LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

Prepared by:

MS. RHEALLEE G. ALFONSO, RCRIM.

COURSE SYLLABUS IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES (FORSCI 5)

(THIRD REVISION)
 COURSE CODE: FORENSIC 5
COURSE CREDIT: 3 UNITS
COURSE TITLE: LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

COURSE
DESCRIPTION:

This course includes the study of the different methods and techniques in lie
detection. The anatomy of lying, its theory, kinds and types. It includes the conduct of
polygraph examination. It covers also the history, personalities and developments of Lie
detection in different countries as a tool of crime investigation and also in relation to
court proceedings.

INTRODUCTION:

Lying has become part of our daily lives. It has an implication on the survival value
of human being and other living things. Human may tell lies for various way and
intentions. They fabricate lies by denying the truth, omitting or exaggerating
information for social acceptance, to maintain a harmonious relationship, to prevent
hurting the feeling of others, etc. But when lying becomes destructive to the interest of
an individual or the society, the application of available lie detection methods is a
typical defense against liars.
As we grow old and acquire experiences, our capability of lying becomes more
advanced. Liars who are inclined of committing crimes, devised sophisticated means to
deceived justice. Thus, it is incumbent on the part of a polygraph examiner to educate
himself, enhance his skills, and learn the advance techniques to surmount the effort
exerted by a deceptive individual.
Our government law enforcement agencies employ polygraph testing primarily, to
aid in their effort of investigating crimes. The result generated from the examination
helps determine the innocence or degree of involvement of a particular subject on the
issue under investigation. The opinion of the polygraph examiner may be called by the
court to substantiate other existing evidence presented in the litigation of the case.
Some government agency and private company consider polygraph as part of
security strategy. They require applicants to undergo polygraph pre- employment test
as part of the screening process Existing employees are required to undergo periodic
honesty test to determine any serious transgressions of security or company policy.
Those who were implicated on committing illegal act undergo polygraph testing to
prove their innocence or possible involvement. These approach provides the decision
makers in hiring the best qualified applicant, ensure adherence to policy, and serves as
deterrence for those who would attempt to do wrong. Since polygraph test results
relatively affects the future of an examinee, a polygraph examiner must be properly
prepared in their profession. Preparation includes better understanding of the
theoretical foundations, positive attitude towards the polygraph practice, and the
dedication for excellence thru continuous training and research This manual is designed
to enlighten the reader with the modern approach and techniques in polygraph
examination. The information presented deals with the origin, concepts and
contemporary procedures of polygraph testing 10S0 This author wish to impress the
reader how the process of polygraph examination had evolved, from old practice`to
scientific application. Ultimately, to the stakeholders, for them to appreciate the value
and potentials of polygraph testing in applicant screening. business or security policy
compliance, investigation and detection of crimes, and administration of justice.

Theories of Lying, Psychology of Lying, Physiological responses of

Lying, Practical ways to detect a lie, and why People lie?

PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF POLYGRAPH TESTING

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students would be able to:
1. Understand the theory of lie detection.
2. Differentiate the kinds of lie and types of liars.
3. Identify the changes in the body that occurs during stressful
situation
I. THEORY IN LIE DETECTION
According to Handler (2018) a very justifiable theory in comparison
question test is that, there are changes in measured physiology load on one
group of questions or the other, as a function of deception Or truth- -telling
to the relevant questions.
A subject who is lying to the relevant questions will have larger
changes in the measured physiology to the relevant questions than to the
comparison questions. On the other hand, a person who is telling the truth
to the relevant question, will have larger changes in the measured
physiology to the comparison question than to the relevant questions
(Handler, 2018).
II. CONTEMPORARY TESTING THEORIES IN POLYGRAPH TESTING
1.ANALYTIC THEORY
The analytic theory of polygraph testing holds that greater changes in
physiological activity are loaded at different types of stimuli as a function of
deception and truth-telling in response to relevant target stimuli (Nelson,
2016). This theory suggests that humans generate recordable physiological
reactions to questions relevant to investigation targets (Handler 2018). It is
presumed that every subject wants to pass the polygraph test and the
desire of passing the test is influenced by the test questions presented. Test
question which require greater cognitive load, will produce the largest
physiological response. Reactions on relevant question is also influenced by
emotional and conditioning factors (Handler, 2018).
2. Deferential Salience Theory
 Differential salience has been suggested as a more general and frugal
psychological theory that is more consistent with the field of scientific
psychology, including emotion, cognition and conditioned learning basis of
response to polygraph questions (Senter, Weatherman, Krapohl & Horvath
2010). It describes as a importance and intensity of the physiological
response the relationship between the level of psychological This concept
suggests that intensity can divulge underlying mental processes that can
be utilized as basis to detect deception or recognition during polygraph
examination. Differential salience does not restrict the operating
mechanism to fear but assumes a common pathway for the physiological
expression of those cognitive and emotional processes that gave rise to
the psychological salience (Krapohl Handler & Sturn, 2012).
3.Cognitive-behavioral Theory
The cognitive-behavioral theory f polygraph testing is another model
that explains the variety of known physiological phenomena observed
during polygraph testing. Cognition, emotion and behavioral/ experiential
learning serves as basis of physiological responses (Khan, Nelson &
Handler, 2009). The cognitive- behavioral theory is consistent with
differential salience model (Handler & Nelson, 2007; Senter et al., 2010). It
suggests that truth-telling requires simple cognitive and emotional task
demands than deception.
III. OTHER THEORIES OF POLYGRAPH TESTING
The expression psychological set was introduced in polygraph by
Cleve Backster. He made the concept as a foundation of his Zone
Comparison Technique which he associated the concept to fear of
detection. It is assumed that examines focuses their fears, anxieties and
apprehensions on the questions which poses the greatest threat to their
self-preservation and well-being . A guilty person 'will experience fear of
detection which consequently causes greater reaction on the questions
relevant to the issue being tested. Adversely, a truthful person will focus
fear on the comparison questions (Krapohl, Handler & Sturn, 2012). This
theory was however does not support the effectiveness of Directed Lie
Comparison questions where fear of detection was not present because of
the permission on the examinee to give a lie answer on the DLC questions.
According to Handler, the term psychological set was "made up" and there
is no such thing.
2. The Fight or- Flight Response
The most common explanation on the causes of physiological
phenomena observed during polygraph examination is the fight, flight, or
freeze response. The term was first describe by Walter Canon in 1959. It
was assumed that the activation of sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
influenced the distribution of blood on certain parts of the body where it is
mostly needed during an emergency situations. The Fight or Flight
response is a primitive, autonomic, inborn response of our body to a
perceived attack, harm or threat. According to Handler, the fight or flight
theory an outdated term and does not explain the complete range of
responses during psycho physiological detection of deception test. It is no
longer taught in polygraph school.
3. The Orienting Response
Described by Pavlov (1927) as the orienting reflex. It is a behavioral
response expected to occur as a result of an altered, novel, or sudden
stimulus. The series of questions asked during polygraph examination does
not start with a relevant question, to ensure that orienting response on
the test questions will not be confused as deceptive reaction.
4. Arousal Theory
This theory suggests that polygraph questions have different inherent
cognitive and or emotional effect for every test subject. Guilty and innocent
examinee can be determined by evaluating which question has greater
response as influenced by behavioral conditioning.
5. Conditioned Response Theory
This theory holds that physiological reaction is associated with an
emotional response caused by conditioned stimulus. A polygraph question
connected with strong emotions produces larger response. The degree of
physiological response is associated to the personal significance of
questions presented during the test. However, this theory is not considered
as the prevailing explanation for polygraph examination. In 2003, the
National Research Council commented that truthful examinee may be
affected by the type of relevant questions concerning the case of a
murdered relative.
5. Conflict Theory
According to this theory, the tendency of a polygraph subject to give
a conflicting answer causes physiological arousal. It was assumed that the
greater the conflict, the larger the response that is expected. This theory
suggests that psychopaths have not produce larger response compared to
non-psychopaths. However, there is no clear explanation on the presence
of reaction when the examinee provide a truthful answer or not required to
answer the questions
7. Threat of Punishment Theory
This theory holds that the cause of physiological arousal during
deception is influenced by fear of the consequences if detected. Polygraph
subject that is in fear of being caught on his lie will produce greater
physiological responses because of the negative consequences. However,
this theory fails to explain why polygraph testing still function well in the
absence of fear In 2003, the National Research Council suggested that the
fear of innocent subject of not being believe for their truthful answer could
also cause a strong physiological reactions. According to Handler, all tests
have error rates. The suggestions that a threat could cause an innocent
person to fail in an untested hypothesis.
PSYCHOLOGY OF LYING
The capability of telling a lie is learned as human developed and
earned experiences. Young children learn to lie to avoid punishment for any
wrong doing. In this early stage of development, children utter lies which
are unbelievable because they could not fully realize whether their
statement is believable or not.
DECEPTION is defined as an act of convincing another to believe an
information that is not true. It involves concepts like propaganda,
distraction and concealment
DEFINITION OF LIE
 1. An assertion of something known or believed by speaker or writer to
be untrue with intent to deceive (miriam-webster.com)
2. A false statement made with deliberate intent to deceive
(thesaurus.com) Is a type of deception in the form of an untruthful
3. statement with the intention to deceive. An assertion that is
believed to be false, typically
4. used with the purpose of deceiving someone.
(https//en.m.wikipedia.org.wiki)

KINDS OF LIE
1. White Lie -a harmless lie intended to protect the feelings of others
from being upset by the truth.
2. Black Lie- simple and callous selfishness. For self-interest, to gain
something at the expense of another.
3. Red Lie- are about spite and revenge. Liars are driven by the
motive to harm others even at the expense of harming oneself
(changingminds. org).
4. Blue Lie- is a form of lying that is told purportedly to benefit the
collective or in the name of collective good.
5. Perjury - is the act of lying by giving false statements regarding an
important matter that is made under oath.
6. Minimization it involves denial and rationalization in a situation
where complete denial is implausible
7. Fabrication telling a statement to others that is not surely true.
8. Omission - it occurs when an important facts are omitted in order
to foster a misconception.
9. Lie-to-children a simplified explanation in teaching technical or
complex subjects to children or people who are new to the concepts
discussed.
10. Jocose Lie - are lies meant in jest.
 11. Exaggeration- occurs when the most fundamental aspects of a
statement are true, but only to a certain degree.
12. Bluff- an act of deception that is rarely seen immoral when it takes
place in the context of a game.
13. Bold faced/Bald face or Bare face lie - an obvious lie
14. Careful speaking -involves using carefully- phrased statements to
give a 'half answer.
15. Brocken Promises- failure to keep one's commitment.

