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indeed be Gelernter's theory whose 1963 Intentions in resolution to the subject-object

because we learn in an earlier Architecture he admires, as we have problem, is his concern to discover
passage: seen, he concentrates on the brief an adequate explanation of the
'An early shelter builder possibly aside (Book I, Chapter II.2) which design process, which, he explains
piled rocks together, and when they demands due reference to in his Acknowledgements, he
collapsed he may have 'durability, convenience and beauty' inherits from his days at the Bartlett
experimented with a roof of broken - Wotton's 'commodity, firmness School of Architecture and Planning
tree branches, until eventually he and delight', which Schulz had at University College London, where
created a successful shelter. While rendered as building task, technics Jane Abercrombie researched the
struggling with the problem, he and form. psychology of design. We might
repeated those forms which worked, Who, more recently, has worried reasonably ask, however, whether
and avoided those which repeatedly about 'propriety' - what it is proper Hillier ef al have been more
failed. By this simple mechanism he for architecture to speak of? Adolf important for architects in their
learned at least one way of building Loos, perhaps, but he is not . description of the relevance of
precedent as a starting point for Reviews
a shelter that he could subsequently mentioned. Loos leant on the work
repeat.' of Semper, among others, whose design than Alan Colquhoun whose
So for Gelernter the problem (for theory of the origins of architecture elegant Typology and Design
Vitruvius, as for himself) is one of is very different to that of Laugier, or Method first appeared in 1967?
reconciling a mechanistic theory of indeed Vitruvius. Readers of arq Some years ago, when Alberto
the origins of architecture with (vol.1, no.1) will hardly need Perez-Gomez's Architecture and the
'divine sources of knowledge' and reminding of Semper's work. Crisis of Science was published, I
'timeless principles'. But this is to Perhaps Gelernter considers him to lent it to a neighbour who lectures
project back on to Vitruvius a be just a German Durand; at any on the History and Philosophy of
particularly post-Enlightenment, and rate he fails to make an appearance. Science. He returned it after a few
post-Darwinian, way of looking at But arguably his work is going to days, with a lengthy and heated
the world. As Gelernter points out, attract the increasing attention not explanation of what he saw as its
unlike modern Positivists, Vitruvius only of theorists but also of bias and shortcomings - 'but I've
does suggest that particular practising architects who are looking ordered it for our library', he said.
requirements of site, climate and for theoretical justifications for The clarity of expression and
function modify form rather than architectural procedures which they organisation of Gelernter's book
determine it, and so he might be find themselves in some way ensures that students will find it
more of a Idealist than Gelernter's coerced into adopting. In The easy to find their way around it, and
earlier mechanistic description Details of Modern Architecture familiarise themselves with one
would suggest. Of course, Vitruvius Edward Ford has recently suggested reading of the wider set of ideas
was no great thinker, and his Ten that, for technical reasons, because which lie behind certain architectural
Books represent a compilation of increasingly cladding has to be seen theories. I shall certainly encourage
other sources, but it is more as separate from structure, students to read Gelernter, as much
accurate, as well as more charitable, Semper's theory of representation or for what he revealingly omits as for
to suggest that his thinking reflects some variation of it, such as Loos what he writes; maybe I shall
a period and a philosophical attempted in his essay The Principle recommend that they start on page
framework wherein there was not an of Cladding, is likely to be a more 272 and work backwards.
irreconcilable difference between the influential one than that of Laugier, Nicholas Ray is a lecturer at the
actions of the elements ('climate') which many have claimed lies University of Cambridge and
and the will of the Gods. In Book IX, behind the principles of modernism. practises as an architect in
astrology and astronomy are If Laugier's tectonic frame or Cambridge.
inextricably intertwined, as they were aedicule is the origin of architecture,
to remain until the late seventeenth then its articulate and truthful
expression must be the aim of The Environmental Tradition:
century, and the seven 'fundamental
principles' of architecture in Book I architects. If on the other hand Studies in the Architecture of
Chapter II are similarly impossible to the beginning of building coincides Environment
categorise as 'artistic' or 'scientific'. with the beginning of textiles. The by Dean Hawkes with a foreword by
The fifth of these, 'propriety', is wall is that architectural element that Robert Maxwell, E. & F. N. Spon,
arguably a term of especial formally represents and makes London, 1996, 212 pp, 138 mono
importance in Vitruvius, but it is not visible the enclosed space as such, illus.
