ + 7𝑘̂

b. 𝑖̂ + 4𝑘̂
c. 5𝑘̂
d. 7𝑖̂
SOLUTIONS

2
a. (−5)
7
1
b. (0)
4
0
c. (0)
5
7
d. (0)
0

THE MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR

 In general, if 𝑎̅ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ then |𝑎̅| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

EXAMPLES

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1. If 𝑎̅ = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ Find |𝑎̅|

2. If 𝑎̅ = 12𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂ Find |𝑎̅|
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ and 𝑂𝐵
3. If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂ Find |𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
SOLUTIONS

1. |𝑎̅| = √(1)2 + (2)2 + (2)2

= √9
=3

2. |𝑎̅| = √(12)2 + (5)2 + (0)2

= √169
= 13

3. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴
4 1
= (−1) − (5)
5 2
3
= (−6)
3

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(3)2 + (−6)2 + (3)2

∴ |𝐴𝐵
= √54
= 3√6

UNIT VECTORS

 A unit vector is one whose magnitude is 1.

 Let 𝑎̅ be any vector, then the unit vector in the direction of 𝑎̅, denoted 𝑎̂
𝑎̅
𝑎̂ =
|𝑎̅|
EXAMPLE

Find the unit vector in the direction of 2𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂

SOLUTION
̂
2𝑖̂+2𝑗̂ +𝑘
𝑎̂ = √22
+22 +12

̂
2𝑖̂+2𝑗̂ +𝑘
= 9

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1
= 3 (2𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)

DOT AND SCALAR PRODUCT

 If 𝑎̅ = 𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂ + 𝑧1 𝑘̂ and 𝑏̅ = 𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧2 𝑘̂ then the scalar/dot product of 𝑎̅ and

𝑏̅ denoted 𝑎̅. 𝑏̅ is given by:
𝑎̅. 𝑏̅ = 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 𝑧2
OR
𝑥1 𝑥2
𝑎̅. 𝑏̅ = (𝑦1 ) . (𝑦2 )
𝑧1 𝑧2
EXAMPLES
1 −2
1. If 𝑎̅ = (−1) and 𝑏̅ = ( 4 ) Find 𝑎̅. 𝑏̅
−1 3
2 3
2. The position vectors 𝑎̅ , 𝑏̅ and 𝑐̅ relative to a fixed origin O are (1) ; (0) and
3 2
1
(4) relatively.
5
Find
a. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴. 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐵𝐶
b. 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
SOLUTIONS

1 −2
1. 𝑎̅. 𝑏̅ = (−1) . ( 4 )
−1 3
= −2 + (−4) + (−3)
= −9

2 3
2. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴. 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1) . (0)
3 2
= 6+0+6
= 12
3. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐶
𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
3 2 1 3
= (0) − (1) = (4) − (0)
2 3 5 2
1 −2
= (−1) =( 4 )
−1 3

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1 −2
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−1) . ( 4 )
𝐴𝐵 . 𝐵𝐶
−1 3
= −2 + (−4) + (−3)
= −9

ANGLES BETWEEN PERPERNDICULAR VECTORS

 2 vectors are perpendicular if their scalar product is equal to 0 (zero).

EXAMPLES
1. Show that 𝑎̅ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝑏̂ = −3𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂ are perpendicular.
2. Find the value of p for which 𝑎̅ = 2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂ is perpendicular to 𝑏̅ = 3𝑖̂ − 𝑝𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂
SOLUTIONS

1 −3
1. 𝑎̅. 𝑏̅ = (1) . (−3)
1 6
= −3 + (−3) + 6
=0 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛
2 3
2. 𝑎̅. 𝑏̅ = (4) . (−𝑝)
5 2
0 = 6 − 4𝑝 + 10 𝑖𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
−4𝑝 = −16
𝑝=4