TYPE OF LIARS (according to Paul Ekman)

1. Natural Liars
This type of liar is very successful and effortless in telling lies. People
believe them because they are very convincing in words and actions. They
are highly skilled and capitalizing on their talent relevant to their lawyer,
professions (e.g. actors, salesman spies, etc.).
2. Pathological Liars
This type of liars have chronic behavior habitually or
compulsively lying even without apparent of reason for doing so.
3. Psychopaths
This type of liar have persistent antisocial behavior, lack of
empathy and remorse. He lies easily This without feeling any guilt or
shame because of his psychopathic condition

ANXIETY DUE TO LYING

During the stage of interview or interrogation, the investigator must
control the situation psychologically in order to create anxiety on the liar. A
deceptive person will tell another lie to cover their previous lie when they
realized that they are about to be discovered lying. The consequences of
getting caught, makes them uncomfortable. When under stressful situation
the body will react and send signal to our brain. The hypothalamus will be
stimulated and initiates the release of hormones to prepare our body for
fight or flight response.
CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN THE BODY DURING STIMULATION OF
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Heart rate and blood pressure increases
2. Pale or flushed skin
3. Dilated pupils
4. Increase awareness
5. Altered memory
6. Sense of sight sharpens
7. Impulses quicken
8. Perception of pain diminishes
9. Sweat glands is stimulated
10. The flow of blood from the digestive diverted towards muscles and
limbs.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Name:_________________________________________Date: ______________
Year & Section:____________________________ Score: ______________
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the best answer
1. This theory suggest that during a stressful situation, the sympathetic
nervous system is activated causing the blood flow to be diverted to
certain parts of the body where it is mostly needed.
a. Conflict Theory
b. Fight, Flight, Freeze Response
C. Arousal Theory
d. Orienting Response
2. He proposed the differential salience theory in polygraph testing
a. Handler c. Inbau
b. Reid d. Backster
3. A type of liar who habitually tells lie even without clear reasons to lie.
a. Natural Liars c. Pathological Liars
b. Psychopathic Liars d. Deceptive Liars
4. This theory holds that psychopaths have not produced larger responses
than non-psychopaths.
a. Conflict Theory c. Orienting Response
b. Psychological Set d. Conditioned Response
5. A car salesman with an intent to benefit himself from the sales of a
defective second hand vehicle by convincing an innocent buyer without
declaring the true condition of the car, has told a lie.
a. Red Lie c. Black Lie
b. Blue Lie d. White Lie
6. During an emergency, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is activated
in response to a stressful situation, which of the following is not an
indicator of physiological changes that occur when the SNS was stimulated?
a. Memory sharpens b. Increase awareness
c. Perception of pain diminishes d. Pupils dilate
7. It is an assertion of untruthful statement with an intention to deceive
others
a. Deception c. Perjury
b. Lie d. Deceptive
8. This theory suggests that deceptive subject will focus more his/her
attention on the questions relevant to the issue being tested because of
fear of being detected
a. Differential Salience c. Psychological Set
b. Analytic Theory d. Fear of Error
9. A police investigator who made a false statement to a suspect during an
interrogation to obtain an admission is an example of __ lie.
a. Black b. White,
c. Torture d. Blue
10. This theory suggests that there are physiological activity produced in
response to test questions relevant to the issue under investigation.
a. Psychological Set b. Cognitive Load
C. Differential Salience d. Analytic Theory

ACTIVITY 1
Identification:
Provide the complete answer to the given statement.

__________________________1.A type of liar who have persistent antisocial

behavior, lack of empathy and remorse.
__________________________2. This type of liar is. very successful and
effortless in telling lies.
__________________________3. It involves using carefully-phrased statements
to give a half-answer'
__________________________4. It involves telling a statement to others that is
not surely true
__________________________5. It is the act of lying by giving a false statement
regarding an important matter that is made under oath.
__________________________6. An act of convincing another to believe an
information that is not true. It involves concepts like propaganda. distraction
and concealment.
__________________________7. He introduced the expression psychological set.
__________________________8. A polygraph theory which suggests that
polygraph questions have different inherent cognitive and or emotional
effect for every test subject.
__________________________9. He suggests the analytic theory in polygraph
testing
_________________________10. This theory holds that the cause of
physiological arousal during deception is influenced by fear of the
consequences if detected.

Different Methods of Detecting Deception

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LIE DETECTION
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students would be able to:
1. Learn the ancient and contemporary methods used in detecting
deception.
2. Determine the personalities involved in the history of lie detection
and evolution of the polygraph instrument.
 The effort of ferreting out the deceiver has been in practice since, the
ancient years The methods are conducted in various forms and have
developed across culture and history. Ancient procedures are mostly
centered on superstition religious beliefs which or are painful and
dangerous as practiced. The process gradually evolved through numerous
studies and experiments. Instruments intended to record certain
parameter for detection of deception was devised and eventually lead to
the evolution of the polygraph.
I. EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION
1. Observation of Behavior
It was written in the history that liars can be detected by observing
their behavior. In an ancient texts written in India around 900 BC, it was
mentioned that poisoners can be determined because they are evasive
and cannot give direct answer to a question. He exhibits gestures of
uneasiness, and noticeable physiological changes are indicated (Trovillo
1939).
Another popular example of observing the behavior to verify truthful
and false statement was reported during the era of King Solomon. He made
a wise decision regarding the two woman claiming to be the mother of a
disputed child. King Solomon determined the real mother by observing the
behavior displayed by both woman when he stated to cut the baby in two
parts to settle the conflict. The real mother readily gave up her claim rather
than seeing the baby killed, while the other woman agreed to the
statement made by the king (Krapojl & Shaw, 2019).
2. Feeling the Pulse
It was depicted in history that, lying was presumed to affect the
physiological activity of deceitful person. Physiological changes are
observed as symptoms of lying when the person experiences fear of being
detected.
Erasistratus (200-250) a famous physician and anatomist known for
his research on the functions of king of Syria to diagnose the unknown
illness of his the brain and nervous system, was consulted by the son. The
king's son was observed losing his weight, no appetite and feeling
depressed. Erasistratus hinted that the cause of the mysterious illness was
the son's passion for the king's young and beautiful wife. During the
examination he conducted Erasistratus observed that the pulse rate of the
king's son increased when he mentioned the physical attributes of the
king's new wife. His findings was later on proven with the birth of a baby
girl out of the intimacy between the prince and the new queen (Trovillo
1939).
Another attempt of detecting deception by feeling the pulse was
described during the Middle Ages. A noble man who suspected his wife of
having an illicit affair with another man consulted one of his adviser to
verify his doubt. The test conducted by the designated adviser was
administered by occasionally placing his hand on the wrist of the
nobleman's wife during their conversation. The adviser found out that the
pulse of the noble man's wife quickened when he mentioned the name of
the suspected lover. Adversely, there was no similar response noted when
the name of her husband was mentioned (Trovillo 1939).
In 1730, Daniel Defoe, an English novelist discussed in his writings the
same concept. He suggested that by feeling the pulse, he can discover the
guilt of a suspected person. Defoe described that a thief has the tendency
to run and evade when confronted, he will indicate obvious cues of tension
that can be observe. An innocent person however, whose conscience is
clear will not attempt to escape (Matte, 1996).

3. Trial by Combat
Trail by combat was also practiced on many countries in the early
years. Disputes between two adversaries is resolve by a physical combat.
The innocent person is expected to prevail in the fight because of the
belief that the truth is on his side. Nevertheless, the able-bodied
participant.
4. Ordeal Method
In the ancient years of determining truth or deception the methods of
ordeal was the most popular approach applied. The procedure subjected
the accused to painful and dangerous test. Superstitious belief and divine
intervention serves as basis to prove the innocence or guilt. It supposed
that innocent individual This method of will be spared by God from harm.
verifying deceit was also centered on actual monitoring of psychological
and physiological clues that guilty and innocent individual may indicates
(Trovillo, 1939)
 Rice Chewing Ordeal It was also describes in history that fear is
related with a dry mouth, several forms of rice chewing was
administered to suspected liars as a way of determining fear. Suspected
person are forced to chew rice powder and instructed to spit it out. If
the rice powder was dry, the suspect was proclaimed lying (Vrij & Ganis,
2014).
Sathee rice was used in India for the Corsnaed ordeal. The rice is
prepared through various verbal charms or spells. The suspect is ordered
to eat the rice with his face to the East, and then spits on a peepul leaf. The
accused is found lying when his saliva has blood, or his mouth gets
swollen. For theft incident involving a number of suspects, there is another
version preferred. Suspects were asked to chew the sacred rice and asked
them to spit out the rice on a peepul leaf. A guilty person would spit a dry
or blood-mixed rice (Trovillo 1939).
In China, suspect was asked to take a large amount rice powder on his
mouth. If he is innocent he could make the rice powder into ball. The guilty
person would not be able to roll rice belief that the truth is on his side.
Nevertheless, the able-bodied participant result of the combat usually
favors the wise, skilled and
4. Ordeal Method
In the ancient years of determining truth or deception the methods of
ordeal was the most popular approach applied. The procedure subjected
the accused to painful and dangerous test. Superstitious belief and divine
intervention serves as basis to prove the innocence or guilt. It supposed
that innocent individual This method of will be spared by God from harm.
verifying deceit was also centered on actual monitoring of psychological
and physiological clues that guilty and innocent individual may indicates
(Trovillo, 1939)
Rice Chewing Ordeal
 It was also describes in history that fear is related with a dry mouth,
several forms of rice chewing was administered to suspected liars as a way
of determining fear. Suspected person are forced to chew rice powder and
instructed to spit it out. If the rice powder was dry, the suspect was
proclaimed lying (Vrij & Ganis, 2014).
Sathee rice was used in India for the Corsnaed ordeal. The rice is
prepared through various verbal charms or spells. The suspect is ordered
to eat the rice with his face to the East, and then spits on a peepul leaf. The
accused is found lying when his saliva has blood, or his mouth gets
swollen. For theft incident involving a number of suspects, there is another
version preferred. Suspects were asked to chew the sacred rice and asked
them to spit out the rice on a peepul leaf. A guilty person would spit a dry
or blood-mixed rice (Trovillo 1939).
In China, suspect was asked to take a large amount f rice powder on
his mouth. If he is innocent he could make the rice powder into ball. The
guilty person would not be able to roll rice to determine the involvement of
an examinee to a known incident or to multiple issues of concern:
• Comparison Question Technique
• Non-Comparison Question Technique

Recognition Test
This approach in polygraph testing is intended to determine if the
examinee has knowledge about the issue being tested. An examinee who
are knowledgeable on the case information or facts, will exhibits
physiological reaction when confronted with the item relevant to the test.
The type of recognition test are as follows:
 Searching Peak of Tension Test
 Known Solution Peak of Tension Test
 Concealed Information Test
 Acquaintance Test
 (https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10420/chapter/12#255)

2. Non-Verbal Lie Detection

There are several concepts considered to determine the non-verbal
indicators of deception. These approach includes the following:
A. Multifactor Model
In multifactor model, there are elements that may influence cues to
deception and each has distinct effect on the non-verbal behavior of liar
(Zuckerman et al., 1981).
•Emotional Reactions
According to Ekman, (1985) telling a lie is most commonly associated
with different emotions such as fear, guilt, or delight. A lying person may
feel guilty, afraid to discover his lie, or elated about fooling someone. The
strength of these emotions depends on the personality of the liar and the
circumstances under which the lie takes place (Ekman, 1985; Vrij, 2008).
It is important to note that behavior of a lying person may be affected
because of guilt, fear and excitement.