addressed by Gelernter until his absolutely, as it were, without ISBN 0 419 19900 4
discussion of the second half of the reference to secondary concepts', Price £24.49 (SB)
eighteenth century, and even there then a principle can be devised, of Reviewed by Max Fordham
he confines it to a description of 'veiling structural parts' which allows
Bbndel's position without for appropriate decoration. The design tools and knowledge
mentioning Laugier's concern for relating to buildings and
BiensSance. Like Norberg-Schulz, Accompanying, and in parallel environment are currently going
to, Gelernter's search for a through an explosion of knowledge
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replace the need to make a start states of mind. The historical view
based on a precedent or stereotype. suggests design stereotypes which
The Science can and should inform the form the initial basis for the
Environmental development of an idea but it is in
some way inadequate and therefore
synthesis of a design problem. The
initial design solution is then
Tradition stereotypes are the more reliable subjected to inputs of an immediate
basis for initial design concepts. and practical nature relating to the
Studies in the architecture of environment
Here Hawkes shows that science problem in hand.
cannot become architecture, i.e. For my part I believe the idea of
history and precedent are still the stereotype is very powerful. In
necessary. I agree with this position the field of psychology, Jung
but not for his reasons in getting developed the idea of stereotypes of
there. mind pattern in the unconscious
Hawkes' attitude towards such as earth mother, father figure,
Dean Hawkes
scientific method is made clear in mandala. These archetypes have an
the chapter on auditoria. He influence on human emotion and
assumes that the scientific approach feelings. He was not interested in
and understanding. It is important to is encapsulated in Sabine's formula ideas such as proportion, or golden
know what one of the leading for reverberation time. The section. But perhaps there is a field
Reviews
academics has to say as a review of reverberation time is a key of research which tries to find basic
the current state of knowledge. parameter and can be calculated form recognition in the mind. The
The Environmental Tradition is without specific reference to the mandala certainly keeps recurring in
not only about the design problems shape of the space. Thus the architecture. Indeed, we should
of reacting to the modern scientific method cannot differentiate expect powerful forms to be part of
environmental imperatives. It is also between a shoe box hall and one of our mind-set and not be surprised
about the relation of science and a different shape, a horse shoe for to find such forms being laid down
intuition in design. Part one, the example. Therefore precedent must as part of our culture. This is an
theory, is definitely architectural take over. argument for agreeing that
theory ranging from Vitruvius However the scientific treatment stereotypes as the manifestations of
through Reyner Banham to a group of acoustics has come on a lot culture are an important supplement
of recent theoreticians, Victor Olgay, since Sabine. The part played by to scientific principles in arriving at
Forrester, Lionel March, Christopher first reflections and the distribution building form.
Alexander and of course Hawkes of sound in time and space within a The relationship of precedent
himself. Nearly every chapter in part hall can differentiate between shoe and scientific understanding can be
one has a section dealing with some boxes, horse shoes and fans. explored at a more pragmatic level.
aspect of environmental theory: However, even if the science were The height of a room is partly a
exclusive or selective, shape and complete so that we could make function of the need to control
energy, light and comfort, acoustics, exhaustive and accurate predictions, temperature in hot climates. It is
space for services, services and the design process still has to also a function of the self-image of
architectural style, energy flow and address the issues of the culture of the occupier. Neither of these was
architecture, and daylight. In part human kind. apparent to the designers in the
two there is a good practical What science cannot do (yet) is 1920s who thought that room to
description of a group of buildings to answer the questions about how swing a cat would do. (The Modulor
from an environmental point of view. people react to the different acoustic is hardly a rational image!) Today the
The relationship of science to and visual characteristics of a place. physics of temperature gradients in
intuition in design is a theme which Composers write music so that rooms is just beginning to succumb
runs continuously through the book. it can be made and used in to our analytical methods. We need
As a subtext it has neither a clear buildings they have experienced. to understand the interaction of
development nor a conclusion but Music and buildings are part of our individual and collective psychology
the reader will come away with culture and they develop together. - culture, the history of architecture
ideas about the interplay of design This development is not scientific: it and building science - to develop
history and technology. is cultural. The reason architects our rational methods.
