Journal of Contaminant Hydrology

Jayaraman Sethuraman Sudarsan et al.

a
School of Energy and Environment, NICMAR (National Institute of Construction Management and Research) University, Pune 411045, India
b
School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
c
Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA

STRUCTURED SUMMARY

ABSTRACT:
This paper discusses the presence of emerging contaminants (ECs) in ecosystems and their
unregulated release into soil and water, posing risks to human health. ECs include a variety of harmful
substances like pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and microplastics. These contaminants can lead to serious
health issues, including antimicrobial resistance and hormonal disruptions. The paper evaluates current
methods for removing these contaminants and highlights the need for better frameworks to assess their
toxicity. It also points out the need for more research and coordinated efforts to manage ECs effectively.
Keywords:
Emerging contaminants, Microplastics, Human health, Toxicity, Partitioning Biotransformation

1. Introduction:
Rapid urbanization, industrialization, population growth, and climate change have led to the widespread
presence of emerging contaminants (ECs) in ecosystems. ECs, such as pharmaceuticals, personal care
products, microplastics, nanoparticles, antibiotic-resistant genes, and zoonotic viruses, pose significant
risks due to their persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity. These contaminants disrupt ecosystems,
biodiversity, and human health, impacting immune, reproductive, and neurological systems. While
developed nations have regulatory frameworks for ECs, developing countries lack sufficient policies,
resulting in uncontrolled contamination.
ECs originate from industrial discharge, sewage treatment plants, agricultural runoff, and landfills,
affecting water, soil, and food chains. Their complex mixtures make their interactions and toxicity
difficult to assess. Traditional wastewater treatment is inadequate for many ECs, leading to their
accumulation in urban and agricultural systems. Contaminants like perfluoroalkyl acids and
pharmaceuticals have been detected at alarming levels.
Current detection and sampling methods for ECs, including microplastics, are underdeveloped,
especially in resource-limited areas. Advanced tools like genome sequencing, molecular assays, and
One-Health approaches are needed to address gaps in data and improve surveillance. Emerging
contaminants like nanomaterials and UV filters present new challenges for monitoring and treatment.

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2. Methodology of Bibliometric Analysis:
The bibliometric analysis was conducted using the Scopus database to assess research trends on
emerging contaminants (ECs), focusing on mixtures of ECs and microplastics (MPs) and their impacts
on environmental and human health. The analysis covered literature from 2001 to 2023, using various
keywords related to ECs to identify their presence in water and wastewater.

3. Occurrence of ECs in the Environment:

This section focuses on the distribution of ECs across various ecosystems:
3.1. Soil and Freshwater Ecosystems
The increased levels of harmful substances like polychlorinated dioxins, furans, polychlorinated
biphenyls, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil and freshwater ecosystems mainly originate
from fossil fuels and human activities, such as household heating and industrial processes. Surface water
discharge contains significant emerging contaminants (ECs), with domestic sewage, animal husbandry,
aquaculture, and hospital effluents contributing to their presence. Pollutants like diclofenac and

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microplastics have been found in significant quantities, posing environmental and health concerns due to
their accumulation and potential to absorb other harmful substances.
3.2. Wastewater Treatment Plants
Discharges from domestic and household activities are significant sources of pollution, introducing
emerging contaminants (ECs) into the environment. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are
substantial sources of microplastics (MPs) and ECs entering aquatic environments due to inefficient
removal. Basic sewage treatment can remove 68-98.4% of MPs, but traditional WWTP designs fail to
remove these pollutants fully. Textile fibers, a major contributor to MPs, are often found in wastewater.
3.3. Aquatic Ecosystems
Over 160 pharmaceuticals have been found in aquatic systems at very low concentrations, often
transported via municipal sewage treatment systems. Steroidal hormones from human and animal feces
are prevalent in these environments. UV filters, known for their estrogenic effects, are among the most
common personal care products found in groundwater. Viruses causing illnesses like Hepatitis A and
Norovirus are often found in bivalve shellfish and other aquatic habitats.
3.4. Landfill Leachates
Research has identified various harmful chemicals in landfill leachates, such as batteries, paints, oils,
electrical products, and medicines, posing risks to the environment and human health. Microplastics
(MPs) in landfill leachate act as carriers for organic and heavy metal contaminants. Although landfill
leachates contain fewer personal care products (PCPs) than other pollutants, 172 different PCPs were
detected globally from 1993 to 2018.