EMOTION INDICATORS OF REACTION

1 Guilt  Gaze aversion
2 Fear and Excitement  Increase in movements
 Speech hesitation
 Speech errors (stutters)
 Repetition of words
 Omission of words
 Increased pitch
EXAMPLE:
 The stronger the emotion, the more likely that ome of these behaviors
will reveal deceit (Ekman. 985)
.Cognitive Load
There are various aspects that may explain why lying requires more
cognitive demand than telling the truth:
1. Formulating a lie demands more cognitive effort.
2. Liars are typically less likely than truth- tellers to take their
credibility for granted.
3. Liars monitor the interviewer's reactions more carefully in order
assess whether they appear to be getting away with their lie
4. Liars may be preoccupied by the task of reminding themselves to
act and role-play. which requires extra cognitive effort.
Liars who engaged in cognitively complex tasks experiences speech
hesitations and errors, speaks slower, and takes time to give answer
(Goldman-Eisler, 1968). It also resulted in less hand and arm movements
(Ekman & Feiezen, 1972).It further resulted to more gaze aversion due to
difficulty in maintaining eye contact (Doherty-Sneddon et al., 2002).
Attempted Behavioral Control
Liars are aware that they must appear convincing in the eyes of an
investigator, thus they will try to control their behavior They must subdue
their nervousness while trying to hide their difficulty of answering questions
Liars need to act and appear honest and keep away from dishonest
behavior These effort of controlling behavior increases on high stakes
situation (Ekman, 1985).
b. Self-Presentational Perspective
This approach predicts that as liars experience one or more factors in
multifactor model, it is plausible that signs of deception will occur
(Zuckerman et al.'s, 1981). However DePaulo et al argued that emotions,
cognitive load, and behavioral control may also influence the behavior of
truth-tellers. Liars and truth- tellers will succeed in their social interaction
goals only if they appear sincere and convincing (DePaulo,1992; DePaulo et
al, 2003).
C. Interpersonal Deception Theory
This theory suggests that liars must performed several simultaneous
communication task during a face-to-face encounters (Buller and
Burgoon's 1986). Their verbal message must be credible while projecting
plausible non-verbal behavior. Liars must control their behavior, while
maintaining smooth conversation with their partner. The response is in
accordance of what they say, and must conceal any intent to deceive their
partner. IDT embraces the three multifactor model of Zuckerman as
fundamental reasons for cues of deceit (Burgoon, et al, 1999.
Non-Verbal Cues of Deception
According to DePaulo et al (2003), the most consistent indicators of
deception are the following:
1. Verbal and vocal immediacy
2. Pupil dilation
3. Discrepant/ambivalent
4. Verbal and vocal uncertainty
5. Nervous tense
6. Vocal tension
7. Chin raise
8. Pitch frequency
9. Lip pressing
10. Illustrators
11. Facial pleasantness
12. Changes in foot movements
13. Pupillary changes
14. Genuine smile
 15. Indifferent, unconcerned
16. Specific hand and arm movement
17. Intensity of facial expression
18. Direct orientation According to Mark D. Handler, these indicators
are not consistent but do have very low Pearson'sr
Tools for Non-Verbal Lie Detection
a. Facial Emotional Expression
The aspect of facial communication are beyond control and can be
betray a deceiver's true emotion via micro expressions of that emotion
(Ekman, 1985). However, researchers have found out that micro
expressions of emotions are common to both liars and truth-tellers (ten
Brinkle et al., 2012).

b. Behavioral Analysis Interview (BAI)

The procedure involved in BAI includes behavior-provoking questions.
The guilty suspect and asking of non-threatening, investigative, position
and preforming grooming behavior when such crossing their legs as shifting
seating is supposed to probably display nervous behaviors giving answer to
the questions. Innocent suspects are expected to lean forward maintain
eye contact and use illustrators to supplement confidence in their
statements (Vrij, Ganis, 2014). The guilty suspects swiftly answer the
question with lack of sincerity. They are more likely to exhibits anxiety-
reducing behavior like shifting seating position (Inbau et al, 2001, 2013).
Investigators are inclined to observe nervous behaviors to classify the
innocent and guilty suspect. Succeeding contradicting results on the
findings of Inbau. It experiments on the use of BAI produced was found out
that liars were less likely to cross their legs and shift posture than the
innocent Another subsequent experiment showed that BAI procedure failed
to distinguished innocent from truth-tellers (Vrij et al., 2006b; Vrij et al.,
2007). > The concepts about non-verbal indicators of lying has been
subjected to comprehensive researches and experiments. These tools are
found to be unreliable in determining truth- tellers and liars. There is no
available evidence to support that it can effectively discriminate the
truthful and guilty person.
3. Verbal Lie Detection
The basic premise of verbal lie detection are that liars have to think
harder to fabricate a lie and will try to make more convincing impression
than truthful persons. Verbal lie detection is a memory-based approach,
regarded as a unique signs of deception. It is presumed that people
remember differently the events that he experienced from the events that
are fabricated. Hence, they talk about them in different ways (Vrij & Ganis,
2014).
Tools for Verbal Lie Detection
A. Statement Validity Assessment (SVA)
The SVA is a tool designed to verify the accuracy of the testimony of
child witnesses during the trial of a sexual cases. There are times that an
investigator encountered difficulty in determining the facts of sexual
offense involving children due to unavailability of evidence. Also, because
of the absence of possible witness that could provide independent version
of the events to validate contradicting statement of victims and accused.
The SVA assessment are accepted as evidence in some North American
courts and in criminal courts in several West-European countries, including
Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden (Vrij, 2008).

Stages of Statement Validity Assessment:

 • Case-file analysis
 • Semi instructed interview
 Criteria-based content analysis (CBCA)
 • Validity checklist
B. Reality Monitoring (RM)
This method is used only for scientific research and said to have
strong theoretical support. It is based on memory theory and is centered
on the concept that memories of experienced events differs in quality from
memories of imagined events (Johson and Raye, 1981, 1998).
C. Scientific Content Analysis (SCAN)
This tool was developed by Avioam Sapir a polygraph examiner and a
former Israeli police lieutenant. It supposed in this approach that truth-
tellers and liars differ from each other. However, no theoretical support is
available to support the said assumptions (Nahari et al, 2012a). The
procedure requires an examinee to write down in detail his/her activities on
a crucial period of time. Handwritten statement is then analyzed based on
the criteria set for this tool. SCAN criteria like denial of allegation and use
of self-references mostly occur in truthfu] than deceptive statements,
while other criteria like change in language and missing information likely
to appear in deceptive than truthful are statements (Sapir, 1987, 2000)-
Criteria Indicative of Deception

d. Assessment (ACID) The process of Assessment Criteria

Indicative of Deception, involves detailed examination of the length of
response, admitting potential errors, and use of Reality Monitoring (RM)
criteria to distinguish the differences due to memory and impression
management or control of information. This extended approach to RM
corresponds to the unique external, contextual. and internal details as
observe during the process of investigative interview for detection of
deception The first experiment with this approach indicates 95% of the
statements of honest and deceptive participants were determined
accurately. The statements of honest participants are more clear and
spontaneous:
1. It has more external and contextual detail overall.
2. Response are more detailed due to the recall enhancement effect
of the mnemonics
The most salient and statistically powerful features of the study was
the details that were not provided during free recall but rather were added
in the course of later recall task (Colwell, Hiscock-Anisman, Memon, et al.,
2007).
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Based Lie Detection (fMRI)
The method of monitoring brain activity has been employed by several
researchers in an attempt to detect deception. The fMRI approach involves
measurement of changes in regional cerebral blood flow cause by the
activity of the nervous system. The activity of the brain in response to a
specific type of events is measured through fMRI procedures (Vrij &Ganis,
2014).
Classes of postulated neural processes during deception (Vrij
&Ganis, 2014):
Cognitive control processes
It includes working memory, memory- retrieval conflict monitoring, and
response inhibition. These refers to the processes with higher complexity of
producing lies relative to telling the truth.

Memory-relate processes
These refers to the fact that lies and truths may differ in how well they
are encoded, and in the richness and quality of these memories
Social cognitive processes
It refers to the idea that a successful liar needs to take into account
the perspective of the target of the lie in order to be able to deceive the
target.
Current studies suggests that fMRI methods so far could not outshine
the traditional methods of detecting deception. But since fMRI is a new
approach, there is always a possibility that this method will be improved in
the future. Time will come that the techniques in brain-imaging and analysis
will be refined and enhance through numerous research that may be
conducted.
5. Optical Motor Detection of Deception
The idea of measuring the size of pupil can be traced from the theory
suggested by Charles Darwin that pupil dilation was associated with fear
and other emotion (Andreassi, 2000). It was speculated based on research
that sympathetic nervous system influenced the pupillary changes which
could be used to measure the value of interest and pleasure on visual
stimuli. Succeeding researches suggests that cognitive effort can be related
to pupil dilation (Hess & Polt, 1960).
The Autonomic Nervous System controls the dilation and constriction
of the pupil. The iris dilates when the sympathetic nervous system is
activated, the parasympathetic subdivision of the ANS causes the
constriction of the iris (Andreassi, 2000).
Causes of Pupillary Changes
1. Light Reflex
2. Startle Response
3. Fatigue
4. Pain
5. Emotional Arousal
6. Cognitive Load
In 1943, Berrien and Huntington conducted experimentsto measure
emotional disturbances associated with lying using pupillary responses.
Several succeeding researches suggests that pupil responses influenced by
cognitive demands can be associated with deception.
Reading behaviors particularly eye movements are used to verify
deception. Eye-tracking system were designed to capture movements of the
eyes and measure the changes in the size of pupils (Andreassi, 2000) The
procedure in optical motor detection of deception involves asking the
examinee to seat in front of a computer and listen to the voice recorded test
instruction. Included in the instruction are the nature of test and answering
procedure. A proctor will attached the eye-tracking device to the examinee.
Thereafter the examinee proceed with the test by reading another set of
instructions displayed on the computer screen Subject is required to give a
true or false answer on every statement presented during the test.
 Reading ability is a vital factor in this method Test result for
examinees having poor reading skills is affected by this factor. Necessary
adjustment and remedy should be undertaken in the future research to
assess the effect of difference in reading fluency of every examinee (Hacker
et al, 2014).
Eye Detect is a new technology available designed for optical motor
detection of deception test. It measures eye movements, pupil diameter,
reading behavior, etc. during the process of examination using an infrared
camera and scoring algorithm to determine the test outcome.

Polygraph Uses and Significance.

COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH
This chapter covers the four components of Polygraph. A detailed
discussion of these components is provided in this chapter.
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, readers should be able to:
1. Familiarize themselves with the different components of Polygraph;
2. Explain the roles or functions of the different components and parts of a
polygraph machine; and
3. Identify or name the different parts of a polygraph machine
The polygraph collects physiological data from at least three human
body systems: respiratory system, galvanic skin response (electrodermal),
and cardiac system.
COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH
1. Pneumograph records changes in the breathing of the subject
2. Galvanograph records the skin resistance of the subject
3. Cardiograph records the blood pressure and pulse rate of the subject
drives
4. Kymograph is a motor that pulls or chart paper under the recording pen
at the same time at the rate of 6-12 inches per minute

I. PNEUMOGRAPH
Records changes of breathing of the subject It consists of two hollow
corrugated tubes about seven inches in length. Each is attached to a unit by
a rubber hose not longer than six feet and no larger than one-quarter inch in
diameter. The inhalation/ exhalation of the subject causes the tubes to
expand and contract, thereby reflecting the change through bellows to the
pen into the chart (Calima, Manwong San Diego, 2012)
PNEUMO 1
Pneumatic connection for upper (thoracic) pneumograph Not
connected in an instrument with only one pneumo channel
PNEUMO 2
Pneumatic connection for lower (abdominal) pneumograph
The pneumo tube contains a certain volume of air. As the subject
inhale/exhale, the tube expands and contract, causing changes in pressure
within the tube. The changes are driven to the recording bellows, causing a
forward and backward movement of the pivot shaft to which the recording
pen is connected
PNEUMO PEN
◦ The two upper pens of the instrument record the respiratory pattern
(thoracic and abdominal breathing patterns of respiration) on the chart
paper
PNEUMO TRACING
 The respiratory pattern recorded on the chart which is composed of
expiration and inspiration stroke.
A. Normal Pneumo Tracing
• The pattern recorded before the insertion of relevant questions
B. Abnormal Pneumo Tracing
•The pattern that deviates from the norm established for the
individual
• It Maybe due to yawning, sneezing, audible sigh, clearing of the
throat, snort, belch/burp, slow breathing
NORM
• Tracings produced by the subject's body on a moving chart paper
before insertions of stimuli or relevant questions

Controls of the Pneumo Section

1. MANUAL CENTERING KNOB
• Used to position baseline of the pneumo tracing on the upper heavy
horizontal line
2. VENT
• With the vent down, the system is closed and uncooperative
• With the vent up, the system is open and ready for use
Uses:
1. To stop the pen between the tests and to prevent possible tambour
assembly
2. To prevent the pen from possible jam by moving up or down in one place
of the chart paper
3. To stop pen during the tube adjustment To assist in gaining amplitude To
let atmosphere into the system
HOW TO OBTAIN PROPER TRACINGS OF THE PNEUMO
First, observe the subject for the point of maximum chest position.
Then, placed tube at points where maximum motion is observed. The tube
must be smug. A tube that is too loose will result in a distorted pattern. A
tube that is too tight will cause discomfort and distort the pattern. With
female subjects, the tube is almost always placed above the breast. If the
female is an abdominal breather, the tube will be placed lower.
HOW POLYGRAPH MONITOR RESPIRATORY RATE
Two pneumographs, rubber tubes filled with air, are placed around
the test subject's chest and abdomen. When the chest or abdominal
muscles expand, the air inside the tubes is displaced. In an analog
polygraph, the displaced air acts on a bellows. This accordion-like device
contracts when the tubes expand. This bellow is attached to a mechanical
arm connected to an ink-filled pen that marks the scrolling paper when the
subject takes a breath. A digital polygraph also uses the pneumograph but
employs transducers to convert the energy of the displaced air into
electronic signals (Bonsor, n.d.)
II. GALVANOGRAPH/GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE or moisture in the
fingertips
 Records the skin resistance of the subject
 Comprise of finger or palm electrodes
 Include the palm machine used determining deception
FINGER/PALM ELECTRODES
 Also known as finger plates or galvanometers (Bonsor, n.d.).
 Attached on the subject's index and ring finger or the palmar and dorsal
surfaces of the left hand
 Check and detect skin resistance or the GSR (electro- dermal response)
towards a small amount of electricity
PSYCHOGALVANIC RESPONSE or GALVANIC SKIN
RESPONSE/RESISTANCE is also called electrodermal activity. It is a
measure of the sweat on fingertips (Bonsor, n.d.) a change in the body's
electrical properties (probably of the skin) following noxious stimulation,
stimulation that produces an emotional reaction, and, to some extent,
stimulation that attracts the subject's attention and leads to an aroused
alertness.
The response appears as an increase in the skin's electrical
conductance (a decrease in resistance) across the palms of the feet' hands
or soles. It appears about two seconds after stimulation, as by a pinprick or
threat of injury; it rises to a maximum after two to ten seconds and subsides
at about the same rate.
GALVANO PEN
 the longest (7 inches) and the third pen of the instrument (Calima,
Manwong, San Diego, 2012)
GALVANOGRAPH SWITCH FOR GALVO PEN
 Manual
 Self-centering
 Galvo pen electrically returned to the baseline within 6-8 seconds from
the initial stimulus 80% effective than the manual.
GALVO TRACING
It can be the most accurate of all three components in chart
interpretation since it can be affected by different stimuli without it, 30% of
accurate chart interpretation is lost.
a. Normal Galvo Tracing
• Slightly wavering line
b. Deceptive Galvo Tracing
• Abrupt return of the galvo pen towards its baseline or sharp galvo
pen fall
HOW POLYGRAPH MONITOR GALVANIC SKIN RESISTANCE (GSR)?
The fingertips are one of the most porous areas good place to look for
sweat. The idea on the body and a is that we sweat more when we are
placed under stress. Finger plates attached to two of the subject's fingers
measure the skin's ability to conduct electricity. When the skin is hydrated
(as with sweat), it conducts electricity much more easily than dry (Bonsor,
n.d.).
III. CARDIOGRAPH/ CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
 Records the blood pressure and pulse rate of the subject
 It consists of an arm cuff
ARM CUFF
•Placed around the subject's arm with the covered rubber bladder part
centered at the brachial artery (in the arm) or the femoral artery (in the leg)
•Inflated between 60-80 mm by a pump bulb to put air into the
system that will provide tracing amplitude of 0.75 to I inch with a diacritic
notch situated about the middle of the diastolic limb tracing
After inflation of the arm cuff, it becomes so susceptible to monitor
changes in blood pressure and pulse rate.
BLOOD PRESSURE
The pressure of circulating blood against the walls of the arteries. Any
condition that dilates or contracts the blood vessels or affects their
elasticity, or any disease of the heart that interferes with its pumping
power, affects the blood pressure.
There are two pressures measured
1. Systolic pressure (the higher pressure and the first number recorded)
 the force that blood exerts on the artery walls as the heart contracts to
pump the blood to the peripheral organs and tissues in a healthy
individual, Systolic pressure is normally between 100 and 140 mmHG
 the point at which the cuff stops the circulation and at which no
pulsations can be heard one given if BP reading is one
Systole the one given if BP reading is one figure only
- the high point at which the heart contracts to empty its blood into the
circulation
2. Diastolic pressure (the lower second number recorded)
 residual pressure exerted on the arteries as the heart relaxes between
beats (occurs during relaxation of the heart
 normally between 60 and 100 mmHg.
 The point at which the circulation is restored
Diastole
The low point at which the heart relaxes to fill with blood returned by
the circulation
 Arterial blood pressure varies among individuals and in the same
individual from time to time. It is lower in children than in adults and
increases gradually with age. It tends to be higher in those who are
overweight. During sleep, it decreases, and during exercise and
emotional excitement, it increases.
SPHYGMOMANOMETER
 Measures blood pressure in millimeter of mercury (mmHG)
 It consists of an inflatable rubber cuff connected to a pressure-detecting
device with a dial
PULSE PRESSURE
 The range or difference between the upper and lower pressure

PULSE
 rhythmic dilation of an artery generated by the opening and closing of
the aortic valve in the heart A pulse can be felt by applying firm fingertip
pressure to the skin at sites where the arteries travel near the skin's
surface; it is more evident when surrounding muscles are relaxed.
Common pulse points include the neck's carotid artery, the brachial
artery inside the elbow, and the wrist's radial artery.
 The normal pulse rate of an adult at rest may range from 50 to 85 beats
per minute, although the average rate is about 70 to 72 for men and 78
to 82 for women. In infants, the rate ranges from 110 to 140; the rate
 decreases with age, and the rate for adolescents is 80 to 90; the normal
rate for the elderly maybe 50 to 70.
DIACROTIC NOTCH
Appear as the lunar valve as the left ventricle close that prevents the
blood from reagitating back to the heart after it has been forced into the
aorta Caused by heartbeats or the contraction and relaxation of the heart
CARDIO PEN
The fourth and bottom pen of the instrument

CARDIO TRACING
Shows the sensitivity of the heart during questioning
CARDIO ACTIVITY MONITOR TRANSDUCER (CAM)
Accessory of the polygraph instrument that can be used as a
supplement or as an alternative to the conventional cardio
HOW TO OBTAIN BLOOD PRESSURE PATTERN OR TRACING (Calima, ,
Manwong, San Diego, 2012)
Pen balance is critical. The pen is to be held on paper by inflating
pressure's friction until you reach the subject's mean pressure The mean
pressure 1S midway between the systolic and diastolic To get the arithmetic
mean pressure, add the diastolic and systolic and the total divided by two.
To get the geometric mean pressure, plus diastolic Watch your sphyg dial
when inflating the pressure for maximum deflection.
HOW POLYGRAPH HEART RATE MONITOR THE BLOOD PRESSURE/
A blood pressure cuff is placed around the subjects upper arm. Tubing
runs from the cuff to the polygraph. As blood pumps through the arm, it
makes a sound; the changes in pressure caused by the sound displace the
air in the tubes connected to a bellows, which move the pen. Again, in
digital polygraphs, these signals are converted into electrical signals by
transducers (Bonsor, n.d.).
ELECTRODES AND CONTROL
 1. RESONANCE CONTROL
Allows you to clear up or make a better pattern when you have too much
pulse pressure on the subject.
2. HAND ELECTRODE
Fastened to the hand by a stretched band to make electrical contact with
the subject.