Hawkes claims that precedent have to rely on precedent and The interrelation between
plays an important, even essential fashion is that the design process evolved buildings in hot sunny
part in design. A precedent is a past involves an interaction with society. climates producing a light level
solution to a design problem which This interaction forms culture. I inside of about 100 lux, 0.1 %
should be studied and evaluated would like to see this theme daylight factor, and evolved
and used as a basis for new developed because I think that buildings in northern Europe using
development. It may be called a rational thought can understand and the same materials with light levels
stereotype but the important issue is explain the irrational mind and of 100 lux and 2% daylight factor
that scientific method cannot through design we can enrich our has to be explained in relation to the
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culture and economic resources of Method is that the building must be longwave radiation - heat, degree of
the societies which evolved them. planned to maximise the selective control by individuals, openable
The simple choice of light level parts of the building called the windows, use of clothes, height of
needed cannot define the built passive parts. This leads to shallow space, colours of surfaces, thermal
solution. buildings, and to other issues which capacity of surfaces, and many
I believe the Modern Movement are developed. more, all have to be borne in mind
latched on to the Scientific Method This is followed by a summary of by designers for every practical
as an excuse for puritan reform and the work initiated by Leslie Martin design. The design theory is
simplicity. It is important, therefore, comparing the land use of a site inadequate to cope with this
that we should not abandon the developed round the perimeter or as complicated field and the design
idea of rational thought before a tall building at the centre. This methods need to be developed
making sure we cannot extend it to leads on to a review of the forms of much further than is displayed here.
cover the problem of design. office blocks as stereotypes up to The discussion of environmental
As a practitioner with several about 20 years ago. This shows that parameters touches very much on
award-winning buildings to his the stereotypes do change. Not my specialism so I hope I can be
credit, Hawkes cannot be dismissed many of these blocks would be a excused for remarking that it does
as a mere academic. Nevertheless starting point for design today. not go far enough for building
he is an academic and I think I can design purposes.
There is one aspect of some of
rely on the book as a review of the the theory on which I have There is one piece of theory I
state of environmental attitudes to reservations. There are various should like to refute. On page 52 it
building by architects, certainly at Reviews
diagrams which are supposed to states that 'the effect of relative
the Cambridge school and probably illustrate relationships of things. They humidity on perceived comfort is
at Cardiff in time to come. In are said to be based on the theory insignificant provided it is within the
addition the book is very well of cybernetics. This abstract stuff is range of 30 to 70%'. The effect of
referenced and indexed so that it frustrating because it is dense and humidity is well known and
can be used as a bibliography of difficult to understand. I may be documented. Air-conditioning
up-to-date ideas. showing my lack of visual engineers in the United States rely
The theoretical part of the book awareness, but I do not like being on the relation between humidity
courageously attempts to bridge the made to feel a fool in order to and temperature. The well
gap between architecture and understand that the detail design of established work of Fanger
physics. Hawkes is a proponent of windows is important, that they establishes this relationship: 27°C at
the classification of buildings as must be easily openable, can safely 70% RH is more or less equivalent
'exclusive' or 'selective'. be left open at night without letting to 36°C at 30% RH. This is very
Exclusive means excluding in intruders, rain and leaves, must important when considering hot
influences from outside as much as allow small quantities of cold winter climate designs. Moisture content is
possible and providing control by air in without causing draughts, important except possibly in the UK.
mechanical means such as air must allow large quantities of air
The theory section gives me an
conditioning and artificial light. flow in summer without blowing
enormous respect for the value of
papers off desks, and so on.
Selective, means selecting the historical research. I am grateful for
interaction with the external This practising man's antipathy the examples of many Victorian
environment to provide the best towards abstract thought is buildings to which I should like to
possible environment with the important. Building science research add the art gallery in Manchester by
minimum of mechanical means. This and architectural research need two Sir Charles Barry. The physical
classification is used to make some audiences: other research performance of some of these
points about built form relating to specialists and practitioners in the buildings should be measured and
energy use so that two sets of field. The researchers do not or described. Quite apart from the
building are considered: square should not constitute a closed clique stimulating ideas about science and
buildings of differing heights, and who speak mostly to themselves; design, the theory section does
square, long rectangles, and their work should reach across to show that much needs to be done
triangular forms. The balance point some practitioners. Thus I would like to enable scientific environmental
is then explained. This is a bit to see the cybernetic approach design of buildings to be a creative
inconclusive as far as building dropped unless it can be developed and stimulating process.