ANGLES BETWEEN TWO VECTORS OR DIRECTIONS

𝑎̅. 𝑏̅ = |𝑎̅||𝑏̅| cos 𝛽

𝑎̅.𝑏̅
𝑎̅ cos 𝛽 = |𝑎̅||𝑏̅|

𝑏̅

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EXAMPLES

1. Find the acute angle between the vectors 𝑎̅ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝑏̅ = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂
1 2 0
2. Given that 𝑂𝐴 = ( 0 ) , 𝑂𝐵 = ( 1 ) and 𝑂𝐶 = (2). Find cos 𝐵𝐴̂ 𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−1 −3 3
SOLUTIONS
2+3+4
1. cos 𝛽 = √12
+12 +12 ×√22 +32 +42
9
cos 𝛽 =
√3 × √29
9
Cos 𝛽 =
√87
𝛽 = 15,2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵.𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2. cosB 𝐴̂𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐴𝐵||𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
2 1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ( 1 ) − ( 0 ) = (1)
−3 −1 2

0 1 −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = (2) − ( 0 ) = ( 2 )
3 −1 4

−1 + 2 − 8
cos 𝐵𝐴̂𝐶 =
√12 + 12 + (−2)2 × √(−1)2 + 22 + 42

−7
cos 𝐵𝐴̂𝐶 =
√126
−7
=
3√14

VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE

 It is of the form
𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 OR 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏
Where
𝑎 is a point on the line
 is a parameter 𝑡 is a parameter
𝑏 is the direction vector
EXAMPLES

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Write down the vector of the equation of the line passing through

1. 𝐴(2; 4; 3) and with direction vector 𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂

2. The position vectors of A and B relative to the origin O are 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ and
3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂ respectively. Find the vector equation of the line through A and B.

SOLUTIONS
2 1
1. 𝑟 = (4) +  (−1)
3 3
2. Direction vector: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴
3 1
= (4) − (2)
5 2
2
= (2 )
3
1 2
∴ 𝑟 = (2) +  (2)
2 3

PARALLEL, INTERSECTING AND SKEW LINES

PARALLEL LINES
 2 lines are said to be parallel if they have same direction vector
2 1 1 1
e.g. 𝑟1 = (−1) + 𝑡 (2) 𝑟2 = (0) + 𝑠 (2)
0 3 9 3

Direction vector
EXAMPLE
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Find p for which 𝑐̅ = −3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑝𝑘̂ is parallel to
2 lines are said to be parallel to 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐵 were 𝑎̅ = 12𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝑏̅ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

SOLUTION
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴
3 12
=( 2 )−(8)
−5 1
−9
= (−6)
−6
−3
= 3 (−2)
−2

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−3 −3
∴ (−2) = (−2)
𝑃 −2

 If two vectors are parallel, they are multiplies of the same vectors
−3 −3
⇒ (−2) = (−2)
𝑝 −2
⇒ 𝑝 = −2

SKEW LINES
 2 lines are skew if the only value of the parameter is not constant.

EXAMPLE
1
1 1 1
2
Determine whether 𝑟 = (4) + 𝑡 ( 2 ) and 𝑟 = (3) + 𝑠 ( 2 ) are skew or not.
2 −3 4 −4

SOLUTION
1
1+𝑡 +𝑠
2
(4 + 2𝑡 ) = (3 + 2𝑠)
2 − 3𝑡 4 − 4𝑠
1
From row 1: 1 + 𝑡 = 2 + 𝑠
1
𝑡 = 𝑠 − 2 … … … … . (1)

From row 2: 4 + 2𝑡 = 3 + 2𝑠
2𝑡 = 2𝑠 − 1 … … … … … (2)

1
2× 𝑡 =𝑠−
[ 2 ]
1 × 2𝑡 = 2𝑠 − 1

2𝑡 = 2𝑠 − 1
[ ]
2𝑡 = 2𝑠 − 1
From row 3: 2 − 3𝑡 = 4 − 4𝑠 … … … . (3)
−3𝑡 2 4𝑠
= −1 − −1
−3
3𝑡 = −2 + 4𝑠