3. PANEL CONTROL
To allow the operator to control or adjust the operation of the
galvanograph
5 IMPORTANT CONTROLS
1. OFF and ON SWITCH
• controls the galvanograph section
2. SUBJECT'S RESISTANCE CONTROL
•use to balance the galvo section to the skin resistance of the subject
3. REACTIVITY CONTROL
• Used to adjust the sensitivity of the galvo section
4. SELF-CENTER or NORMAL SWITCH
• Used to select either mode of operation
5. SELF-CENTERING MODE
• Used to allow the circuit to electronically center the pen after every
excursion
CAUSES OF EXCURSION OF TRACING
1. Sudden noise
2. Interruption
3. Extraneous thoughts
4. Sudden movements
CONTROL OF THE CARDIO-SPHYMOGRAPH SECTION
1. MANUAL CENTERING KNOB
• Used to place cardio in its proper place in the chart
2. VENT VALVE
• Used to let atmospheric pressure into the system and also to release all
or parts of the pressure
3. RESONANCE CONTROL
Used to decrease the amplitude of the cardio tracing and used to
sharpen the diacritic notch
III. KYMOGRAPH
• Aka Chart Drive Module/ Chart Driving Mechanism
• Pulls or drive the chart paper under the recording pen at the same time at
the rate of 6-12 inches/minute
CHART ROLL is:
• 100 ft long
• 6 inches width with %/2 inch margin
CHART PAPER is:
• Imprinted with horizontal line spaced at %4 inch interval (20 divisions)
• Vertical lines: 1/10 inch interval
• Heavy lines: /2 inch interval
Each %/2 inch division across the paper signifies 5 seconds of a time.
Pulse rate/minute_ then may be calculated by multiplying the # of beats
counted in 1 division by 12
DETACHABLE PARTS AND ACCESSORIES (Calima, Manwong, San
Diego, 2012)
1. KYMOGRAPH
a. Chart Roll Arbor
b. Idler roller
c. Pen table
d. Paper guides
e. Sprocket roller
f. Cutter bar
g. Off and On power switch
h. Synchronous motor
2. PEN AND INKING SYSTEM
a. Capillary pen
b. Ink well plates
c. Ink dropper
d. Duct bill
3. PNEUMOGRAPH SECTION
a. Rubber bellows
b. Tambour assembly
c. Beaded chain
d. Sphygmomanometer
e. Rubber flexible tubing
f. Resonance Control
g. Pneumograph connecting tube
h. Pneumograph distributing ink PeRino
i. Pneumograph pipeline
j. Vent valve and vent bottom
4. CARDIO SECTION
a. Pump bulb assembly
b. Blood pressure pump connection
c. Blood pressure cuff assembly
d. Connector block
e. Sphygmomanometer pipeline
5. GALVANOGRAPH SECTION
a. Hand electrode
b. Electrode bellow
c. galvanometer
OTHER PARTS OF POLYGRAPH MACHINE
1. Pen Lifter
• raises or lowers pen to 3 positions
2. Paper Tear Bar
•Provides cutting edge for convenient removal of charts
3. Foam Pen Hold Down
• Keeps pen in place when the instrument is being transported
4. Attache Compartment
• Storage for all forms and supplies
5. Mechanical Pneumo Module
• Recording part of the Mechanical Pneumo Channel
6. GSR Module
• Recording part of the GSR Channel
7. Paper Storage Compartment
• Holds two space rolls of chart paper or other supplies
8. AC (Alternating Current) Power Receptacle
• Where the power cord is connected
9. Power Switch and Circuit Breaker
• Applies power to instrument
• It is a built-in resettable circuit breaker that protects the instrument. To reset, simply
press "off" and then "on" again
10. Chart Drive Roller Lever
• Lifts chart drive roller for paper changes and chart removal
11. Sphygmomanometer Dial
•Reads operating pressure of cardio channels .
12. Centering Control .
•Positions pen on chart
-Rotating clockwise raises the pen
⁃ Rotating counterclockwise lowers the pen
13. Sensitivity Control
•Determines the tracing size
⁃ Rotating clockwise increases the size
-Rotating counterclockwise decreases size
14. Vent
•Performs venting function on pneumatic systems
-Rotating the top until it snaps in a raised (close) position seals the system
-Pressing and rotating the top in either direction one-quarter turn retains it in the
lower (open) position
HOW TO OBTAIN PROPER GALVO TRACING IN MODEL 63 KEELER MACHINE
Turn power switch from off and on position. Then the galvo pen falls to the bottom
of the chart. The galvo section is then ready for operation from 15 to 18 seconds after
you have turned the switch to an on position.
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE CARDIO TRACING
1. The ascending limb
Pulse wave causes an expansion of the arterial wall and an increased surface
pressure against the cuff bladder, thus forcing the bladder through the tubing into the
tambour. The increasing air volume in the tambour increases pressure against the
bellows and forces the bellows forward.
This forward movement provides power to move the pen fork in the attached pen
in a lateral clockwise Or upward direction in a lateral clockwise or upward direction of the
chart surface
2. Descending Limb
When a pulse wave passed beyond the cuff, the bladder drop in a surface pressure
against the bladder reverses this process permitting the bellow to return to or towards
its original position. This return of the bellows to its original position is transmitted to as
a lateral counter- the penforks and attached pen clockwise or downward stroke on the
chart surface 3 Diacritic Notch This is caused by the minor secondary pulse wave passing
under and beyond the blood pressure cuff. In the wake of subsiding primary wave, which
momentarily halts or slow down the decrease in the surface pressure against the
bladder, in turn causing hesitation in the bellow movement back to or towards its original
position
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE PEUMOGRAPH TRACING
1. Ascending Limb
With the chest expansion during the inhalation. the pneumograph tube's air
capacity increases creating a vacuum within the system, which reduces the internal
surface pressure against the bellow. Thus, moving the bellows causing a lateral
clockwise or upward stroke of the pen
2. Descending Limb
A. Physical Cause
This is caused by the exhalation thus, reversing the process causing an increase in
internal surface pressure against the bellows, thus moving the bellow to or toward its
original position and producing a lateral counter-clockwise or a downward movement of
the pen
B. Mechanical Cause
The fine coil springs attached to the pivot mountain pen cradle serve as a counter-
balance for pen movement either above or below the established baseline and assists in
returning the pen cradle to or towards the original position
COMPUTING RATE
Graph paper is lined and spaced in seconds. It is moving under pens at a uniform
rate of six inches per minute. Rate is kept uniform through medium or synchronized
motion From one heavy vertical line constitute five seconds. It is also one-half inch.
Count the beats inside any five seconds scale and multiply by twelve This gives you a
number of heartbeats at any point in the test. For greater accuracy, you count the beats
in two five seconds areas and multiply by six.
LIMITATIONS OF THE POLYGRAPH (ibid)
1. It is an invaluable aid in the investigation, but it is not a substitute for an
investigation. 2. It is only accurate as the examiner is competent.
3. It does not determine facts
4. It records responses to that which the subject believed to be true
5. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent
6. The test will not be given until enough facts have been established to permit
the examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable questions
7. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject
8. No indications will be given to any person or placed in any report that a person
will be considered guilty because he refuses to take the test
9. A test will not be given until the accusation have been explained to the subject
10.No attempt to use Polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any person
11.No examination will be conducted on an unfit subject
 ACTIVITY 2
IDENTIFICATION.
A part before deciding on your chosen answer. Write the read the instruction
provided in each defined term or the personality whose contribution is provided in the
item. Write your answer using CAPITAL LETTERS only.
ANSWER QUESTION
1. This is caused by the minor secondary
pulse wave passing under and beyond the
blood pressure cuff.
2. It records the changes in the breathing
of the subject. It is the polygraph machine
component that records the blood pressure
and pulse rate of the subject
3. It is the polygraph machine component
that records the blood pressure and pulse
rate of the subject.
4. This is the pneumatic connection for the
upper pneumograph.
5. This refers to the pneumo pattern
recorded before the insertion of relevant
questions
6. This refers to the respiratory pattern
recorded on the chart composed of
expiration and inspiration stroke
7. The subjects' body produces this tracing
on a moving chart paper before the
insertions of stimuli or relevant questions.
8. This is used to position the baseline of
the pneumo tracing on the upper heavy
horizontal line.
9. It checks and detects skin resistance or
the GSR towards a small amount of
electricity.
10. This is a measure of the sweat on your
fingertips.
 11.This is the longest pen in polygraph in a
polygraph machine.
12.Without this tracing, 30% of accurate
chart interpretations is lost.
13. This is placed around the subject’s arm
with the covered rubber bladder part
centered at the brachial artery (in the arm)
or the femoral artery (in the leg).
14. This refers to the difference between
upper and lower blood pressure.
15. When this part of the polygraph
machine is rotated clockwise, the tracing
size will increase in size.

ANSWERS
1. 10.
2. 11.
3. 12.
4. 13.
5. 14.
6. 15.
7. 16.
8. 17.
9. 18.
B. Identify the labeled parts of the polygraph machine. Write the answer using CAPITAL
LETTERS only.

II.USES OF POLYGRAPH TESTING

1. Diagnostic Test
This test is conducted to person suspected of involvement on a particular issue
under investigation The examinee is tested based on the available facts. circumstances
or evidence of the allegation to determine his possible involvement or non-involvement.
The purpose of diagnostic test is to obtain a conclusion that will serve as basis for a
decision (Nelson 2015). The future by the opinion rendered by the polygraph examiner It
can of the examinee as well of his family be affected is imperative on the part of the
polygraph examiner to remain objective and employ the appropriate testing technique
to achieve the highest level of accuracy of the test result. Diagnostic test as used in the
investigation of crimes produced high level of decision accuracy when administered in a
single issue specific test.
2. Screening Test
A Screening test is administered to find out if the examinee has denied any
involvement on relevant questions pertaining to a single or multiple issue of concern.
This test is designed to develop important information and investigate the possible
involvement of the examinee to the issue. Screening test provides concrete basis for
decision making in hiring personnel for high risk position. However, it cannot not be
used as a standalone technique when the examinee exhibits significant reactions to any
issue of concern. A follow- up examination is recommended to address the matter that
needs to be verified. Screening test can also serves as a deterrence factor for non-
compliance with agency policies, rules and regulations (Nelson 2015). Screening test is
used for the following purposes: • Pre-Employment Testing
• Periodic Audit Testing
• Post-Conviction Sexual Offender Test
Screening polygraph test can be an effective method in monitoring the persons
under the program of non institutional correction It will not only serve as D conditions set
by the board. The possible implementation of screening test in parole and probation
program add to the volume of work load. But it will create opportunities to criminologist
who have interest in polygraph practice .
III. PURPOSE OF POLYGRAPH TESTING
1. To test the possible degree of involvement of the examinee to the crime under
investigation.
2. To validate the truthfulness of the statement of a witness or victim
3. To determine if the examinee has any knowledge about the issue being
investigated.
4. To aid in the process of screening applicants applying for high risk position.
5. To verify the examinee's denial regarding violations of policy, rules or
regulations
IV. PHASES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
In 2012, the American Polygraph Association has described that a polygraph test
includes a pertest interview, test data collection phase and test data analysis phase
(Nelson 2015). The proper application of the three phases of polygraph examination was
assumed to have significant contribution on test accuracy. The APA standards of
practice requires that beginning January 1, 2012, all APA members should conduct field
examinations using only the validated polygraph testing techniques (APA 2012). This
author suggest that polygraph practitioners though not yet APA member must also
adopt with the APA standard of practice.Adherence to APA standard practice will
achieve the highest level of accuracy on every polygraph examination conducted.
1. THE PRETEST INTERVIEW
The pretest interview is the initial part of the discuss the test procedure, and
introduce the subject the polygraph questions relative to the issue being to tested. The
length of the pretest interview ranges from 30 minutes to 2 hours or longer depending
on the complexity of the case, interactions between the subject and the polygraph
examiner, and the testing technique used.
A. PREPARATION FOR THE TEST
• Room for Polygraph Examination
An ideal polygraph examination room must be clean and orderly. It must be free
from any noise, and have privacy. There should be no displayed pictures, certificates
and other items that may attract interest and will distract the attention of the examinee
is allowed. The appropriate setting of the polygraph room is a common problem
encountered by any polygraph examiner during a field polygraph test. He has of no
liberty to choose whatever room that is available. Privacy is sometimes at risk.