design is concerned. to give interesting and useful The section of the book
The LT Method developed by insights into the relationships it describing buildings is immensely
Nick Baker and Koen Steemers at introduces. useful. Wallasey School is described
the University of Cambridge's Martin The factors affecting comfort: and references are given to the
Centre is not pushed as far as it can radiant temperature of surroundings, research which I did not realise had
be. I think it should be the starting turbulent air velocity, air been published. If this building were
point for environmental design in temperature, air moisture content, to be a current stereotype I should
temperate climates. The most noise levels, shortwave radiation - insulate the shutters and make them
important postulate of the LT light level, diffuse light/direct light, automatic. The inner glazing would
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be double low emissivity, the inner offices and in particular the control factor in Britain. If the sky is clear,
and outer windows would be of the window opening area as a the requirement is for a daylight
openable with automatic control percentage of the wall give a clear factor of about 0.5% and direct sun
subject to manual override. Then the explanation of the workings of this must be excluded. By the time all
electric lighting could be highly building. It says something about the requirements for control have
efficient fluorescent illuminating only the design process that Wiggins been met it is almost impossible to
when the building was occupied Teape and Bedminster Down were admit enough light in Britain. The
and the sun below the horizon. This both produced by Arup Associates natural light is simply a token
building should be an example to us where the engineers (science) and gesture. The examples show the
of the need for idealism and the architects (precedent) actually complicated solutions which are
perseverance to make advances in work side by side. I think it is necessary to achieve this token
our field. I would like to know what important to realise that the shading gesture and once again we have to
the stereotype was for this building. of the Wiggins Teape atrium is inside look to the complicated interactions
The other well selected and above the ceiling plane of the between science and people's
Reviews
examples should be familiar to us. top floor. The glass is then aspirations to explain why artificially
Since they are all likely to be treated substantially above that so that the lit galleries are not the stereotype.
as stereotypes, I should like to make intercepted heat and high This is a book about architecture
some sceptical comments. The temperature ventilation area are and I have approached it as such.
energy benefits of a conservatory themselves substantially above the But I think that we are tending to
are difficult to predict with any occupied space. miss the rich stimulation which
confidence because they are so St. Mary's Hospital, Isle of comes from understanding a
small. They restrict the daylight of Wight, has one thing in common problem and then making a
the room behind and unless they are with Bedminster Down. In order to synthesis out of that understanding.
allowed to get very cold on cold provide good natural lighting, Scientific research does this. Kehule
overcast days they will use rooflights are used. Of course, is reputed to have had a dream of a
substantial amounts of heat. rooflights can only apply to the top wriggling snake biting its tail which
Equating the average solar energy floor. The images of each building gave him the clue to the molecular
input over a longish period with an concentrate on the top floor of the structure of benzine. Where the
average heating load is over- building which is rooflit. However, problem has strong scientific
optimistic. Much of the solar energy about half of both buildings cannot imperatives, the synthesis can
comes from direct sun so the be on the top floor and cannot enjoy exclude cultural influences. Aircraft
conservatory is likely to overheat the benefits of rooflighting. On an design was held up by the
and the surplus has to be wasted. overcast day, rooflights admit two stereotype of the bird until flapping
Netley Abbey School tries to and half times as much light as wings were abandoned.
overcome this by circulating the heat windows for the same area and I Some of the architecture we
into the north-facing classrooms believe the lesson should be drawn admire is based on trying to
behind. When one looks at the that single-storey buildings with understand the engineering
spread of specific energy rooflights are important in our imperatives and hoping that people
consumptions for various buildings it climate where the Gulf Stream will be adaptive enough to accept
is very difficult to separate out useful keeps us wet, warm and cloudy. the result. I am disappointed that we
energy savings from the statistical The final group of buildings cannot educate designers so that
noise. contain spaces where the amount of they can really come to grips with
The CEGB Building at natural light required is very much the physics while at the same time
Bedminster Down is so beautiful less than the general level of lighting coping with the vision. That said,
that it is difficult to criticise. The outside. One of them is in Italy and this very clearly organised book with
circulation of air through hollow although Hawkes does not its self-contained chapters, is one to
concrete planks in 1979 was based specifically say that sun almost keep by your bed and reread again
on work being carried out by the always shines in Italy, I am sure the and again.
CEGB at Capenhurst before the figures would show a higher Max Fordham practises as an
building was designed. Task lighting incidence of strong sunlight in Italy environmental engineer in London.
is based on the idea that most of than in the United Kingdom. Thus it He is a visiting professor at the
the light at the working surface is important to filter the light carefully Department of Architecture and
comes from the light source. and there is no imperative to gather Building Design at Bath University.
Therefore the position of the source the maximum amount of natural light
defines the direction. The direction as there is for an office or working
of light flow is very critical if the building in Britain. Art galleries,
vectored component is strong. which form the basis for two case
Therefore task lights should have studies, are generally a different
more free movement than the case since the light level inside has
elegant fittings shown. to be controlled at about 50 to 100
The diagrams of the Gateway 2 lux corresponding to a 1 % daylight