4. Fate and Behavior of Mixtures of Emerging Contaminants in Complex Matrices

Emerging contaminants (ECs) occur in various environmental compartments with differing persistence
and quantities. The introduction of new chemical compounds has expanded the category of ECs.
Research has shown that pharmaceuticals, microplastics, and personal care products are increasingly
present in aquatic environments, often leading to antibiotic resistance and posing threats to ecosystems
and human health.

4.1. Pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceuticals enter ecosystems through excreta, improper disposal, and runoff, leading to
antimicrobial resistance and water contamination. Common contaminants include antibiotics,
hormones, and steroids, which persist in rivers, lakes, and groundwater, even after treatment.

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Conventional methods fail to fully remove pharmaceuticals like carbamazepine, ibuprofen, and
naproxen, but advanced oxidation processes combined with ozonation and UV show better efficiency in
degrading most pharmaceuticals, including analgesics, beta-blockers, and cytostatics, offering a more
efficient treatment solution.
4.2. Personal Care Products (PCPs)
PCPs include cosmetics, cleaning products, fragrances, and disinfectants containing chemicals like
triclosan, benzophenone, and phthalates. These contaminants are detected in rivers, sediments, and
wastewater due to industrial and domestic discharges.
4.3. Dioxins and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Dioxins and PCBs, found in hospital effluents, sewage, and surface water, are endocrine disruptors
that cause hormonal imbalances, cancer, immune disorders, and reproductive issues. They originate
from combustion processes and industrial emissions, persisting in the environment due to their
stability. Proper waste management and recycling are essential to prevent their leaching and
accumulation in ecosystems.
4.4 Pesticides, Antibiotics, and Biocides
Pesticides and biocides are used to enhance crop protection and inhibit harmful organisms, while
antibiotics control infectious agents. Their extensive use in agriculture and urban areas leads to water
contamination, causing eutrophication and antimicrobial resistance. Inefficient sewer systems and
runoff worsen pollution, especially in surface and groundwater. Antibiotics can promote gene transfer
among bacteria, enhancing resistance.
4.5 Surfactants
Surfactants, widely used in detergents, emulsifiers, and personal care products, often persist in
wastewater and enter surface water through leaching and runoff. They pose toxicity risks to aquatic
organisms by disrupting oxygen levels and penetrating cell membranes. Studies highlight their role in
co-contamination with microplastics (MPs), enhancing pollutant adsorption. Modified surfactants
show potential for removing heavy metals from contaminated soils, but their environmental impact
requires further evaluation.
4.6 Phthalates and Plastic Production
Phthalates, used in PVC products, furniture, toys, and packaging, make up 10% to 60% of these items
and are endocrine disruptors linked to reproductive and behavioral issues. Xiao et al. (2023) found that
di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate combined with microplastics (e.g., polypropylene) negatively affects plant
health. Microplastics, produced during plastic manufacturing, also transport pollutants like
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and heavy metals, enhancing their toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. The
COVID-19 pandemic further escalated exposure to microplastics and co-occurring environmental
contaminants.
4.7. Enteric Viruses
Highlighted as biological contaminants that interact with chemical pollutants. . Enteric viruses retain
infectivity during wastewater treatment, causing waterborne infections. Studies found contaminants
(e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and enteric viruses (noroviruses,
astroviruses) in mussels. Research also detected enteric viruses and SARS-CoV-2 in beach sands, with
higher concentrations in supratidal zones.

5. Effects of EC Contamination on Environment and Human Health

The manufacturing of pharmaceuticals releases harmful substances, such as phenazone, sulfonamides,
fluoroquinolone residues, and oxytetracycline intermediates, contaminating soil, air, and water. The

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COVID-19 pandemic led to an increase in pharmaceutical production for antiviral drugs like
molnupiravir, acyclovir, favipiravir, and paxlovid, which also contain harmful chemical ingredients.

5.1 Environmental Health

Consumer products like cleaning goods, medicines, cosmetics, perfumes, and personal care items
contain over 80,000 chemicals. These products, after use, are disposed of as industrial wastes, impacting
water quality. The quantities of emerging contaminants (ECs), such as persistent organic pollutants
(POPs), in soil have increased due to industrial and residential discharges, affecting soil and microbial
ecology. Recent research has focused on the negative impacts of these chemicals on aquatic species.
Case studies show that ECs can disrupt the food chain and cause chronic diseases. Antibiotics in
water can affect algae growth, and caffeine can disrupt endocrine functions in goldfish. ECs also impact
plant cellular metabolism, with nanoparticles causing cell necrosis in Vigna radiata. Ecotoxicological
studies on fish have shown adverse effects from nanoparticle exposure.