3 × 2𝑡 = 2𝑠 − 1
[ ]
2 × 3𝑡 = 4𝑠 − 2

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6𝑡 = 6𝑠 − 3
[ ]
6𝑡 = 8𝑠 − 4

−2𝑠 −1
= −2
−2
1
𝑠 = 2 and 𝑡 = 0
 As different simultaneous equation are used , different values of s and t are obtained thus
the lines are not skew.
INTERSECTING LINES

 Two lines intersect if the value of each of the parameter is constant

EXAMPLE

Determine whether the following two lines intersect

1 0
𝑟 = (1) + 𝑡 (1)
1 1
0 1
𝑟 = (1) + 𝑠 ( 0 )
2 −1
SOLUTION

1 𝑠
(1 + 𝑡 ) = ( 1 )
1+𝑡 2−𝑠

Row 1: 𝑠 = 1

Row 2: 𝑡 = 0

Row 3: 1 + 𝑡 = 2 − 𝑠
But 𝑡 = 0
𝑠 = 1 and is still a constant
But 𝑠 = 1
𝑡 = 0 and is still a constant
 Thus the line intersect

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FINDING THE POINTS OF INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES

EXAMPLE

Find the point of intersection of the following lines

0 1 1 2
𝑟 = ( 1 ) +  (1) and 𝑟 = (−1) + 𝜇 (1)
−2 2 3 5
1. Equate the two equations
2. Find one or both of the parameters
3. Substitute  in one of the equation
SOLUTION

 1 + 2𝜇
( 1 +  ) = (−1 + 𝜇 )
−2 + 2 3 + 5𝜇

ROW 1:  = 1 + 2𝜇 … … … . . (1)

ROW 2: 1 +  = −1 + 𝜇 … … … … . (2)

1 + (1 + 2𝜇) = −1 + 𝜇

1 + 1 + 2𝜇 = −1 + 𝜇

𝜇 = −3

 = 1 + 2(−3)

 = −5
−5
𝑟 = ( −4 )
−12
∴ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 (−5; −4; −12)

EXAMPLE

Find the point of intersection of the following lines

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3 −1 −2 3
𝑟 = (−1) + 𝑡 ( 2 ) and 𝑟 = ( 5 ) + 𝑠 (−2)
0 0 0 0
SOLUTION

3−𝑡 −2 + 3𝑠
(−1 + 2𝑡) = ( 5 − 2𝑠 )
0 0
ROW 1: 3 − 𝑡 = −2 + 3𝑠

ROW 2: −1 + 2𝑡 = 5 − 2𝑠

Answer: (1; 3; 0)

PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE OR SHORTEST DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A

LINE

P(2;1)

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5

𝑑 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2
𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦+𝑐
𝑑 = | √𝑎2 |
+𝑏 2

 Considering 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5 = 0 thus 𝑎 = 2; 𝑏 = 3 and 𝑐 = −5 then we substitute

EXAMPLE

Show that the perpendicular distance from the point 𝐴(3; −6; 1) to the line,

7 −1
𝑟 = (1) + 𝑡 ( 3 ) is 3√10
𝑠 1

SOLUTION

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𝐴(3; −6; 1)

P (7 − 𝑡; 1 + 3𝑡; −5 + 𝑡)

Let point of intersection be p

7−𝑡−3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1 + 3𝑡 − (−6))
𝐴𝑃
−5 + 𝑡 − 1
4−𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 = ( 7 + 3𝑡 )
−6 + 𝑡
−1
 We use dot product between 𝑡 ( 3 ) to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 as they are perpendicular thus we get a zero at
−1
least.
 We are considering the line given equation thus we take it direction
SOLUTION

4−𝑡 −1
( 7 + 3𝑡 ) . ( 3 ) = 0
−6 + 𝑡 1
−4 + 𝑡 + 21 + 9𝑡 − 6 + 𝑡 = 0

11𝑡 + 11 = 0

𝑡 = −`1

Substitute t in ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃

5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 4 )
𝐴𝑃
−7

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √52 + 42 + (−7)2

|𝐴𝑃

= √90

= 3√10 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛

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8 −6
 The point 𝐴 has co-ordinates (3; −1; 5) and line l ,𝑟 = (0) + 𝑡 ( 1 )
1 4
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular to l.
Find the co-ordinates of the point 𝐵 on line l such that 𝐴𝐵
(3; −1; 5)