Examiners Appearance
Polygraph examiner should dress properly His attire must not create possible
distractions on the subject. He should not wear uniform, and shall not display any
weapons or badges
Discussion with the Investigators
It is important to meet the investigator and other pertinent personalities in order
to gather the information about the issue to be tested. It well assist the examiner to
visualize the incident and provides key in formulating the test questions. It will help him
also to determine the background of the examinee that may serves as an important
guide in post-test interview
Review of Relevant Materials
Any available information such as photographs of the crime scene, statements of
witness, and or subject, investigation reports, notes and records is a great help for the
examiner to appreciate how the incident under investigation happened. It is also a key
in constructing good test`questions. These details also provides great insights in the
approach of posttest interview.
Functionality of the Instrument
 Prior to conducting the examination, the polygraph cxaminer should ensure that
the instrument is working soundly. Each channel sensors must be in good condition.
Calibration or functionality test shall be done before the examination. APA standard of
practice requires a periodic functionality test of polygraph instrument to maintain its
efficiency

B. INTRODUCTION TO EXAMINEE
Greetings
A professional and friendly_greetings to the subject is essential in establishing rapport.
The polygraph examiner will introduce himself cordially to the examinee as a way
to initiate the process He will require the subject to turn off the phone and anything
that may cause disturbance during the test.
Identification
Polygraph subject will be identified by asking him any proof of identification
available to him. Examiner may ask the subject if is alright to call him by his first name
or nickname in a way to ease the tension that the examinee might be experiencing.
Examiner may express his compassion to the subject, thereby developing rapport
between them. It may put the examinee at ease, and even talk confidently with the
examiner. The examiner will introduce himself professionally so as to establish his
authority. He must empress the polygraph subject by showing his expertise in
conducting the examination.
C. OVERVIEW OF THE TEST
Subject is advice that the polygraph test will be recorded through an audio/video
devices. A consent to undergo polygraph examination is necessary to be accomplished
by the subject. An interview on the subject's personal background will be conducted as
a way of familiarizing the subject and establishing rapport. Subject is informed about
the issue to be tested and brief discussion of the topics is conducted. The function of
the polygraph and the sensors that will be connected to the examinee will also be
introduced. The process and intention of acquaintance test is explained. Test
procedures will be discussed, and the instructions on how to conduct himself during the
test will be specified.
D. RIGHTS AND CONSENT
It is the obligation of the polygraph examiner to advise the examinee of his rights
prior to conducting the polygraph examination. Subject is told that the test is voluntary
and that he has the rights to refuse anytime that he feels. Subject is also told that the
result of the examination is to be submitted to the requesting party and the examiner
has no longer in control regarding their decision. The approval of the subject is essential
before proceeding with the test. The examinee is requested to sign a consent form and
provide his biographical information on the form attached to the waiver. An interview
on his background information is conducted as a means of familiarizing the subject. It
serves in establishing.rapport. Examinee is deemed suitable to the test mentally and
physically when he signed the consent form. It is suggested that before obtaining the
consent or. waiver form, it is important that subject was already briefed of the
procedure of the test and the function of the polygraph was also explained to him.
E. HEALTH AND BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
The polygraph examiner must ensure that test subject is suitable to undergo
polygraph examination He must ascertain that the examinee is physically and mentally
suitable to undergo examination. An examinee who are not physically and mentally
sound will not be tested. In some situations, it is necessary to seek the approval of
medical authorities before the subject will be allowed to undergo a polygraph test.
Unsuitability for the Test:
1. A subject who was exposed to prolong interrogation immediately before the
examination is not ideal to undergo polygraph examination.
2. Those who are mentaly or physically fatigue
3. Those who are emotional upset
4. Intoxicated
5. Those who are suffering significant physical discomfort
6. Persons with poor level of mental functioning (too young or low IQ)
Obtaining the background information of an examinee is also an essential part of
the test. Examiner may use 1t later during the port test interview or as guide in
formulating comparison questions It also help in developing rapport.
Rapport Building
Rapport building is important to make the examinee feel comfortable. The
polygraph examiners expression of compassion may lead to more good information
offered by the subject on the issue Simple listening can obtain good
information(Baranowski 2017). The extent of conversation helps in evaluating
examinee's insights and become expertise in an ally By showing of handling the
process is also factor in rapport building It must be observed that polygraph examiner
should established his authority by showing that he was in control of the interview
process
F. INTERVIEW OF THE RELATED ISSUES
. Free-narrative Interview
 In diagnostic examination, pressure During subject's narration of facts, the
applying about the incident freely without examiner will not interrupt and will take note
on any inconsistencies and other details that needs to be clarified. Examiner is
discourage to argue or challenge the version of the subject about the issue. He shall
encourage the subject to be frank in the details that he will provide. It is suggested to
ask an open-ended question at the start of the interview, then close-ended questions to
have the examinee rekindle the physical and mental acts of the allegations.
Structured Interview
In a screening type of examination, the Procedure in pretest interview is more
structured ïn nature. An outline about the topics to be discuss can be used to obtain all
information that is needed to be reviewed with the subject. Pretest appeals may be
applied to obtain any undisclosed information. Care must be observed to any issue not
to overly expose the subject Structured interview are most preferred because of
consistency
Semi-structured Interview
Semi-structured interview is conducted content and question using structured
outline, for which the interviewer is permitted a to present interview questions in a
manner that is individualized based on the personalities, rapport between the
education levels, and interviewer and the interviewee Intended to make more effective
use of interviewer skill and expertise to access rich information regarding the interview
content. Semi- structured interviews should be anchored by a defined interview
schedule or protocol, with clearly formulated operational definitions that describe the
behavioral issues of concern. Strategies both depend on and foster greater interviewing
skill. AlÏ interview topics are addressed at some point during an interview ora1uods
G. EXPLAINING THE POLYGRAPH
The polygraph examiner will provide the subject with an explanation about the
functions of the polygraph. Subject will be oriented on the basis of physiological
response recorded by the instrument. The examiner will explain the connections
between involuntary nervous system and lying. Subject will also be briefed about the
test procedure and test instruction. He will be advised how to behave during the
duration of the test and to give the required answer to the test questions. It is
important to inform the subject about the functions of every sensors that will be placed
on his body. Subject must understand that polygraph sensors will not hurt or cause
discomfort to him, and that he must obey the test instructions in order to successfully
complete the test.
Pneumograph Sensors
 In explaining the pneumograph sensor, the examiner will emphasized that the
sensors that will be placed on his abdomen and
chest will monitor normal body movement. The
sensors are too sensitive and it is important not to
move during the test. The subject is asked to place
his hands in the head during the placement of
sensors. Abdominal sensor is attached first
followed by the thoracic sensor. It is suggested that
the polygraph examiner shall positioned himself
beside or in front of the examinee in attaching the
sensors. His one hand holding the edge_of the tube
or band while the other hand is holding the beaded
chain or the strap.The abdominal sensor is
positioned at the center above the sternum. The
pneumograph shouldnot be stretched more than
two inches to prevent damaging the elastic parts
inside. The thoracic sensor is placed at the center
above the nipple line. The sensors should not be too
loose to slide or too tight to loose signal or cause
discomfort to the examinee, Ensure that the sensors
do not touched the arm of the examinee. The
polygraph sensors to the subject is essential to the
subject. attachment on female subject. After
connecting examiner is suggested to perform the
sensor bodyparts of the subject. If possible, a female
Care must be observe not to touch too much any the
pneumograph sensors ask the examinee to lower his
hand. .
EDA Sensor
It has been the practiceof this author to
attach the EDA sensor next to pneumographs The
examinee is told that the sensor are sensitive to the
activity of the sweat glands. The sensor monitors
and records the drying or wetting of the surface of
the skin during the test. Some examines who are
concerned about their sweaty hand are told that
the sensor is designed to monitor the changes
happening in the skin surface and not the excessive
sweating of their hand.
 When using the classic EDA finger plates, the sensor is placed on the volar
surface of the distal phalanges of the index and ring finger.
Subject is asked to wash and dry their hands to ensure that skin is clean before
connecting the sensor. Attached the sensor snugly by wrapping the Velcro fastener on
each finger The sensor must not be too tight that the examinee will feel the pulse on
his finger or too loose that it may be detached and lost contact with the skin.
Manufacturers of computerized polygraph have other EDA sensors provided to address
the needs of the polygraph examiner. When using the reusable electrode apply a small
amount of electrode paste on the cups. Attach snugly the sensors on the palmar
surface of the distal phalange of the index and ring finger Clean the sensor after
recording
The disposable gel electrodes are placed on the palmar surface of the hand one
on the base of the thumb and the other on the base of the litter finger. Make sure that
the hand of the examinee is clean before connecting the sensors.
Some examiners preferred to attach the EDA sensor on the non-dominant hand.
Standard practice requires that EDA sensors must be PaCed on the opposite side where
cardio arm cuff attached. This is to avoid affecting the signal due to pressure applied on
the arm

Plethysmograph Sensor
The next sensor that will placed to be the
examinee's the finger is Plethysmograph e n W h
computerized polygraph is used. Subject is told that the
sensor is very sensitive to movements and it is important
that he will not make any movement during the test The
sensor is attach on the finger/thumb or wrist of the same
hand having the electrodermal sensor
Cardio sensor
The blood pressure cuff is placed on the upper arm
without the EDA and PLE sensor In attaching the sensor, ask
the subject to extend his arm forward and palm up. The
polygraph examiner is positioned on the side of the subject
when attaching the sensor Ensure that the cuff is snugly
attached to arm, immediately over the brachial artery When
the examinee is wearing thick jacket, its advisable to remove
it to avoid affecting the cardiovascular tracing. It is also
important that the cuff will not in contact with the body of the
examinee. Breathing can affect the cardio tracing because of
the pressure applied to the cuff. Forearm or wrist and even the thumb can be an
alternative sites for recording cardiovascular tracings. Computerized polygraph provides
an optional sensors for these purpose .