5.2 Human Health

Endocrine-disrupting substances (EDS) have been linked to various reproductive and sexual disorders
in both wildlife and humans. Exposure to these substances during prenatal and postnatal life can harm
the development and signaling of the endocrine system, with long-lasting and sometimes irreversible
effects. Some flavored substances are carcinogenic and can harm the neurological system when
absorbed through the skin. Perfluorinated chemicals in human blood cells have been associated with an
increased risk of breast cancer and reduced reproductive capacity. EDS can also decrease the role of
acetylcholinesterase, affecting the central nervous system. These substances interfere with the
synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, or elimination of endogenous hormones, impacting homeostasis,
reproduction, development, and behavior.
Apoptosis, a process of programmed cell death, causes morphological changes in various cells,
including thymocytes, PC12 cells, sperms, testicular Sertoli cells, prostatic cell lines, and ovaries.
Effective preventative measures are crucial, especially against the indiscriminate use of heavy metals
and emerging chemicals.

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6. Remediation Technologies: Advantages and Disadvantages/Limitations
Remediation technologies for endocrine disruptors (ECs) are classified into several methods, including
adsorption, advanced oxidation processes (AOP), photocatalysis, filtration (ultra/micro/nanofiltration),
bioremediation, nano remediation, and phytoremediation.
Bioremediation and phytoremediation are widely used due to their cost-effectiveness, environmental
friendliness, and robustness. Conventional methods, like coagulation and flocculation, are commonly
used to remove ECs from wastewater. Advanced methods, such as AOP, have been used for ECs like
surfactants and microplastics in water ecosystems, demonstrating high removal efficiencies. Various
remediation technologies have been developed for removing endocrine disruptors (ECs), each with
distinct advantages and limitations:
1. Photocatalysis: This process, effective for degrading ECs like clofibric acid, involves the
formation of organic intermediate species, which are further mineralized by oxidation. Catalytic
ozonation using mesoporous materials like CeO2 nanorods has been found effective in removing
atrazine, with varying removal rates based on the method used.
2. Nano- and Multifunctional Materials: Materials like cellulose nanofibers, carbon nanofibers, and
graphene-based adsorbents have been employed for removing heavy metals and persistent organic
pollutants (POPs), showing high efficiency (>68%) compared to traditional methods. These
materials work through catalytic degradation, thermal degradation, electrochemical remediation, and
photocatalytic degradation.
3. Membrane Techniques: Membrane filtration methods like reverse osmosis (RO), forward osmosis
(FO), microfiltration (MF), nanofiltration (NF), and ultrafiltration (UF) are used to remove ECs by
separating contaminants based on particle size. RO is particularly efficient, removing particles as
small as 10 Å, while NF can be effective for ECs like caffeine. However, MF is less effective for EC
removal due to its inability to filter particles smaller than 1 μm.
4. Adsorption: Adsorption has been widely used to remove organic, inorganic, and toxic pollutants
from contaminated environments, using materials like activated carbon, resins, and nanomaterials.

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5. Integrated Approaches: Combining techniques like bioremediation with nanotechnology or
phytoremediation with catalytic degradation or coagulation has shown promising results.

Phytoremediation, particularly through plant-soil interactions, has been effective in eliminating

hydrophobic pollutants like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

7. Research Gaps, Future Perspectives, and Challenges

The management of emerging contaminants (ECs) requires urgent attention in several areas:
1. Develop advanced detection methods for monitoring ECs in the environment.
2. Focus on surface water monitoring, especially in developing countries.
3. Study the interaction between microplastics and organic pollutants.
4. Integrate biological processes with advanced technologies for sustainable EC removal.
5. Track ECs and their degradation products to set safe exposure limits.
6. Validate removal techniques for real-world applications.
7. Apply lessons from pandemic management to EC monitoring.
8. Incorporate economic, sustainability, and social factors into EC management plans.
9. Reduce EC-containing products upstream to prevent contamination.
10. Improve understanding of microplastic-contaminant interactions for better risk assessments.
11. Study the long-term impacts of ECs on ecosystems and human health.

8. CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, ECs often exist as complex mixtures in the environment, which may have synergistic
toxic effects. Understanding their pathways, detection, and effective removal techniques is crucial, with
field-scale studies being essential to assess real-world contamination. ECs, especially those with
endocrine-disrupting properties, can negatively affect human health. Various removal methods,
including bioremediation, nano-remediation, and advanced filtration, are discussed, with bioremediation
and plant-soil interactions gaining prominence. Site-specific considerations and compliance with legal
standards are key. Comprehensive risk assessments, strict policies, and regular monitoring are necessary
to mitigate the impacts of EC mixtures on both human health and the environment.