(8 − 6𝑡; 𝑡; −1 + 4𝑡)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

8 − 6𝑡 3
=( 𝑡 ) − (−1)
−1 + 4𝑡 5
5 − 6𝑡
=( 𝑡+1 )
4𝑡 − 6
5 − 6𝑡 −6
∴ ( 𝑡 + 1 ).( 1 ) = 0
4𝑡 − 6 4

−6(5 − 6𝑡) + 𝑡 + 1 + 4(4𝑡 − 6) = 0

−30 + 36𝑡 + 𝑡 + 1 + 16𝑡 − 24 = 0

53𝑡 − 53 = 0

𝑡=1

⇒ 𝐵(2; 1; 3)

EQUATION OF A PLANE

Normal

Plane

 A plane can be denoted by a 𝜋

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 The equation of a plane can be expressed in 2 forms

1. Cartesian form
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑
2. Vector form
𝑥
𝑦
𝑟. ( ) = 𝑎
𝑧
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 1
3 𝑥 3
𝑟. (−1) = 1 𝑜𝑟 (𝑦) . (−1) = 1
5 𝑧 5
 In general the vector equation of a plane is given by
𝑥
𝑟. (𝑦) = 𝑑
𝑧
𝑟. 𝑛̂ = 𝑛̂. 𝑎
Where 𝑛̂ is the normal to the plane and a is a point on the plane.

USING THE CROSS PRODUCT TO FIND A NORMAL TO A GIVEN PLANE

EXAMPLE
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ and
Find a vector perpendicular to the plane containing vectors 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

SOLUTION
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
𝑛̂ = 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑛̂ = |1 −1 3|
2 −1 5
−1 3 1 3 1 −1
= 𝑖̂ | | − 𝑗̂ | | + 𝑘̂ | |
−1 5 2 5 2 −1

= −2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂

EXAMPLE

If 𝑎̅ = −2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ; 𝑏̅ = 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ and 𝑐̅ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂. Find a vector perpendicular to the

plane 𝐴𝐵𝐶 (𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙)

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SOLUTION
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐶
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

1 −2 2 −2
= (−1) − ( 1 ) = (−1) − ( 1 )
3 1 5 1
3 4
= (−2) = (−2)
2 4

𝑛̂ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑛̂ = |3 −2 2|
4 −2 4
−2 2 3 2 3 −2
= 𝑖̂ | | − 𝑗̂ | | + 𝑘̂ | |
−2 4 4 4 4 −2

= −4𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂

EQUATION OF A PLANE

 To find the equation of a plane, we have to first find the normal to the plane.
 We use the general formula of the plane
𝑟. 𝑛̂ = 𝑛̂. 𝑎
EXAMPLE
𝑟. 𝑛̂ − 𝑛̂. 𝑎 = 0
𝑛̂(𝑟 − 𝑎) = 0

 If 𝑎̅ = 3𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂; 𝑏̅ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝑐 = 𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂, Find the equation of the plane
𝐴𝐵𝐶
SOLUTION

1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2)
0
−2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐴 = ( 2 )
3

𝑛̂ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶

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𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑛̂ = | 1 −2 0|
−2 2 3
−2 0 1 0 1 −2
𝑛̂ = 𝑖̂ | | − 𝑗̂ | | + 𝑘̂ | |
3 3 2 3 −2 2

𝑛̂ = −6𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 6𝑘̂

−6 −6 3
∴ 𝑟. ( 3 ) = ( 3 ) . (1)
−6 −6 1
−6
𝑟. ( 3 ) = −21
−6
HOW TO SHOW THAT A POINT LIES ON A PLANE

 Show that (3; 5; −2) lies on the plane whose Cartesian equation is 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 31
SOLUTION

2(3) + 3(5) − 5(2) = 31

31 = 31 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛

HOW TO SHOW THAT A LINE LIES ON A PLANE

 A line lies on a plane if the equation of the line satisfies the equation of the plane
EXAMPLE