Movement or Seat Sensor

The movement or seat sensors are placed on the polygraph
chair during the instrument set up if a computerized polygraph is
used Movement sensor are designed to be sensitive to
somatic/behavioral nervous system activity (Nelson 2015).The
addition of an activity - sensors can increase the detection of
somatic activity, and this may reduce occurrence of false
accusations of countermeasure use (Stephenson and Barry, 1986;
Ogilvie and Dutton, 2008). The American Polygraph Association
Standard Practice requires the use of movement sensors on every
polygraph examination conducted
The proper placement of sensors contributes to the quality of
tracings collected during the examination. Polygraph examiner must
ensure that sensors are properly attached and will not interfere or
cause discomfort to the subject. It is also important that wirings or
rubber hose of the sensor must not be crimpled or pinched and not be placed in front of
the examinee. It may cause distraction on the subject during the test.
H. THE ACQUAINTANCE TEST
An acquaintance test is given to the examinee after the explanation of the
functions of the instrument This test is designed to prepare and introduce the subject to
the process of the examination. The procedure of the acquaintance test is explained to
the examinee and after its completion, feedback is necessary to provide an impression
to the subject about the effectiveness of the test. There are types of acquaintance test
available, each type has different strength and effect to an examinee The polygraph
examiner may choose the type of acquaintance test that best suited to the subject. Most
polygraph examiners recommend the use of Known Soľution Acquaintance Test.
Research indicates that this type acquaintance test contributes to the accuracy of test
result (Nelson et al., 2018).
TYPES OF ACQUAINTANCE TEST
1. Calibration Verification of Sensitivity
2. Fail-Proof Blind Number Test
3. Known Number Acquaintance Test
4. True Blue Control Test
I. DEVELOPMENT AND Review of TEST QUESTIONS
The knowledge of the polygraph examiner on the facts of the issue and the
information on the examinee's background is essential in the formulation of test
question. Relevant question must deal with the' possible involvement of the examinee
to the target issue. Comparison question is intended to create physiological response of
the subject. The construction of test question is centered on the examines level of
understanding. Every questions must be clear and understood by the examinee An
adjustment is necessary when the subject provides related admissions on a particular
question sensor must not be crimpled or pinched and not be placed in front of the
examinee. It may cause distraction on the subject during the test.
Polygraph subject is advised that all test questions explained and must be
understood by the subject Any concerns on every question that may be raised requires
corresponding adjustment to the questions. It is important to note that before
proceeding with the examination the examiner is fully satisfied with the subject's
understanding and answers to the questions

The review of question is presented in the following sequence:

1. Sacrifice Relevant Question
2. Relevant Question
3. Comparison Question
4. Neutral/Irrelevant Question
5. Symptomatic/Introductory Question.
2. IN-TEST/DATA COLLECTION PHASE
The second part of the polygraph examination is the in-test data collection phase.
The American Polygraph Association requires the use of various validated techniques
applicable to any testing purposes Various Comparison Question Technique format
requires a minimum of three relevant chart to evaluate the polygraph data. If the data
are not sufficient to obtain test result, additional chart is allowed. Five chart is the
maximum. The Directed Lie Screening Test requires one chart as minimum to evaluate
the data collected. In this technique, relevant questions are ask three times in one
series. If data are not enough to arrive at decision, a repetition of the series is
necessary.
It is important to note that prior to conducting polygraph test, the polygraph
examiner must insure that the instrument is working properly Every channel and parts
are functional. sensors are free from any defect. Ensure that the instrument is capable
of providing good data during the chart collection. APA Standard of Practice also
requires a periodic calibration data collected can be affected by the condition of the
functionality test of the instrument. Or Polygraph results will be affected because of the
poor data thereby instrument used in the examination Consequently, test resulting to
low confidence in decision.
The technical know how on the operation of up, adjusted and operated to
generate good tracings the polygraph is vital. How the instrument was set must be
observe at all times. These skill are learned and acquired thru experience continues
research and In over fifteen years of private practice, this training's author had
experienced using both the conventional and computerized polygraph. Understanding,
the function of each component helped in addressing problems encountered during the
operation of the instrument.
In the operation of a conventional polygraph, we must determine first the voltage
capacity of the unit, This is the common mistakes encountered by operators who
directly plugged in the power cord of the instrument to any available electrical source.
Remember that polygraphs are manufactured in the United States and the voltage
requirement are mostly 120volts.
After the instrument was plugged on the required power supply, the next thing to
do is to check that the vent are closed. Apply the necessary pressure required on the
arm cuff as indicated on the sphygmomanometer dial. It is suggested to inflate the cuff
at a higher pressure then release the pressure to the desired setting between 60 to 80
mmHg. Computerized polygraph requires a lower cuff pressure usually between 52 to 62
mmHg. This process no longer requires the massaging of the arm cuff, thereby avoiding
more physical contact with the examinee. The inflation of the arm cuff will give signal
to the subject that the test is about to start.
The sensitivity of the thoracic pneumograph is then set to determine the desired
tracing of 3/4 inch. Centering control is also adjusted to position the abdominal
pneumograph channel.
In computerized polygraph, default sensitivity In adequate signal is not obtained,
check the placement of the sensors, it may be too loose or too tight. Noisy or straight
line signal is caused by improper placement of the connectors to the sensor box or
damage on the lead or transducer.
The next channel to activate is the EDA Channel. The sensitivity is usually set at
1.5 for Lafayette and 25 for Stoelting The ideal tracing required iS about 1 /2 inch.
Centering control is use to position the pen Examiner may use either of the two EDA
mode, if the tracing is stable, a manual mode is suggested. When the tracings is noisy,
the electronic mode is recommended. Electronic mode allows the tracing to return to
baseline without adjusting the pen manually
The electrodermal channel of a computerized polygraph records tracing through
skin conductance, It has automatic centering capability. Sensitivity is adjusted up or
down to obtain visible and clear tracing. If the tracing produced is a straight line, check
the connections, sensor contacts on the finger, and wires
In setting up the cardio channel, ensure that the vent is closed. The cuff is inflated
to a higher pressure as displayed on the sphygmomanometer dial. Slowly lower the
pressure to the desired setting between 60 to 80 mmHg- The procedure of increasing
the pressure initially is to avoid touching the arm of the examinee usually by massaging
the arm cuff. The sensitivity is set at 5 for Lafayette and 25 for Stoelting polygraph. The
recommended amplitude of tracing is 3/# inch. Centering control is use to position the
pen Lafayette polygraph has an exclusive enhancement features in their instrument
designed to regulate the diacritic notch by filtering the tracings.
When using a computerized polygraph, cardio cuff is inflated only after all other
channels are set up Thoracic & abdominal. pneumograph,. Electrodermal,
Plethysmograph and activity sensor). Doing So will affect the tracing quality of the other
channels. Inflate the cuff about 80 to 100 mmHg then deflate up to 50mmHg Ask the
subject to relax his arm then increase the pressure to 60mmHg, The optimal cuff
pressure in between 52 to 62 mmHg The default sensitivity is set at 50. Adjustment is
required until the desired tracing is visible
Appropriate markings isi indicated on the polygraph chart to denote any
annotations that is significant to the interpretation of physiological data. It includes the
questions on set and offset, subject's answer. questions number, any artifacts, and
other details of examiner's importance
After the completion of the first test, polygraph examiner employ a between -
chart - stimulation technique to enhance the reactivity of polygraph subject. Review of
polygraph questions is also conducted to achieve the same purpose. Same procedure is
applied on the succeeding test.
3. TEST DATA ANALYSIS
This portion of the polygraph xamination involves the evaluation of polygraph data
collected. The American Polygraph Association requires the use of validated method in
analyzing the polygraph data (see test data analysis). Test result is determined by
comparing the magnitude of response between the relevant and comparison questions.
Numerical scores are assigned based on the strength of reactions observed. If the
reaction to relevant question is greater than the comparison question, the assigned
score is negative, a positive numerical score is assigned if the reaction to
compartmentalization bigger than the reaction to relevant questions. If the total
numerical scores for relevant questions reached the cut off results for deception, an
opinion of DECEPTION INDICATED is given to a single issue or specific issue test. A
SIGNIFICANT REACTION result is rendered to a multiple issue examination. A post-
test interview is necessary to clarify the concerns surrounding the reaction of the
subject to the relevant questions Effort must be exerted to obtain admission or
explanation on the part of the deceitful examinee If the test results yielded favorably to
the subject, opinion of NO DECEPTION INDICATED is rendered an to a single issue
polygraph test. For multiple issue examination, NO SIGNIFICANT REACTION is given.
In this case, polygraph subject is given appreciation for his cooperation and time to
submit for the test. If the test resulted to inconclusive or no opinion, where polygraph
examiner failed to give correct decision due to poor data caused by artifacts or some
other factors, re test is necessary.
REFERENCES:
1. Krapohl, McCloughan & Senter, 2009, How to Use the Concealed Information Test,
Polygraph, Volume 38.
2. Golaszewski, 2012, Validated Techniques and Scoring Models for PDD Test Data
Analysis European Polygraph, Volume 6.
3. Nelson, 2015, Scientific Basis for Polygraph Testing, Polygraph Volume 44.
4. Nelson, Prado, Blalock & Handler, 2018, Practical Polygraph: The Known solution
acquaintance test and functionality test, Polygraph and Credibility Assessment, 47(2),
122-134.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
CHAPTER V
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Group: Score:
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the best answer
1. A polygraph test conducted to determine the denial of an examinee to the relevant
questions pertaining to various issue of concerns.
a. Screening test b. Diagnostic test
c. Paired testing d. Acquaintance test
2. An opinion of significant reaction is appropriate for _, which obtained a negative
scores on the relevant questions.
a. Single issue test b. Multiple issue test
c. Diagnostic test d. Post test
3. The minimum chart required when conducting a zone comparison test for the
evaluation of the data collected is _______ charts.
A. Two B. Three
C. One D. Four
4. Chart markings are indicated on the polygraph the data collection phase. The
markings X 60 1.5 A is indicated at the beginning of the chart. 1.5 A indicates
a. Sensitivity of cardio
b. Sensitivity of Pneumo
c. Sensitivity of EDA in automatic mode
d. Speed of kymograph
5. Which of the following is not included phases of polygraph examination?
a. Test data analysis b. Data Collection Phase c. Pretest Phase d. Chart Markings
6. During pretest interview that portion where in the examiner asked the subject to
discuss and explain his knowledge about the issue without interruption is called
a. Free narrative b. Structure interview c. Semi-structured interview d. Post-test
interrogation
7. Polygraph test is useful in a situation where there is no available information or
witness that will prove or disprove a particular allegation.
a. True b. False C. Never d. None of the above
8. An ideal setting of a polygraph room must not contain anything that will distract the
attention of the polygraph subject except,
a. One way mirror b. Certificates c. Pictures d. LCD monitor
9. It refers to a polygraph approach used for specific issue examination to determine
the level of involvement of a polygraph subject to a particular crime being investigated.
a. Screening Test C. Diagnostic test b. Paired testing d. Periodic test
10. The ideal position of a polygraph examiner when attaching the peumograph sensor
is of the subject.
a. In front of the subject
b. Beside the subject
c. At the back of the subject
d. a & b
11. During the review of polygraph questions, which of the following is the proper
procedure in the presentation of test questions?
a. Sacrifice Relevant, Comparison, Neutral, Relevant and Introductory
b. Relevant, Irrelevant, Comparison, Sacrifice Relevant, Introductory
C. Sacrifice Relevant, Relevant, Comparison Introductory, Introductory
D. Intorductory, Sacrifice Relevant, Comparison Relevant, Irrelevant
12. The pretest phase involves the preparation included?
a. Free narrative b. Acquaintance test
C. Review of test questions d. Between-chart-stimulation
13. Acquaintance test is employed to_familiarize an examinee with the process of
examination. Which of the following is not a type of acquaintance test?
a. F ail-proof blind number test b. True Blue Control test
c. CVOS d. Peak of tension test
14. After completing the required number of chart, the polygraph examiner will assign
numerical the recorded physiological data. If the scores on total score has negative
signs, the result is
a. Inconclusive b. No Opinion
c. NDI or NSR d. DI or SR
15. Which of the following is not a factor that disqualify a polygraph subject?
a. Intoxicated b. Emotionally upset
c. physically fatigue d. have enough sleep
16. The desired cuff pressure conventional polygraph is ______ of an mmHg
A. 40 to 50 C. 52 to 62
B. 60 to 80 D. 20 to 30
17. During the attachment of the arm cuff, position of the polygraph examiner is ______.
a. Beside the subject b. Back of the subject
C. In front of the subject d. Anywhere
18. A screening type of polygraph testing is use for the following, except one
a. Applicant screening C. PCSOT
b. Periodic honesty test d. Deception test
19. The proper placement of a classic GSR/EDA finger plates is on the volar surface of
the phalange of the index and ring finger.
 a. Proximal c. Distal
b. Medial d. Minimal
20. Deception test is conducted to determine the level of involvement of a polygraph
subject on a particular issue being investigated. Which of the following is not a type of
deception test?
a. Relevant Irrelevant test b. Peak of tension test
c. Utah Zone Comparison Test d. General Question Test