5 2 −1
Show that the line l having equation 𝑟 = (0) +  (1) lies on the plane 𝑟. ( 2 ) = −5.
5 0 0

SOLUTION

5 + 2
𝑟=(  )
5
5 + 2 −1
∴(  ) . ( 2 ) = −5
5 0
−5 − 2 + 2 = 5 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛

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HOW TO SHOW THAT A LINE IS PARALLEL TO A PLANE

𝑛̂

𝜋 𝑑. 𝑛̂ = 0

1 1
 Show that the line l having equation 𝑟 = (0) +  (2) is parallel to the plane
2 3
−2
𝑟. ( 1 ) = 5.
0
SOLUTION

1 −2
(2) . ( 1 ) = 0
3 0
−2 + 2 + 0 = 0

0=0 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛

FINDING THE POINT OF INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND A PLANE

EXAMPLE

Find the position vector, the point P where the line l intersect with the plane

5 2
𝑟 = (0) +  (1)
5 0
1
𝑟. (2) = 11
2

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SOLUTION

5 + 2
𝑟 =(0+ )
5
5 + 2 1
(  ) . (2) = 11
5 2
5 + 2 + 2 + 10 = 11

15 + 4 = 11

 = −1

FINDING A PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A PLANE

EXAMPLE

2
Find the perpendicular distance from P(2;1;4) to 𝑟. (3) = −6
0
SOLUTION

 First change equation of a plane from vector form to Cartesian form

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 0𝑧 + 6 = 0

𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦+𝑐𝑧−𝑑
𝑑= √𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2
2(2) + 3(1) + 0(4) + 6
𝑑=
√22 + 32 + 02
4+3+6
𝑑=
√4 + 9
13
𝑑=
√13
𝑑 = √13

ALTERNATIVELY
𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
2 2
𝑟 = (1) +  (3)
4 0
2 + 2
𝑟 = (1 + 3)
4

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2
⇒𝑟. (3) = −6
0
2 + 2 2
(1 + 3) . (3) = −6
4 0
 = −1
∴ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (0; −2; 4)

2
𝑑 = √(2 − 0)2 + (1— 2) + (4 − 4)2
𝑑 = √4 + 9
𝑑 = √13

ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES

𝜋1 𝑛1

𝜃 𝜃

𝑛2

𝜋2

 To find the angle between 2 intersecting planes we have to find the angle between the
normal.
 The planes 𝜋1 and 𝜋2 have equation:
𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 and 3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 respectively.
Show that the acute angle between 𝜋1 and 𝜋2 = 60°
𝑛1 . 𝑛2
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑛1 ||𝑛2 |
3−2+6
cos 𝜃 =
√14×√14

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cos 𝜃 = 14

1
Cos 𝜃 = 2

𝜃 = 60°

EXAMPLE

1
 {𝑃1 , 𝑃2 } E.g. 𝑃1 : 𝑟. (−1) = 15
3
10
𝑃2 : 𝑟. (16) = 5
11

SOLUTION
𝑛 𝑛
cos 𝜃 = |𝑛 1||𝑛2 |
1 2
1 10
(−1).(16)
3 11
Cos 𝜃 =
√11×√47
27
Cos 𝜃 =
√517
−1 27
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
√517
𝜃 = 68,1°

ANGLE BETWEEN A LINE AND PLANE

l 𝑛̂

𝜃𝛼

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 We can 1st find the angle between the line and the normal to the plane and then subtract it
from 90
𝑑.𝑛̂
Cos 𝛼 = |𝑎||𝑛̂|
 Find the acute angle between the line

1 1
𝑟 = ( 4 ) + 𝑡 (−1)
−1 1
−1
𝑟. ( 2 ) = 2
2
1 −1
(−1) ( 2 )
cos 𝛼 = 1 2
√3 × √9
−1
cos 𝛼 =
3√3

 You ignore the negative if you want an acute angle

𝛼 = 78,9°
∴ 𝜃 = 90° − 78,9°
𝛼 = 101,1°

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