Factors Affecting Polygraph Examination Validity

INTRODUCTION
The analyses of both field and analog studies reported in chapters 4 and 5 indicate
that there is considerable variability in accuracy rates of polygraph examinations. To
interpret these variations, numerous factors, such as the restricted range of techniques
and applications tested in these studies, need to be considered. In addition, researchers
have attempted to explain the variability in accuracy scores by proposing a number of
factors that theoretically may affect polygraph test validity.
These include characteristics of examiners, settings, and subjects. In addition,
subjects have been known to use, or might be trained to use, a number of
countermeasures to “beat” the polygraph. For many of these factors the research
evidence is contradictory. For others, there has been little or no empirical testing. This
chapter describes evidence from field and analog studies, as well as from laboratory
investigations, on factors that may affect the accuracy of polygraph tests. The chapter
also discusses possible priorities for additional research on factors affecting polygraph
validity.
POLYGRAPH EXAMINER, SUBJECT, AND SETTING
The previously described analyses of field and analog studies (see chs. 4 and 5)
emphasize the characteristics of polygraph tests and their relation to accurate or
inaccurate outcomes. In the present section, the focus shifts away from the tests
themselves, to additional factors that may affect validity.
These factors are sometimes referred to as dimensions of external validity and aid
in the assessment of the generalizability of research findings. Considerations of these
factors will enable evacuation of the conditions under which various levels of validity
may be expected from polygraph examinations. Differential validity in polygraph tests
may be obtained with different examiners, subject populations, and with examinations
conducted in different settings.
Examiner
 It has long been recognized (cf. 108,122,135, 154) that the examiner’s skill has an
important effect on the validity of polygraph tests. Examiner experience is an essential
element reported by investigators and has often been used to explain differences in
accuracy rates (137,138). There are some data to indicate that experienced examiners
have better accuracy rates. In recognition of this outcome, training has been accorded a
high priority both within and outside Government agencies which conduct polygraph
examinations and by polygraph examiner groups (cf. 3). An extensive array of training
facilities now exists, offering a somewhat diverse set of orientations to polygraph testing.

Experience
A number of studies have tested how examiner experience relates to validity of
polygraph examinations. Horvath and Reid (84), for example, had charts utilized in their
validity study reexamined by a group of 10 polygraph examiners. Seven of the
examiners were experienced and three of them were examiner-interns (each with less
than 6 months’ experience). According to Horvath and Reid, experienced examiners
made an average of 91.4 percent correct judgments, while the average for
inexperienced examiners was 77.5 percent.
Training
Experience in conducting polygraph examinations suggests that there are a
number of clinical components to detection of deception. To some extent, training
programs capture these clinical elements by extensive training in “proper” examiner
attitude and relationship with subjects. Increasingly, however, training programs
emphasize standardized techniques for constructing questions and scoring
examinations. In this respect, the U.S. Army Military Police School (USAMPS) is perhaps
the best example. The school serves as the central training site for almost all
Government agencies which maintain polygraph examiner staffs. USAMPS teaches
several versions of the control question technique (CQT) (including what they call the
modified general question technique (MGQT) and the original Backster’s zone of
comparison (ZOC) method) and several specific protocols for selecting question sets and
scoring polygraph charts. Trainees receive both didactic classroom training and
supervised experience conducting polygraph examinations. The current curriculum for
USAMPS uses Reid and Inbau’s (139) text on polygraph testing, supplemented by
materials prepared especially for its trainees (179). USAMPS is one of a number of
training programs certified by the American Polygraph Association (cf. 3).
On the basis of presently available data, it is not possible to determine whether
types of training have an effect on outcomes. A study by Raskin (133) indicates that
examiners trained in schools that emphasize numerical scoring were significantly more
accurate than examiners who attended other schools (97.1 v. 86.9 percent). It is difficult
to determine, however, if training in numerical scoring is more efficient or if better
examiners/schools select such techniques. The fact that examiners who were trained in
numerical techniques, but who did not use them, did more poorly than examiners trained
in numerical techniques who used them (88.5 v. 98.9 percent) suggests that numerical
evaluation rather than examiner selection (or some other aspect of the training) provides
an advantage.
Subjects
Much effort in recent years has been devoted to development of systematic
training. Less attention appears to have been paid to the characteristics of subjects of
polygraph testing. Frequently, research reports of polygraph examination do not report
even the most easily available data on subject characteristics (e.g., proportion of males
and females). There have, however, been a number of studies of specific population
groups (e.g., psychopaths) hypothesized to be less detectable. In addition to subjects’
psychopathy, other diagnostic categories and subject variables such as gender,
intelligence, motivation, and responsivity to arousal may also affect validity.
Subject factors are often described in the literature as personality or individual
difference factors (136,194). They refer to traits associated with individuals that may
make them differentially detectable in a polygraph examination. Understanding these
effects should enable determination of the conditions under which polygraph testing will
yield particular levels of validity. The mechanism by which subject variables affect
polygraph examination validity has to do with differential autonomic arousal. Validity is
affected when an interaction results between arousal and polygraph testing.
Psychopathy and Level of Socialization One aspect of potential subject effects that has
received considerable attention is the effect of level of socialization and psychopathy on
detectability. In a series of studies by Waid and his colleagues (193,198,199) significant
relationships were found in the laboratory between socialization and autonomic
responsiveness. An initial finding (193) was that college students who scored low on
socialization (on a standard psychological inventory), gave smaller electrodermal
responses (EDRs) to stimuli than did high scoring subjects. In a more directly relevant
investigation (198), a group of college students was asked to deceive or not to deceive a
professional polygraph examiner. Results indicated that subjects who were not
detectable were significantly less socialized than those who were detectable.
Susceptibility to detection seemed to be mediated by socialization; results indicated that
low socialization subjects showed reduced EDRs. Highly socialized subjects were more
responsive electrodermally, and as a result, several of them were misclassified as
deceptive.
Raskin (136) has criticized Waid, et al.’s (198), research as not having practical
significance for evaluations of polygraph validity. According to Raskin, simply
demonstrating that there is a difference in responsivity on the first set of questions does
not mean that subjects would not be correctly detected in an actual polygraph
examination (which may involve three to four charts). Some of Raskin’s own studies
(e.g., 21,137) suggest that psychopathic individuals are not less detectable than
nonpsychopathic individuals. In Raskin and Hare’s study, convicted felons, half of whom
were diagnosed as psychopathic, performed a mock crime. These subjects were then
administered a polygraph examination and offered a substantial monetary bonus if they
could produce a truthful outcome. In contrast to Waid, et al. ’s, findings, Raskin and Hare
found that individuals diagnosed as psychopathic and/or low in socialization were more
reactive and easily detectable than those not psychopathic and high in socialization.
Earlier research by Raskin (21) supports this finding. Barland and Raskin’s (22) field
study, on the other hand, found that subjects who scored high on the psychopathic
deviate (Pal) scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (a measure
of psychopathy) had smaller cardio (but not respiration or skin conductance) scores than
low Pd subjects.
In a previously described study, Balloun and Holmes (12) conducted an analog
study of college students using a “cheating” situation. Their results indicated that
subjects who scored high on the Pd scale of the MMPI were just as easy to detect as were
those individuals who scored low on the scale. It is important to note, however, that the
polygraph test was a concealed information type of test, not a CQT or relevant/irrelevant
(R/1) test. A doctoral dissertation by Hammond (64a) also found no differences between
normal and psychopaths.
Other Psychopathology
Guilty psychopaths may escape detection because they are not concerned enough
about a misdeed to create interpretable physiological responses. Individuals with other
forms of psychopathology may escape detection or be classified as false positives for
other reasons (e.g., emotional instability, delusional thinking). The one study that has
investigated this possibility (74) found, in fact, that innocent neurotics and particularly
psychotics were likely to be identified as deceptive. There were no guilty subjects in this
“real crime” analog study.
Gender
One of the most obvious subject differences is gender. Males and females may
have different patterns of autonomic arousal, and such differences may affect polygraph
testing validity (136,194). Unfortunately, few data exist to examine this hypothesis; most
research only studies male subjects. The one study by Cutrow, et. al. (45), that
specifically tested for sex differences did not find any. In another study (61), all female
subjects were tested in a mock-crime situation using the guilty knowledge test (GKT).
GKT was found to be highly accurate, but because males were not also tested, it is
impossible to determine if males would have been less detectable. The two Honts and
Hodes (76,77) analog studies described in chapter 5 included both females and males;
the researchers do not report any gender differences in detectability.
Intelligence
 Intelligence is an additional variable which potentially might affect detectability.
The ability of intelligent subjects to anticipate questions may affect polygraph accuracy.
One possibility is that intelligent subjects are less detectable because, if trained, they
are able to anticipate questions and employ countermeasures. Another possibility is that
because intelligent subjects better understand the implications of a polygraph
examination, they will respond to relevant questions with heightened arousal when they
are attempting to deceive (2o). There has been relatively little research on intelligence
and polygraph testing. In one of the few experiments which look at intelligence and
detect ability, Kugelmass (95) found no correlation between intelligence and
responsibility on a peak of tension (POT) card test. On the other hand, research by
Gustafson and Orne (65) found that motivation to deceive increased the probability of
detection. Barland and Raskin (20) feel this is evidence of the potential role of
intelligence. Barland and Raskin’s study (22) which compared detection rates among
subjects of different education levels, found no difference. However, a separate analysis
of the sources of false positive errors by Raskin (133) found that the majority of false
positives occurred among subjects who had college degrees. Level of education, of
course, is not a perfect indicator of intelligence, and there is a need to better understand
these relationships.